Chapter V: Part 5

It is scarcely necessary to summarise the advantages that may fairly be expected to flow from this endeavour to make a real start at finding a solution for the housing difficulty. First and foremost must be placed the saving in transport. A casual reader may easily imagine that the difficulties of carriage will vanish with the end of the war, but that is not so in reality. Any one who has travelled in France must have noticed engines bearing such names as Liverpool Street, King's Cross, Euston, Birmingham, and so on. The meaning of that is that a great deal of our rolling stock was sent over to France, and at the best will not be available here for a long time to come. Even the ordinary work of upkeep and repair has necessarily been neglected owing to the scarcity of men and other causes incidental to war-time. Transport difficulties are bound to last for a very considerable period after the peace settlement, and it would not be at all advisable to delay the construction of houses so long. The returned soldiers will make us vividly conscious of the shortage. Nothing could be imagined more likely to make them look for chances of going abroad than to learn that there is not sufficient housing accommodation for them in the village in which they lived before the war, and to which they hoped to return on its conclusion.

[Headnote: Cost per Foot Cube]

III

EXTRACT FROM A LETTER TO THE EDITOR OF _COUNTRY LIFE_,
JULY 27th, 1918

"Shortly before the war I had occasion to demolish some very old cottages at Clovelly for the reconstruction of the New Inn. I was so much struck with the stability of these (although by no means first-class samples of cob work) that I collected some facts and notes on the subject from different parts of the county of Devon. Where bye-laws have been adopted, cob is no longer being used. It is difficult, therefore, to give an accurate comparison of costs, but after careful investigation I did arrive at the following results for North Devon and Scotland. The prices were in 1913, and in both cases for a five-roomed cottage (assuming four to be built at the same time, including internal water supply, but omitting any special work necessary to procure supply, and omitting fencing).

Cost per foot cube Cost per foot cube
cob at 2 ft. 6 in. 11 in. hollow brick.
thick.
North Devon 6-1/2d. 5-7/8d.
Scotland 6d. 6d.

These prices assumed suitable material on or near site, and allowed something for the difficulty of getting at least one experienced cob-worker to instruct the unskilled men. Since 1913 the cost of brick has risen so much that cob would now be much cheaper, probably as much as 1d. or 1-1/4d. foot cube in both cases, and this is likely to be the case for many years. Suitable material exists in many parts of the country. If reed straw cannot be had, other reinforcements can be used. I have seen various materials in use, of which heather was perhaps the best and most easily procured. I can endorse from experience the comfort of these old buildings, and the affection of Devon people for them. The thick walls give all that a house should--protection from heat in summer and cold in winter. For the contrast, visit the new Garden City at Rosyth. Many of the houses are attractive, but their thin brick walls, tile and slate hanging are not suitable to the north and east coasts. Ask the opinion of the occupants of these new houses. Many of them are Devon born and bred, and imported from the dockyards of the three towns. They nearly all complain of the cold, and their views form an interesting comment on modern construction."

IV

PISE TESTS

(_With acknowledgements to "The Spectator"_)

Through the courtesy of Messrs. Alban Richards & Co. we are able to publish the results of certain very instructive tests that have been carried out on Pise during the past winter. Messrs. Richard's experience and Report bring out two points with especial clearness, (1) That Pise work, though not impossible under winter conditions, is not ordinarily desirable unless some means of artificially drying the earth be resorted to. (2) That the strength of Pise increases with surprising rapidity as the work dries out. It should be remarked that none of the samples tested were made from really good Pise soil, such for instance as the red marls or brick earths. With such materials or anything approaching them, the results would have been even better, as the Report points out:--

"In conjunction with Mr. Williams-Ellis, we have made certain tests with a view to satisfying ourselves as to the practicability of _pise de terre_ for house construction. In order to obtain what we might term the minimum or 'worst' tests, we decided to erect walls for this purpose in the winter. This we have done for the last three months, which has been a very wet period, and the following is a short description of the tests we have made:--

"1. Two walls were erected measuring 14 ft. long, 9 ft. high and 18
in. thick, spaced 20 ft. apart, with short return ends to each wall.
Wall plates were placed centrally along the top of each wall, on
which were placed 9 in. by 3 in. wood joists, at 16 in. centres,
across the 20 ft span. In order to obtain the minimum results we
allowed the shutters to remain until the test was ready to be
applied, so that walls did not have an opportunity of drying or
hardening. This condition was thought necessary, as it is quite
reasonable to expect that if _pise de terre_ cottages are erected,
considerable weight might be placed on the walls immediately the
shuttering is struck. We then proceeded to test the walls to
destruction. The floor space provided for by the joists referred to
above measure 220 super. feet, the load was then applied gradually.
The load applied totalled 16-1/2 tons, which is equivalent of 168 lbs.
per super. foot of floor space, under which the wall collapsed,
which, in our opinion, provides a factor of safety of three to the
normal load which a cottage floor would have to bear.

"We are convinced that very much better results can be obtained in this method of construction with walls which were first dried before the load was applied. Further experiments are to be made to procure further data on this subject. In addition to the above tests, we have submitted to the National Physical Laboratory, blocks made of _pise de terre_, from poor to medium soil, for testing purposes, and the following are the results which have been obtained:--

"The following Report shows results of Tests made by the National Physical Laboratory.

[Headnote: Pise Tests]

"REPORT ON TESTS OF BUILDING BLOCKS OF PISE DE TERRE SENT FOR TEST
BY MESSRS. W. ALBAN RICHARDS & CO., LTD.

"_Tests made on January 14, 1920._

"First set of three blocks sent in November 1919.

"These blocks were composed of a fine gravel containing very few and very small stones. The material was said to be similar to that used at Merrow Down, near Guildford, Surrey. It appeared to be very similar to Farnham gravel.

"The blocks were tested in compression, one within twenty-four hours of arrival at the laboratory, and the others after drying for a time in the laboratory. For results of tests see Table I.

TABLE I

----+------+--------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------
| | | | | | LOAD. |
| | |Age |Area|Density+-----+-------+
| | | in | in | lbs. | |in tons|
| | Dimensions |days|sq. | per | in | per |
No. |Marks.| in inches. | * |ft. |c. ft. |tons |sq. ft.| REMARKS.
----+------+--------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------
UT1 | 3 | 9x9x9 | 1 |.562| 131 |0.70 | 1.66 |Cracked
| | | | | |1.04 | 2.47 |Collapsed
| | | | | | | |
UT2 | 1 | 8.9x8.9x8.9 | 9 |.550| 125 |4.27 | 10.50 |Collapsed
| | | | | | | |
UT3 | 2 |8.95x8.95x8.95|16 |.556| 117 |2.31 | 5.57 |Small
| | | | | |4.23 | 10.20 | cracks
| | | | | | | | appeared
----+------+--------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------

[*: Age after arrival at laboratory.]

"Second set of blocks sent in December 1919.

"This set consisted of six blocks in three pairs, each pair having been rammed with a different quantity of water.

"One of each pair was tested within twenty-four hours of arrival at the laboratory, and the others after drying in the laboratory for twenty-six days.

"The material used was not homogeneous, and the mixture consisted of a very clayey loam, a fibrous loam, sand and large stones. The clayey material gave rise to surface cracks as the blocks dried.

"For results of tests see Table II.

TABLE II

----+------+------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------
| | | | | | LOAD. |
| | |Age |Area|Density+-----+-------+
| | | in | in | lbs. | |in tons|
| |Dimensions |days|sq. | per | in | per |
No. |Marks.| in inches. | * |ft. |c. ft. |tons |sq. ft.| REMARKS.
----+------+------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------
VW1 | 1 | 8.9x9x8.5 | 1 |.555| 106 |0.45 |0.81 |Cracked at
| dry | | | | | | | one corner
| | | | | |0.51 |0.92 |Collapsed
| | | | | | | |
VW2 | 2 | 9x9x9 |26 |.562| 105 |2.15 |3.84 |Collapsed.
| dry | | | | | | | Material
| | | | | | | | quite dry
| | | | | | | | in interior
| | | | | | | |
VW3 | 3 |9.1x9.1x8.9 | 1 |.570| 134 |0.55 |0.96 |Collapsed
| wet | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
VW4 | 4 |8.8x8.8x8.9 |26 |.546| 110 |3.20 |5.86 |Collapsed.
| wet | | | | | | | Material
| | | | | | | | quite dry
| | | | | | | | in interior
| | | | | | | |
VW5 | 5 | 9x8.9x9 | 1 |.558| 126 |0.60 |1.08 |Bulged and
|medium| | | | | | | cracked
| | | | | |0.69 |1.24 |Collapsed
| | | | | | | |
VW6 | 6 | 8.8x8.8x7 |26 |.546| 109 |3.33 |6.10 |Collapsed.
|medium| | | | | | | Material
| | | | | | | | slightly
| | | | | | | | damp in
| | | | | | | | the interior
----+------+------------+----+----+-------+-----+-------+----------

[*: Age after arrival at laboratory.]

Seal of
NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY _Signature of Director_

"From the second set of blocks it would appear that it is better to ram with too much moisture than with too little. It will be noted that the density of the wet block was 30 per cent. more than that of the dry block, so that a wall could be carried higher with the dry material than with the wet, although such a wall would never gain the strength which a wet one would upon drying.

CONCLUSIONS

"We are of opinion, having regard to the fact that the house at Newlands Corner (Guildford four miles) has weathered the winter, without showing any signs of dampness, that _pise de terre_ will make a thoroughly dry house.

"We consider that the tests made are satisfactory, and prove that this form of construction is of a sufficiently sound nature to be employed in the building of houses. With really suitable material, such as a light brick-earth or marl, it is considered that the results already obtained might well be 100 per cent. better."

We are informed that additional tests are now proceeding with regard to the water-proof and weather-resisting qualities of Pise, the results of which will be duly published.

_INDEX_

INTRODUCTION:

Chalk walls, 18
Cheap materials, the search for, 13
Pise de craie, 16, 17, 107
Pise, experiments with, 15
in moulds, 19, 20
in South Africa, 22, 23
Pliny on Pise de terre, 25
Rammed chalk, 16, 17, 107

GENERAL SURVEY:

Building materials, shortage of, 26
"Ersatz" products introduced during the War, 26
House famine, the, 27
Local materials, use of, to avoid transport, 29
Lutyens, Sir Edwin, and Mr. Alban Scott, cottage by, 30
Rural housing, suitability of cob and pise for, 28

I--COB:

Allen, Mr. C. B., his reference to Devon cob, quoted, 47
Baring-Gould, Rev. S., on cob, quoted, 47
Beauty of cob, 35
Bernard, Mr. Charles, his account of Sir Walter Raleigh's cob house,
45, 46
_Book of the West, The_, by Rev. S. Baring-Gould, reference to cob
in, quoted, 47
Building, 37, 38, 39
Carpentry and joinery, 41, 42
Chimneys, 44
Cob tradition, 52
Composition, 36
Cost, 35, 50
_Cottage-Building_, reference to cob in, quoted, 47
_Country Life_, letter to, relating to cob work, quoted, 115, 116
Design, 44, 45
Devon cob, 47
Drying, 39
Elizabethan cob houses still existing, 34
Former conditions returned, 52
Foundations and base, 40; result of bad, 34
Fruit walls, of cob, 47, 48
Fulford, Mr., of Great Fulford, on cob, 50-52
Gimson, Mr., his description of building cob, quoted, 35
Hayes Barton, Sir Walter Raleigh's house at, 45, 46
Hipped roofs, 41
Joinery, 41, 42, 43
Masonry and carpentry, 41, 42
Method of building, 36-45
Mixing, 37
Northcote, Lady Rosalind, her description of Sir Walter Raleigh's
house, 46
Primitive methods, 47
Protection, 43
Protective wash, 51
Raleigh, Sir Walter, his cob house at Hayes Barton, 45, 46
Rats, 44
Reed thatch, 46
Rendering, 51
Roofing, 51
Shuttering, 51
Strength, 44
Thickness of walls, 40
Traditional building material in Devon and Wessex, 33
Training of ex-soldiers, 52

II--PISE:

Bolts, 86
Bonders, 69
Building procedure, 71, 72, 74, 75
Capabilities, 57, 58
Corners, 68
_Cyclopaedia, or Universal Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and
Literature_, on pise, quoted, 59-71
Damp-course, 86
Definition of Pise de terre, 57, 59
Durability, 82
_Earthwork, A Manual on_, quoted, 73-76
Empandeni, pise work executed at, 78, 79, 80
Excavation, 86
Etah Jail, pise work executed at, 76, 77, 78
Fillet, 87
Floating, 86
Foundations, 74
Frames, 87
France, introduction of pise into, 57
Gorffon, Monsieur, reference to his treatise on pise, 57
History, 57
Indian and Colonial practice, 73-88
Introduced into France by the Romans, 57
_Journal de Physique_, by the Abbe Rozier, quoted, 58
Lintels, 87
Locale, 58
Method of building, 58-62
Method of working, 60, 61, 62
New South Wales, pise work in, 81-88
Origin, 58
Picture-rail, 87
Plant required, 85, 89, 90
Plastering, 75
Pliny, references to his account of pise, 25, 57
Plugs, 86, 87
Protection, 75
Rain, 67
Rammer, the, 59, 60
Ramming, 62, 76
Rate of work, 63
Rendering, 70
Rods _versus_ bars, 75, 76
Rozier, the Abbe, his _Journal de Physique_, quoted, 58
Shuttering, 59, 88, 89
Shutter ties, 73
Skirting, 87
Soil blending, 64
preparation of, 66, 67
suitable, 63, 74, 86
tests, 63
to ascertain quality of, 65
Speed of building, 70
Stability, 82
Strength, 69
Studding, 87, 88
Theory and science of pise, the, 62-73
Ventilators, 86
Virtues of pise, 72
Wire netting, use of, 87, 88

III--CHALK:

Block chalk, 117, 118
Chalk compost, historical, 107
composition and uses, 108, 109
Chalk conglomerate, 114
Chimneys, 110
External rendering, 110
Frost, 109
Garden walls, 111
House walls, 112
Old and modern examples, 112-115
Rats and chalk, 116
Rendering, 110
Repairs, 110
Roof, 111
Strength, 110
Timber, 109
Winterslow cottages, the, 115, 116

IV--UNBURNED CLAY AND EARTH BRICKS:

"Adobe," use of, in New South Wales, 124
Age of clay-lump buildings, 124
East Anglia, use of sun-dried bricks in, 121
Method of making, 121
New South Wales, use of sun-dried bricks in, 124
Skipper, Mr., on sun-dried bricks, quoted, 121
Strength of clay-lump walls, 124
Thickness of clay-lump walls, 122-124

APPENDIX:

Cold-water paint, recipe for, 129
Cost, an analysis of building, 131
_Country Life_, letter to, relating to cob work, quoted, 132, 133
Distempers, recipes for, 129
Local materials, importance of using, 130, 131
Weight of building materials, table of, 130
Whitewash, recipes for, 127, 128

Printed by
Hazell, Watson and Viney, Ld.,
London and Aylesbury.

* * * * *
* * * *

Recent Additions to the
"COUNTRY LIFE LIBRARY."

+The "Country Life" Book of Cottages.+

By LAWRENCE WEAVER. Nearly 300 pages and over 300 illustrations. 9/6 net; by post, 10/-.

+Small Country Houses: Their Repair and Enlargement.+

By LAWRENCE WEAVER. Forty examples chosen from five centuries. 300 illustrations. Large quarto, 18/9 net; by post, 19/6.

"Anyone who wishes to adapt an old house for modern use will find
much to learn from Mr. Weaver's pages." --_Scotsman_.

+Small Country Houses of To-day.+

(_Second Series_.) By LAWRENCE WEAVER. Over 300 illustrations and plans. Large quarto, 25/- net; by post, 26/-.

+The First and Chief Groundes of Architecture.+

By JOHN SHUTE, 1563, with a historical and critical introduction by LAWRENCE WEAVER. Facsimile edition of the first book on architecture published in England. Folio, half-bound in sheepskin, 18/9 net; by post, 19/6.

+Houses and Gardens by E. L. Lutyens.+

Described and criticised by LAWRENCE WEAVER. 400 folio pages, and 600 magnificent illustrations. 2nd Edition, quarter buckram, 31/3 net; half morocco, 43/9 net; postage 10d. extra.

"It is only when we see such a publication as this, that we realise
what quality characterises some of the building of to-day.
Abundantly and splendidly illustrated, this book shows the work of
a great master." --_Manchester Guardian_.

+Grinling Gibbons and the Woodwork of His Age (1648-1720).+

By H. AVRAY TIPPING, M.A., F.S.A. Large folio, quarter buckram, 31/3 net; half morocco, 43/9 net; postage 10d. extra. Nearly 250 illustrations.

"The book is rich in lessons for architects and amateurs of fine
woodwork." --_The Scotsman_.

+English Homes.+

Edited by H. AVRAY TIPPING, M.A., F.S.A. The internal character, furniture and decorations, of some of the most notable Houses of England. Vols. I. and III., containing 500 matchless illustrations, large folio, handsomely bound, each 52/6 net.

"A veritable revelation of the wealth of internal adornments,
architectural and other, contained in the great country mansions of
England. To turn over the pages is to obtain keen pleasure, as well
as enlightenment, concerning a treasury of domestic art and
archaeology, which to a large extent is kept closed from the common
eye." --_Scotsman_.

+Gardens Old and New.+

Edited by H. AVRAY TIPPING, M.A., F.S.A. Vols. I. and III., beautifully illustrated, each 52/6 net. These volumes illustrate the relationship between house and garden in a way never before attempted.

"The principle conveyed in the letterpress is that held by all great
gardeners and architects--that house and garden are, or should be,
intimately associated, and that the character of the possessors
should be reflected in both. The accounts of lovely garden after
lovely garden are most agreeable reading." --_Daily Chronicle_.

+Twenty-Five Great Houses of France.+

By SIR THEODORE ANDREA COOK, M.A., F.S.A., with an Introductory Chapter, outlining the Development of French Domestic Architecture, by W. H. WARD, M.A., F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A., and illustrations by FREDERICK H. EVANS. Large folio, containing over 400 superb illustrations, plans and diagrams. Half-bound in buckram, 52/6 net; in half morocco, 60/6 net; postage 1/- extra.

"The Publishers of COUNTRY LIFE have touched few subjects that they
have not adorned, but here they have surpassed themselves. It is
seldom that we have seen so rich and communicative photographs of
great architecture." --_Daily News_.

"A book which will prove a source of endless delight to lovers of
architecture." --_Glasgow Herald_.

+Garden Ornament.+

By GERTRUDE JEKYLL, with over 500 wonderful illustrations. Large folio, gilt edges, 63/- net; postage 1/- extra.

"Miss Jekyll's collection in this noble folio is a storehouse of
examples, styles and method in the decoration of gardens,
a compendium of the history and taste in English Horticulture and
a revelation of the treasures of beauty which our country holds."
--_Times_.

+Windsor Castle.+

An Architectural History. Collected and written by command of Their Majesties QUEEN VICTORIA, KING EDWARD VII. and King GEORGE V. By SIR WILLIAM H. ST. JOHN HOPE, Litt.D., D.C.L. Imperial quarto, in Two Volumes, and a Portfolio. Bound in half sheepskin, L7 17s. 6d. net; whole sheepskin, L10 10s. net; full morocco, L13 2s. 6d. Carriage extra.

Illustrated prospectuses of these invaluable books and a complete catalogue will be sent post free on application to the Manager, COUNTRY LIFE, LTD., 20, Tavistock Street, Covent Garden, W.C.2.

* * * * *
* * * *
* * * * *

Transcriber's Notes:

Pliny, _Natural History_, Bk. XXXV, chapter xlviii, quoted at end of Introduction:

"_Have we not in Africa and in Spain ... erected by Hannibal._"

The standard numbering of this passage is XXXV.lxi. With punctuation and capitalization adjusted by transcriber to match translation:

Quid non in Africa Hispaniaque e terra parietes, quos appellant
'formaceos', quoniam in forma circumdatis ii utrimque tabulis
inferciuntur verius quam struuntur? Aevis durant, incorrupti
imbribus, ventis, ignibus omnique caemento firmiores. Spectat etiam
nunc speculas Hannibalis Hispania terrenasque turres iugis montium
inpositas.

Illustration reproduced from 1819 Encyclopaedia:

Immediately below the picture is the almost illegible text:

J. F. delin. / Lowry / Published as the Act directs 1817
by Longman Hurst Rees, Orme & Brown Paternoster Row.

* * * * *
* * * *

Errors and Inconsistencies (noted by transcriber):

[Headnotes]
Pise--a South African Lead
The Discovery of the Old
[_these two notes were transposed to fit the text_]

[final . missing]
force of the south-westerly storms." [single for double quote]
This requires no hair, and is easily applied." [close quote missing]
have always been found perfectly sound ["prefectly"]
"Strangers who have sailed upon the Rhone [open quote missing]
"There is every reason for introducing [open quote missing]
"Pise is a material readily obtainable [single for double quote]
merely improvements of mechanism. [. missing]
the misguided enthusiasts responsible
[line-end hyphen in "mis-/guided" invisible]
it is generally bonded in in the ordinary way [not an error]
Chapter III. _CHALK_ / Sec. I. GENERAL
[there are no sections II, III...]
fixed to wood blocks built in in a similar way [not an error]
[*: Age after arrival at laboratory.]
[duplicate footnote added by transcriber:
tables were printed on a single page]