Chapter VI: Introduction: General Properties of Bodies. Impenetrability. Extension (4)

The third mechanical power, is the wheel and axle. Let us suppose (plate 6. fig. 5) the weight W, to be a bucket of water in a well, which we raise by winding round the axle the rope, to which it is attached; if this be done without a wheel to turn the axle, no mechanical assistance is received. The axle without a wheel is as impotent as a single fixed pulley, or a lever, whose fulcrum is in the centre: but add the wheel to the axle, and you will immediately find the bucket is raised with much less difficulty. The velocity of the circumference of the wheel is as much greater than that of the axle, as it is further from the centre of motion; for the wheel describes a great circle in the same space of time that the axle describes a small one, therefore the power is increased in the same proportion as the circumference of the wheel is greater than that of the axle. If the velocity of the wheel is twelve times greater than that of the axle, a power twelve times less than the weight of the bucket, would balance it; and a small increase would raise it.

_Emily._ The axle acts the part of the shorter arm of the lever, the wheel that of the longer arm.

_Caroline._ In raising water, there is commonly, I believe, instead of a wheel attached to the axle, only a crooked handle, which answers the purpose of winding the rope round the axle, and thus raising the bucket.

_Mrs. B._ In this manner (fig. 6;) now if you observe the dotted circle which the handle describes in winding up the rope, you will perceive that the branch of the handle A, which is united to the axle, represents the spoke of a wheel, and answers the purpose of an entire wheel; the other branch B affords no mechanical aid, merely serving as a handle to turn the wheel.

Wheels are a very essential part of most machines; they are employed in various ways; but, when fixed to the axle, their mechanical power is always the same: that is, as the circumference of the wheel exceeds that of the axle, so much will the energy of the power be increased.

_Caroline._ Then the larger the wheel, in proportion to the axle, the greater must be its effect?

_Mrs. B._ Certainly. If you have ever seen any considerable mills or manufactures, you must have admired the immense wheel, the revolution of which puts the whole of the machinery into motion; and though so great an effect is produced by it, a horse or two has sufficient power to turn it; sometimes a stream of water is used for that purpose, but of late years, a steam-engine has been found both the most powerful and the most convenient mode of turning the wheel.

_Caroline._ Do not the vanes of a windmill represent a wheel, Mrs. B.?

_Mrs. B._ Yes; and in this instance we have the advantage of a gratuitous force, the wind, to turn the wheel. One of the great benefits resulting from the use of machinery is, that it gives us a sort of empire over the powers of nature, and enables us to make them perform the labour which would otherwise fall to the lot of man. When a current of wind, a stream of water, or the expansive force of steam, performs our task, we have only to superintend and regulate their operations.

The fourth mechanical power is the inclined plane; this is generally nothing more than a plank placed in a sloping direction, which is frequently used to facilitate the raising of weights, to a small height, such as the rolling of hogsheads or barrels into a warehouse. It is not difficult to understand, that a weight may much more easily be rolled up a slope than it can be raised the same height perpendicularly. But in this, as well as the other mechanical powers, the facility is purchased by a loss of time (fig. 7;) for the weight, instead of moving directly from A to C, must move from B to C, and as the length of the plane is to its height, so much is the resistance of the weight diminished.

_Emily._ Yes; for the resistance, instead of being confined to the short line A C, is spread over the long line B C.

_Mrs. B._ The wedge, which is the next mechanical power, is usually viewed as composed of two inclined planes (fig. 8:) you may have seen wood-cutters use it to cleave wood. The resistance consists in the cohesive attraction of the wood, or any other body which the wedge is employed to separate; the advantage gained by this power is differently estimated by philosophers; but one thing is certain, its power is increased, in proportion to the decrease of its thickness, compared with its length. The wedge is a very powerful instrument, but it is always driven forward by blows from a hammer, or some other body having considerable momentum.

_Emily._ The wedge, then, is rather a compound than a distinct mechanical power, since it is not propelled by simple pressure, or weight, like the other powers.

_Mrs. B._ It is so. All cutting instruments are constructed upon the principle of the inclined plane, or the wedge: those that have but one edge sloped, like the chisel, may be referred to the inclined plane; whilst the axe, the hatchet, and the knife, (when used to split asunder) are used as wedges.

_Caroline._ But a knife cuts best when it is drawn across the substance it is to divide. We use it thus in cutting meat, we do not chop it to pieces.

_Mrs. B._ The reason of this is, that the edge of a knife is really a very fine saw, and therefore acts best when used like that instrument.

The screw, which is the last mechanical power, is more complicated than the others. You will see by this figure, (fig. 9.) that it is composed of two parts, the screw and the nut. The screw S is a cylinder, with a spiral protuberance coiled round it, called the thread; the nut N is perforated to receive the screw, and the inside of the nut has a spiral groove, made to fit the spiral thread of the screw.

_Caroline._ It is just like this little box, the lid of which screws on the box as you have described; but what is this handle L which projects from the nut?

_Mrs. B._ It is a lever, which is attached to the nut, without which the screw is never used as a mechanical power. The power of the screw, complicated as it appears, is referable to one of the most simple of the mechanical powers; which of them do you think it is?

_Caroline._ In appearance, it most resembles the wheel and axle.

_Mrs. B._ The lever, it is true, has the effect of a wheel, as it is the means by which you turn the nut, or sometimes the screw, round; but the lever is not considered as composing a part of the screw, though it is true, that it is necessarily attached to it.

_Emily._ The spiral thread of the screw resembles, I think, an inclined plane: it is a sort of slope, by means of which the nut ascends more easily than it would do if raised perpendicularly; and it serves to support it when at rest.

_Mrs. B._ Very well: if you cut a slip of paper in the form of an inclined plane, and wind it round your pencil, which will represent the cylinder, you will find that it makes a spiral line, corresponding to the spiral protuberance of the screw. (Fig. 10.)

_Emily._ Very true; the nut then ascends an inclined plane, but ascends it in a spiral, instead of a straight line: the closer the threads of the screw, the more easy the ascent: it is like having shallow, instead of steep steps to ascend.

_Mrs. B._ Yes; excepting that the nut takes no steps, as it gradually winds up or down; then observe, that the closer the threads of the screw, the less is its ascent in turning round, and the greater is its power; so that we return to the old principle,--what is saved in power is lost in time.

_Emily._ Cannot the power of the screw be increased also, by lengthening the lever attached to the nut?

_Mrs. B._ Certainly. The screw, with the addition of the lever, forms a very powerful machine, employed either for compression or to raise heavy weights. It is used by book-binders, to press the leaves of books together; it is used also in cider and wine presses, in coining, and for a variety of other purposes.

_Emily._ Pray, Mrs. B., by what rule do you estimate the power of the screw?

_Mrs. B._ By measuring the circumference of the circle, which the end of the lever would form in one whole revolution, and comparing this with the distance from the centre of one thread of the screw, to that of its next contiguous turn; for whilst the lever travels that whole distance, the screw rises or falls only through the distance from one coil to another.

_Caroline._ I think that I have sometimes seen the lever attached to the screw, and not to the nut, as it is represented in the figure.

_Mrs. B._ This is frequently done, but it does not in any degree affect the power of the instrument.

All machines are composed of one or more of these six mechanical powers we have examined; I have but one more remark to make to you relative to them, which is, that friction in a considerable degree diminishes their force: allowance must therefore always be made for it, in the construction of machinery.

_Caroline._ By friction, do you mean one part of the machine rubbing against another part contiguous to it?

_Mrs. B._ Yes; friction is the resistance which bodies meet with in rubbing against each other; there is no such thing as perfect smoothness or evenness in nature; polished metals, though they wear that appearance more than most other bodies, are far from really possessing it; and their inequalities may frequently be perceived through a good magnifying glass. When, therefore, the surfaces of the two bodies come in contact, the prominent parts of the one, will often fall into the hollow parts of the other, and occasion more or less resistance to motion.

_Caroline._ But if a machine is made of polished metal, as a watch for instance, the friction must be very trifling?

_Mrs. B._ In proportion as the surfaces of bodies are well polished, the friction is doubtless diminished; but it is always considerable, and it is usually computed to destroy one-third of the power of a machine. Oil or grease is used to lessen friction: it acts as a polish, by filling up the cavities of the rubbing surfaces, and thus making them slide more easily over each other.

_Caroline._ Is it for this reason that wheels are greased, and the locks and hinges of doors oiled?

_Mrs. B._ Yes; in these instances the contact of the rubbing surfaces is so close, and they are so constantly in use, that they require to be frequently oiled, or a considerable degree of friction is produced.

There are two kinds of friction; the first is occasioned by the rubbing of the surfaces of bodies against each other, the second, by the rolling of a circular body; as that of a carriage wheel upon the ground: the friction resulting from the first is much the most considerable, for great force is required to enable the sliding body to overcome the resistance which the asperities of the surfaces in contact oppose to its motion, and it must be either lifted over, or break through them; whilst, in the second kind of friction, the rough parts roll over each other with comparative facility; hence it is, that wheels are often used for the sole purpose of diminishing the resistance from friction.

_Emily._ This is one of the advantages of carriage wheels, is it not?

_Mrs. B._ Yes; and the larger the circumference of the wheel the more readily it can overcome any considerable obstacles, such as stones, or inequalities in the road. When, in descending a steep hill, we fasten one of the wheels, we decrease the velocity of the carriage, by increasing the friction.

_Caroline._ That is to say, by converting the rolling friction into the rubbing friction. And when you had casters put to the legs of the table, in order to move it more easily, you changed the rubbing into the rolling friction.

_Mrs. B._ There is another circumstance which we have already noticed, as diminishing the motion of bodies, and which greatly affects the power of machines. This is the resistance of the medium, in which a machine is worked. All fluids, whether elastic like air, or non-elastic like water and other liquids, are called mediums; and their resistance is proportioned to their density; for the more matter a body contains, the greater the resistance it will oppose to the motion of another body striking against it.

_Emily._ It would then be much more difficult to work a machine under water than in the air?

_Mrs. B._ Certainly, if a machine could be worked in _vacuo_, and without friction, it would not be impeded, but this is unattainable; a considerable reduction of power must therefore be allowed for, from friction and the resistance of the medium.

We shall here conclude our observations on the mechanical powers. At our next meeting I shall endeavour to give you an explanation of the motion of the heavenly bodies.

Questions

31. (Pg. 62) Describe a pulley, and its use.

32. (Pg. 62) What is meant by a fixed pulley and why is not power gained by its employment? (fig. 1. plate 5.)

33. (Pg. 62) Of what use is the fixed pulley?

34. (Pg. 63) How is the power gained by a moveable pulley, explained by means of fig. 2. plate 5?

35. (Pg. 63) What proportion must the power bear to the weight in fig. 2, that their momentums may be equal?

36. (Pg. 64) What is a fundamental law as respects power and time?

37. (Pg. 64) If to gain power we must lose time, what advantage do we derive from the mechanical powers?

38. (Pg. 64) What name is given to two or more pulleys connected by one string?

39. (Pg. 64) How do we estimate the power gained by a system of pulleys?

40. (Pg. 65) What is represented by fig. 5. plate 5?

41. (Pg. 65) How does the wheel operate in increasing power?

42. (Pg. 65) How is this compared with the lever?

43. (Pg. 65) How does a handle fixed to an axle, represent a wheel, fig. 6?

44. (Pg. 65) How could we increase the power in this instrument?

45. (Pg. 66) What other forces besides the power of men, do we employ to move machines?

46. (Pg. 66) What will serve as an example of an inclined plane?

47. (Pg. 66) In what proportion does it gain power? (fig. 7.)

48. (Pg. 66) To what is the wedge compared? (fig. 8.)

49. (Pg. 66) How does its power increase?

50. (Pg. 67) Why is it rather a compound than a simple power?

51. (Pg. 67) What common instruments act upon the principle of the inclined plane, or the wedge?

52. (Pg. 67) Why does a knife cut best when drawn across?

53. (Pg. 67) The screw has two essential parts; what are they?

54. (Pg. 67) What other instrument is used to turn the screw?

55. (Pg. 67) How can you compare the screw with an inclined plane? Fig. 10.

56. (Pg. 68) By what two means may the power of the screw be increased?

57. (Pg. 68) How do we estimate the power gained by the screw?

58. (Pg. 68) Is the lever always attached to the nut, as in the figure?

59. (Pg. 68) What is said respecting the composition of all machines, and for what must allowance always be made in estimating their power?

60. (Pg. 69) What is meant by friction, and what causes it?

61. (Pg. 69) How may friction be diminished?

62. (Pg. 69) Friction is of two kinds, what are they?

63. (Pg. 69) For what purpose are wheels often used?

64. (Pg. 69) When is the friction of a carriage wheel changed from the rolling to the rubbing friction?

65. (Pg. 70) What is a medium, and in what proportion does it diminish motion?

66. (Pg. 70) Under what circumstances must a body be placed, in order to move without impediment?

CONVERSATION VI.

CAUSES OF THE MOTION OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.

OF THE EARTH'S ANNUAL MOTION. OF THE PLANETS AND THEIR MOTION. OF THE DIURNAL MOTION OF THE EARTH AND PLANETS.

CAROLINE.

I am come to you to-day quite elated with the spirit of opposition, Mrs. B.; for I have discovered such a powerful objection to your theory of attraction, that I doubt whether even your conjuror Newton, with his magic wand of gravitation, will be able to dispel it.

_Mrs. B._ Well, my dear, pray what is this weighty objection?

_Caroline._ You say that the earth revolves in its orbit round the sun once in a year, and that bodies attract in proportion to the quantity of matter they contain; now we all know the sun to be much larger than the earth: why, therefore does it not draw the earth into itself; you will not, I suppose, pretend to say that we are falling towards the sun?

_Emily._ However plausible your objection appears, Caroline, I think you place too much reliance upon it: when any one has given such convincing proofs of sagacity and wisdom as Sir Isaac Newton, when we find that his opinions are universally received and adopted, is it to be expected that any objection we can advance should overturn them?

_Caroline._ Yet I confess that I am not inclined to yield implicit faith even to opinions of the great Newton: for what purpose are we endowed with reason, if we are denied the privilege of making use of it, by judging for ourselves.

_Mrs. B._ It is reason itself which teaches us, that when we, novices in science, start objections to theories established by men of knowledge and wisdom, we should be diffident rather of our own than of their opinion. I am far from wishing to lay the least restraint on your questions; you cannot be better convinced of the truth of a system, than by finding that it resists all your attacks, but I would advise you not to advance your objections with so much confidence, in order that the discovery of their fallacy may be attended with less mortification. In answer to that you have just proposed, I can only say, that the earth really is attracted by the sun.

_Caroline._ Take care, at least, that we are not consumed by him, Mrs. B.

_Mrs. B._ We are in no danger; but Newton, our magician, as you are pleased to call him, cannot extricate himself from this difficulty without the aid of some cabalistical figures, which I must draw for him.

Let us suppose the earth, at its creation, to have been projected forwards into universal space: we know that if no obstacle impeded its course it would proceed in the same direction, and with a uniform velocity for ever. In fig. 1. plate 6, A represents the earth, and S the sun. We shall suppose the earth to be arrived at the point in which it is represented in the figure, having a velocity which would carry it on to B in the space of one month; whilst the sun's attraction would bring it to C in the same space of time. Observe that the two forces of projection and attraction do not act in opposition, but perpendicularly, or at a right angle to each other. Can you tell me now, how the earth will move?

_Emily._ I recollect your teaching us that a body acted upon by two forces perpendicular to each other, would move in the diagonal of a parallelogram; if, therefore, I complete the parallelogram, by drawing the lines C D, B D, the earth will move in the diagonal A D.

_Mrs. B._ A ball struck by two forces acting perpendicularly to each other, it is true, moves in the diagonal of a parallelogram; but you must observe that the force of attraction is continually acting upon our terrestrial ball, and producing an incessant deviation from its course in a right line, which converts it into that of a curve-line; every point of which may be considered as constituting the diagonal of an infinitely small parallelogram.

Let us retain the earth a moment at the point D, and consider how it will be affected by the combined action of the two forces in its new situation. It still retains its tendency to fly off in a straight line; but a straight line would now carry it away to F, whilst the sun would attract it in the direction D S; how then will it proceed?

_Emily._ It will go on in a curve-line, in a direction between that of the two forces.

_Mrs. B._ In order to know exactly what course the earth will follow, draw another parallelogram similar to the first, in which the line D F describes the force of projection, and the line D S that of attraction; and you will find that the earth will proceed in the curve-line D G.

_Caroline._ You must now allow me to draw a parallelogram, Mrs. B. Let me consider in what direction will the force of projection now impel the earth.

_Mrs. B._ First draw a line from the earth to the sun representing the force of attraction; then describe the force of projection at a right angle to it.

_Caroline._ The earth will then move in the curve G I, of the parallelogram G H I K.

_Mrs. B._ You recollect that a body acted upon by two forces, moves through a diagonal, in the same time that it would have moved through one of the sides of the parallelogram, were it acted upon by one force only. The earth has passed through the diagonals of these three parallelograms, in the space of three months, and has performed one quarter of a circle; and on the same principle it will go on till it has completed the whole of the circle. It will then recommence a course, which it has pursued ever since it first issued from the hand of its Creator, and which there is every reason to suppose it will continue to follow, as long as it remains in existence.

_Emily._ What a grand and beautiful effect resulting from so simple a cause!

_Caroline._ It affords an example, on a magnificent scale, of the curvilinear motion, which you taught us in mechanics. The attraction of the sun is the centripetal force, which confines the earth to a centre; and the impulse of projection, the centrifugal force, which impels the earth to quit the sun, and fly off in a tangent.

_Mrs. B._ Exactly so. A simple mode of illustrating the effect of these combined forces on the earth, is to cut a slip of card in the form of a carpenter's square, as A, B, C; (fig. 2. plate 6.) the point B will be a right angle, the sides of the square being perpendicular to each other; after having done this you are to describe a small circle at the angular point B, representing the earth, and to fasten the extremity of one of the legs of the square to a fixed point A, which we shall consider as the sun. Thus situated, the two sides of the square will represent both the centrifugal and centripetal forces; A B, representing the centripetal, and B C, the centrifugal force; if you now draw it round the fixed point, you will see how the direction of the centrifugal force varies, constantly forming a tangent to the circle in which the earth moves, as it is constantly at a right angle with the centripetal force.

_Emily._ The earth then, gravitates towards the sun, without the slightest danger either of approaching nearer, or receding further from it. How admirably this is contrived! If the two forces which produce this curved motion, had not been so accurately adjusted, one would ultimately have prevailed over the other, and we should either have approached so near the sun as to have been burnt, or have receded so far from it as to have been frozen.

_Mrs. B._ What will you say, my dear, when I tell you, that these two forces are not, in fact, so proportioned as to produce circular motion in the earth? We actually revolve round the sun in an elliptical or oval orbit, the sun being situated in one of the foci or centres of the oval, so that the sun is at some periods much nearer to the earth, than at others.

_Caroline._ You must explain to us, at least, in what manner we avoid the threatened destruction.

_Mrs. B._ Let us suppose that when the earth is at A, (fig. 3.) its projectile force should not have given it a velocity sufficient to counterbalance that of gravity, so as to enable these powers conjointly to carry it round the sun in a circle; the earth, instead of describing the line A C, as in the former figure, will approach nearer the sun in the line A B.

_Caroline._ Under these circumstances, I see not what is to prevent our approaching nearer and nearer the sun, till we fall into it: for its attraction increases as we advance towards it, and produces an accelerated velocity in the earth, which increases the danger.

_Mrs. B._ There is another seeming danger, of which you are not aware. Observe, that as the earth approaches the sun, the direction of its projectile force is no longer perpendicular to that of its attraction, but inclines more nearly to it. When the earth reaches that part of its orbit at B, the force of projection would carry it to D, which brings it nearer the sun instead of bearing it away from it.

_Emily._ If, then, we are driven by one power, and drawn by the other to this centre of destruction, how is it possible for us to escape?

_Mrs. B._ A little patience, and you will find that we are not without resource. The earth continues approaching the sun with a uniformly increasing accelerated motion, till it reaches the point E; in what direction will the projectile force now impel it?

_Emily._ In the direction E F. Here then the two forces act perpendicularly to each other, the lines representing them forming a right angle, and the earth is situated just as it was in the preceding figure; therefore, from this point, it should revolve round the sun in a circle.

_Mrs. B._ No, all the circumstances do not agree. In motion round a centre, you recollect that the centrifugal force increases with the velocity of the body, or in other words, the quicker it moves the stronger is its tendency to fly off in a right line. When the earth, therefore, arrives at E, its accelerated motion will have so far increased its velocity, and consequently its centrifugal force, that the latter will prevail over the force of attraction, and force the earth away from the sun till it reaches G.

_Caroline._ It is thus then that we escape from the dangerous vicinity of the sun; and in proportion as we recede from it, the force of its attraction, and, consequently, the velocity of the earth's motion, are diminished.

_Mrs. B._ Yes. From G the direction of projection is towards H, that of attraction towards S, and the earth proceeds between them with a uniformly retarded motion, till it has completed its revolution. Thus you see that the earth travels round the sun, not in a circle, but an ellipsis, of which the sun occupies one of the _foci_; and that in its course, the earth alternately approaches and recedes from it, without any danger of being either swallowed up, or being entirely carried away from it.

_Caroline._ And I observe, that what I apprehended to be a dangerous irregularity, is the means by which the most perfect order and harmony are produced.

_Emily._ The earth travels then at a very unequal rate, its velocity being accelerated as it approaches the sun, and retarded as it recedes from it.

_Mrs. B._ It is mathematically demonstrable, that, in moving round a point towards which it is attracted, a body passes over equal areas, in equal times. The whole of the space contained within the earth's orbit, is in fig. 4, divided into a number of areas or surfaces; 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. all of which are of equal dimensions, though of very different forms; some of them, you see, are long and narrow, others broad and short: but they each of them contain an equal quantity of space. An imaginary line drawn from the centre of the earth to that of the sun, and keeping pace with the earth in its revolution, passes over equal areas in equal times; that is to say, if it is a month going from A to B, it will be a month going from B to C, and another from C to E, and so on; and the areas A B S, B C S, C E S, will be equal to each other, although the lines A B, B C, C E, are unequal.

_Caroline._ What long journeys the earth has to perform in the course of a month, in one part of her orbit, and how short they are in the other part!

_Mrs. B._ The inequality is not so considerable as appears in this figure; for the earth's orbit is not so eccentric as it is there described; and in reality, differs but little from a circle: that part of the earth's orbit nearest the sun is called its _perihelion_, that part most distant from the sun, its _aphelion_; and the earth is above three millions of miles nearer the sun at its perihelion than at its aphelion.

_Emily._ I think I can trace a consequence from these different situations of the earth; are not they the cause of summer and winter?

_Mrs. B._ On the contrary, during the height of summer, the earth is in that part of its orbit which is most distant from the sun, and it is during the severity of winter, that it approaches nearest to it.

_Emily._ That is very extraordinary; and how then do you account for the heat being greatest, when we are most distant from the sun?

_Mrs. B._ The difference of the earth's distance from the sun in summer and winter, when compared with its total distance from the sun, is but inconsiderable. The earth, it is true, is above three millions of miles nearer the sun in winter than in summer; but that distance, however great it at first appears, sinks into insignificance in comparison with 95 millions of miles, which is our mean distance from the sun. The change of temperature, arising from this difference, would scarcely be sensible, even were it not completely overpowered by other causes which produce the variations of the seasons; but these I shall defer explaining, till we have made some further observations on the heavenly bodies.

_Caroline._ And should not the sun appear smaller in summer, when it is so much further from us?

_Mrs. B._ It actually does, when accurately measured; but the apparent difference in size, is, I believe, not perceptible to the naked eye.

_Emily._ Then, since the earth moves with the greatest velocity in that part of its orbit in which it is nearest the sun, it must have completed its journey through that half of its orbit, in a shorter time than through the other?

_Mrs. B._ Yes, it is about seven days longer performing the summer-half of its orbit, than the winter-half; and the summers are consequently seven days longer in the northern, than they are in the southern hemisphere.

The revolution of all the planets round the sun, is the result of the same causes, and is performed in the same manner, as that of the earth.

_Caroline._ Pray what are the planets?

_Mrs. B._ They are those celestial bodies, which revolve like our earth, about the sun; they are supposed to resemble the earth also in many other respects; and we are led by analogy, to suppose them to be inhabited worlds.

_Caroline._ I have heard so, but do you not think such an opinion too great a stretch of the imagination?

_Mrs. B._ Some of the planets are proved to be larger than the earth; it is only their immense distance from us, which renders their apparent dimensions so small. Now, if we consider them as enormous globes, instead of small twinkling spots, we shall be led to suppose that the Almighty would not have created them merely for the purpose of giving us a little light in the night, as it was formerly imagined; and we should find it more consistent with our ideas of the Divine wisdom and beneficence, to suppose that these celestial bodies should be created for the habitation of beings, who are, like us, blessed by his providence. Both in a moral, as well as a physical point of view, it appears to me more rational to consider the planets as worlds revolving round the sun; and the fixed stars as other suns, each of them attended by their respective system of planets, to which they impart their influence. We have brought our telescopes to such a degree of perfection, that from the appearances which the moon exhibits when seen through them, we have very good reason to conclude that it is a habitable globe: for though it is true that we cannot discern its towns and people, we can plainly perceive its mountains and valleys: and some astronomers have gone so far as to imagine that they discovered volcanos.

_Emily._ If the fixed stars are suns, with planets revolving round them, why should we not see those planets as well as their suns?

_Mrs. B._ In the first place, we conclude that the planets of other systems (like those of our own) are much smaller than the suns which give them light; therefore at a distance so great as to make the suns appear like fixed stars, the planets would be quite invisible. Secondly, the light of the planets being only reflected light, is much more feeble than that of the fixed stars. There is exactly the same difference as between the light of the sun and that of the moon; the first being a fixed star, the second a planet.

_Emily._ But the planets appear to us as bright as the fixed stars, and these you tell us are suns like our own; why then do we not see them by daylight, when they must be just as luminous as they are in the night?

_Mrs. B._ Both are invisible from the same cause: their light is so faint, compared to that of the sun, that it is entirely effaced by it: the light emitted by the fixed stars may probably be as great as that of our sun, at an equal distance; but they being so much more remote, it is diffused over a greater space, and is in consequence proportionally lessened.

_Caroline._ True; I can see much better by the light of a candle that is near me, than by that of one at a great distance. But I do not understand what makes the planets shine?

_Mrs. B._ What is that which makes the gilt buttons on your brothers coat shine?

_Caroline._ The sun. But if it was the sun which made the planets shine, we should see them in the day-time, when the sun shone upon them; or if the faintness of their light prevented our seeing them in the day, we should not see them at all, for the sun cannot shine upon them in the night.

_Mrs. B._ There you are in error. But in order to explain this to you, I must first make you acquainted with the various motions of the planets.

You know, that according to the laws of attraction, the planets belonging to our system all gravitate towards the sun; and that this force, combined with that of projection, will occasion their revolution round the sun, in orbits more or less elliptical, according to the proportion which these two forces bear to each other.

But the planets have also another motion: they revolve upon their axis. The axis of a planet is an imaginary line which passes through its centre, and on which it turns; and it is this motion which produces day and night. It is day on that side of the planet which faces the sun; and on the opposite side, which remains in darkness, it is night. Our earth, which we consider as a planet, is 24 hours in performing one revolution on its axis; in that period of time, therefore, we have a day and a night; hence this revolution is called the earth's diurnal or daily motion; and it is this revolution of the earth from west to east which produces an apparent motion of the sun, moon and stars, in a contrary direction.

Let us now suppose ourselves to be beings independent of any planet, travelling in the skies, and looking upon the earth from a point as distant from it as from other planets.

_Caroline._ It would not be flattering to us, its inhabitants, to see it make so insignificant an appearance.

_Mrs. B._ To those accustomed to contemplate it in this light, it could never appear more glorious. We are taught by science to distrust appearances; and instead of considering the fixed stars and planets as little points, we look upon them either as brilliant suns, or habitable worlds; and we consider the whole together as forming one vast and magnificent system, worthy of the Divine hand by which it was created.

_Emily._ I can scarcely conceive the idea of this immensity of creation; it seems too sublime for our imagination;--and to think that the goodness of Providence extends over millions of worlds throughout a boundless universe--Ah! Mrs. B., it is we only who become trifling and insignificant beings in so magnificent a creation!

_Mrs. B._ This idea should teach us humility, but without producing despondency. The same Almighty hand which guides these countless worlds in their undeviating course, conducts with equal perfection, the blood as it circulates through the veins of a fly, and opens the eye of the insect to behold His wonders. Notwithstanding this immense scale of creation, therefore, we need not fear that we shall be disregarded or forgotten.

But to return to our station in the skies. We were, if you recollect, viewing the earth at a great distance, in appearance a little star, one side illumined by the sun, the other in obscurity. But would you believe it, Caroline, many of the inhabitants of this little star imagine that when that part which they inhabit is turned from the sun, darkness prevails throughout the universe, merely because it is night with them; whilst, in reality, the sun never ceases to shine upon every planet. When, therefore, these little ignorant beings look around them during their night, and behold all the stars shining, they cannot imagine why the planets, which are dark bodies, should shine; concluding, that since the sun does not illumine themselves, the whole universe must be in darkness.

_Caroline._ I confess that I was one of these ignorant people; but I am now very sensible of the absurdity of such an idea. To the inhabitants of the other planets, then, we must appear as a little star?

_Mrs. B._ Yes, to those which revolve round our sun; for since those which may belong to other systems, (and whose existence is only hypothetical) are invisible to us, it is probable that we also are invisible to them.

_Emily._ But they may see our sun as we do theirs, in appearance a fixed star?

_Mrs. B._ No doubt; if the beings who inhabit those planets are endowed with senses similar to ours. By the same rule we must appear as a moon to the inhabitants of our moon; but on a larger scale, as the surface of the earth is about thirteen times as large as that of the moon.

_Emily._ The moon, Mrs. B., appears to move in a different direction, and in a different manner from the stars?

_Mrs. B._ I shall defer the explanation of the motion of the moon till our next interview, as it would prolong our present lesson too much.

Questions

1. (Pg. 71) What revolution does the earth perform in a year?

2. (Pg. 71) Had the earth received a projectile force only, at the time of its creation, how would it have moved?

3. (Pg. 72) What do the lines A B, and A C, represent in fig. 1. plate 6?

4. (Pg. 72) What have you been taught respecting a body acted upon by two forces at right angles with each other?

5. (Pg. 72) How does the force of gravity change the diagonal into a curved line?

6. (Pg. 72) Describe the operation of the forces of projection and of gravity as illustrated by the parallelograms in the figure?

7. (Pg. 72) What is the law respecting the time required for motion in the diagonal?

8. (Pg. 73) What portion of a year is represented by the three diagonals in the figure?

9. (Pg. 73) How will what you have learned respecting motion in a curve, apply to the earth's motion?

10. (Pg. 73) In what form are you directed to cut a piece of card to aid in illustrating the two forces acting upon the earth?

11. (Pg. 73) How must you apply it to this purpose? (fig. 2. plate 6.)

12. (Pg. 73) If these two forces did not exactly balance each other, what would result?

13. (Pg. 73) Does the earth revolve in a circular orbit?

14. (Pg. 73) What results from its motion in an ellipsis?

15. (Pg. 74) What is represented by the lines A C, A B, in fig. 3. plate 6?

16. (Pg. 74) Were the projectile force to carry the earth from B to D, (fig. 3.) what would result?

17. (Pg. 74) When it has arrived at E, what angle will be formed by the lines representing the two forces?

18. (Pg. 74) What effect will the accelerated motion then produce?

19. (Pg. 75) What is the form of the earth's orbit, and what circumstances produce this form?

20. (Pg. 75) What is the consequence as regards the regularity of the earth's motion?

21. (Pg. 75) What law governs as regards the spaces passed over, and how is this explained by fig. 4. plate 6?

22. (Pg. 75) What is meant by _perihelion_, and by _aphelion_?

23. (Pg. 75) What is the difference of the distance of the earth from the sun, in these two points?

24. (Pg. 76) At what season of the year is it nearest to, and at what furthest from the sun?

25. (Pg. 76) What is the mean distance of the earth from the sun?

26. (Pg. 76) Why is but little effect produced, as regards temperature, by the change of distance?

27. (Pg. 76) Has it any influence on the sun's apparent size?

28. (Pg. 76) Are the summer and winter, half years, of the same length; what is their difference, and what is the cause?

29. (Pg. 76) What are the planets?

30. (Pg. 77) What circumstances render it probable that they are habitable globes?

31. (Pg. 77) What is believed respecting the fixed stars?

32. (Pg. 77) What discoveries have been made in the moon?

33. (Pg. 77) What prevents our seeing the planets, if there are any, which revolve round the fixed stars?

34. (Pg. 77) What prevents our seeing the stars and planets in the day-time?

35. (Pg. 78) What other motions have the earth and planets, besides that in their orbits?

36. (Pg. 78) What is the imaginary line called, round which they revolve?

37. (Pg. 78) How does this occasion night and day?

38. (Pg. 78) In what direction does the earth turn upon its axis, and what apparent motion of the sun, moon, and stars is thereby produced?

39. (Pg. 79) What must be the appearance of the earth to an inhabitant of one of the planets?

40. (Pg. 79) What the appearance of the sun to the inhabitants of planets in other systems?

41. (Pg. 79) What the appearance of the earth to an inhabitant of the moon?

CONVERSATION VII.

OF THE PLANETS.

OF THE SATELLITES OR MOONS. GRAVITY DIMINISHES AS THE SQUARE OF THE DISTANCE. OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM. OF COMETS. CONSTELLATIONS, SIGNS OF THE ZODIAC. OF COPERNICUS, NEWTON, &c.

MRS. B.

The planets are distinguished into primary and secondary. Those which revolve immediately about the sun are called primary. Many of these are attended in their course by smaller planets, which, revolve round them: these are called secondary planets, satellites, or moons. Such is our moon which accompanies the earth, and is carried with it round the sun.

_Emily._ How then can you reconcile the motion of the secondary planets to the laws of gravitation; for the sun is much larger than any of the primary planets; and is not the power of gravity proportional to the quantity of matter?

_Caroline._ Perhaps the sun, though much larger, may be less dense than the planets. Fire you know, is very light, and it may contain but little matter, though of great magnitude.

_Mrs. B._ We do not know of what kind of matter the sun is made; but we may be certain, that since it is the general centre of attraction of our system of planets, it must be the body which contains the greatest quantity of matter in that system.

You must recollect, that the force of attraction is not only proportional to the quantity of matter, but to the degree of proximity of the attractive body: this power is weakened by being diffused, and diminishes as the distance increases.

_Emily._ Then if a planet was to lose one-half of its quantity of matter, it would lose one half of its attractive power; and the same effect would be produced by removing it to twice its former distance from the sun; that I understand.

_Mrs. B._ Not so perfectly as you imagine. You are correct as respects the diminution in size, because the attractive force is in the same proportion as the quantity of matter; but were you to remove a planet to double its former distance, it would retain but one-fourth part of its gravitating force; for attraction decreases not in proportion to the simple increase of the distance, but as the squares of the distances increase.

_Caroline._ I do not exactly comprehend what is meant by the squares, in this case, although I know very well what is in general intended by a square.

_Mrs. B._ By the square of a number we mean the product of a number, multiplied by itself; thus two, multiplied by two, is four, which is therefore the square of two; in like manner the square of three, is nine, because three multiplied by three, gives that product.

_Emily._ Then if one planet is three times more distant from the sun than another, it will be attracted with but one-ninth part of the force; and if at four times the distance, with but one-sixteenth, sixteen being the square of four?

_Mrs. B._ You are correct; the rule is, that _the attractive force is in the inverse proportion of the square of the distance_. And it is easily demonstrated by the mathematics, that the same is the case with every power that emanates from a centre; as for example, the light from the sun, or from any other luminous body, decreases in its intensity at the same rate.

_Caroline._ Then the more distant planets, move much slower in their orbits; for their projectile force must be proportioned to that of attraction? But I do not see how this accounts for the motion of the secondary, round the primary planets, in preference to moving round the sun?

_Emily._ Is it not because the vicinity of the primary planets, renders their attraction stronger than that of the sun?

_Mrs. B._ Exactly so. But since the attraction between bodies is mutual, the primary planets are also attracted by the satellites which revolve round them. The moon attracts the earth, as well as the earth the moon; but as the latter is the smaller body, her attraction is proportionally less; therefore, neither the earth revolves round the moon, nor the moon round the earth; but they both revolve round a point, which is their common centre of gravity, and which is as much nearer to the earth than to the moon, as the gravity of the former exceeds that of the latter.

_Emily._ Yes, I recollect your saying, that if two bodies were fastened together by a wire or bar, their common centre of gravity would be in the middle of the bar, provided the bodies were of equal weight; and if they differed in weight, it would be nearer the larger body. If then, the earth and moon had no projectile force which prevented their mutual attraction from bringing them together, they would meet at their common centre of gravity.

_Caroline._ The earth then has a great variety of motion, it revolves round the sun, round its own axis, and round the point towards which the moon attracts it.

_Mrs. B._ Just so; and this is the case with every planet which is attended by satellites. The complicated effect of this variety of motions, produces certain irregularities, which, however, it is not necessary to notice at present, excepting to observe that they eventually correct each other, so that no permanent derangement exists.

The planets act on the sun, in the same manner as they are themselves acted on by their satellites; for attraction, you must remember, is always mutual; but the gravity of the planets (even when taken collectively) is so trifling compared with that of the sun, that were they all placed on the same side of that luminary, they would not cause him to move so much as one-half of his diameter towards them, and the common centre of gravity, would still remain within the body of the sun. The planets do not, therefore, revolve round the centre of the sun, but round a point at a small distance from its centre, about which the sun also revolves.

_Emily._ I thought the sun had no motion?

_Mrs. B._ You were mistaken; for besides that round the common centre of gravity, which I have just mentioned, which is indeed very inconsiderable, he revolves on his axis in about 25 days; this motion is ascertained by observing certain spots which disappear, and reappear regularly at stated times.

_Caroline._ A planet has frequently been pointed out to me in the heavens; but I could not perceive that its motion differed from that of the fixed stars, which only appear to move.

_Mrs. B._ The great distance of the planets, renders their apparent motion so slow, that the eye is not sensible of their progress in their orbits, unless we watch them for some considerable length of time: but if you notice the nearness of a planet to any particular fixed star, you may in a few nights perceive that it has changed its distance from it, whilst the stars themselves always retain their relative situations. The most accurate idea I can give you of the situation and motion of the planets in their orbits, will be by the examination of this diagram, (plate 7. fig. 1.) representing the solar system, in which you will find every planet, with its orbit delineated.

_Emily._ But the orbits here are all circular, and you said that they were elliptical. The planets appear too, to be moving round the centre of the sun; whilst you told us that they moved round a point at a little distance from thence.

_Mrs. B._ The orbits of the planets are so nearly circular, and the common centre of gravity of the solar system, so near the centre of the sun, that these deviations are too small to be represented. The dimensions of the planets, in their proportion to each other, you will find delineated in fig. 2.