Chapter I: Part 1

(See Plate 17)

Arnold W. Brunner. Architect. New York.]

COTTAGES
OR
HINTS ON ECONOMICAL BUILDING

CONTAINING

TWENTY-FOUR PLATES OF MEDIUM AND LOW COST HOUSES,
CONTRIBUTED BY DIFFERENT NEW YORK ARCHITECTS.

TOGETHER WITH
DESCRIPTIVE LETTERPRESS,
GIVING
PRACTICAL SUGGESTIONS FOR COTTAGE BUILDING.

COMPILED AND EDITED BY
A. W. BRUNNER, ARCH’T.

TO WHICH IS ADDED

A CHAPTER ON

THE WATER SUPPLY, DRAINAGE, SEWERAGE, HEATING AND
VENTILATION, AND OTHER SANITARY QUESTIONS
RELATING TO COUNTRY HOUSES.

BY
WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E.

1884.
NEW YORK:
WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK,
6 ASTOR PLACE.

COPYRIGHT,
1884.
WILLIAM T. COMSTOCK.

The aim of this little book is simply to offer a few hints and suggestions to those about to build, or those interested in building, and to present a series of designs of low-cost cottages.

These designs were made, by request, by different New York architects who have turned their attention to the subject. In view of the rapid growth of “Art Ideas,” and the great improvement in taste that has taken place during the last few years, it is believed that there is a demand for dwellings reasonable in cost yet artistic and home-like.

ARCHITECTS WHOSE DESIGNS ARE CONTAINED IN THIS BOOK.

Mr. WM. A. BATES, 149 Broadway, New York.
Mr. CHAS. I. BERG, 152 Fifth Avenue, New York.
Mr. A. W. BRUNNER, 29 Union Square, New York.
Mr. JAS. D. HUNTER, Jr., 57 Broadway, New York.
Mess. ROSSITER & WRIGHT, 149 Broadway, New York.
Mr. THOS. TRYON, 152 Fifth Avenue, New York.
Mr. WM. B. TUTHILL, 52 Broadway, New York.
Mr. FRANK F. WARD, 59 Astor House, New York.
Mr. FRED. B. WHITE, 294 Broadway, New York.

HINTS ON ECONOMICAL BUILDING]

I.

During the past few years our conception of what a country house should be, has entirely changed. Simplicity, elegance and refinement of design are demanded, and outward display, overloading with cheap ornamentation, is no longer in favor.

Naturally the more expensive houses were the first to get the benefit of the architectural inspiration drawn largely from England. But now that English gables and dormers have spread so widely, now that we realize the beauty of our own colonial architecture, and that the Queen Anne craze is subsiding, so that only its best features remain, the less ambitious dwellings must not be left to the mercy of those builders whose ideas of beauty are limited to scroll-saw brackets and French roofs. It is our intention, in presenting a number of designs for country houses, to show what can be done with simple means, and to give sketches of cottages that may meet the wants of many who desire inexpensive homes which shall be at the same time cosy and picturesque.

It must be stated, however, that all we can hope to do in the compass of this little volume is to give some hints on building and offer a few suggestions and ideas which may be of value to those about to build. It is by no means claimed that the drawings here given are sufficient for constructing the houses. Proper working drawings are a much more serious affair, and should in all cases be prepared by an architect. This is as important for a cottage as for a mansion.

It seems hardly necessary to enlarge upon the importance of an architect’s services, since that is now generally recognized. Sensible people, when they are ill, consult a physician and not an apothecary; and when they wish to plan a house, they take the advice of an architect and not a builder. Both apothecary and builder are of course necessary, but they must be wisely directed or they may be dangerous indeed.

In this “intensely new world,” as Matthew Arnold calls it, we have not yet had time to pay much attention to our simpler kind of dwellings. One can say but little for the majority of our cottages beyond that they give us shelter from the sun, rain and wind. The quaint interest, the great beauty of old European towns, are so marked, that we would do well to remember that each of the houses in their picturesque old streets was evidently built to suit the special tastes and requirements of its owner. At present, the fashion is set; and, while it lasts, all cottages are built to suit. The fashion changes and the next batch of cottages must come up to the new standard. Now, ready-made houses, like ready-made clothes, _may_ fit, but the conditions of house-planning are complex and the requirements are many and varied. The house in which we live should have some individuality, and not be a mere duplicate of our neighbor’s dwelling. We do not care to confess that we are exactly like other people. Of course we are not. We may not wish to be considered eccentric or “funny,” but we do flatter ourselves that we have some ideas of our own; so our home, if it is to be a home, must be planned just to suit our habits. Regarding the exterior appearance, that, to a certain extent at least, will proclaim both the disposition of the interior and its inmates.

Now the intelligent client will of course consult a competent architect, but being intelligent, he and Mrs. Client will first talk it all over very carefully, and after discussing the matter thoroughly will decide upon just what they need. When a decision has been arrived at, they will go to Mr. Architect and tell him their wants, and he will proceed, to the best of his ability, to solve the problem. This solution he presents in the form of plans, elevations and sections, which is his way of showing how he intends to fulfill the conditions imposed. But Mr. and Mrs. Client may not find it such an easy matter to decide upon what they ought to have. Building a house is generally a new experience, and many and vexed are the questions that arise. Being a bright, well-informed couple, with ideas of their own, they wisely decide to think it out for themselves and not to tell the disciple of Sir Christopher Wren to make them “something real pretty—you know what we want—and we’ll call to-morrow to see the drawings.”

No, they know better than that. It is for them to say _what_ they want; and _how_ it is to be done, is the architect’s province. So, to help the worthy couple in their deliberations, we will mention some of the points to be considered in building a country home, only touching upon them, however; for volumes might be, and indeed have been, written on the numberless considerations that present themselves. A little thought and time spent before commencing to build may avoid a great deal of trouble and regret when it is too late to effect alterations. Even when the house is in the course of erection, changes are unduly expensive, as one deviation from the plans is likely to entail another. The superficial knowledge people have of their own houses is often surprising, and it would be well for Mrs. Client to examine critically her present dwelling, while Mr. C. takes a few measurements of some of the rooms. This will bring their ideas of dimensions to a more definite shape and greatly aid them to fully understand a set of plans.

II.

The first thing to be decided is where the cottage shall be placed. For a castle in Spain, any picturesque spot would do, nor need we choose it until our castle is quite complete. But for a real house, one that will keep out the cold and keep in the heat, one that will be comfortable to live in and presumably beautiful to look at, one that is subject to many practical as well as artistic conditions, we will proceed to select the prettiest piece of ground in the healthiest neighborhood we can find.

Healthy—of course. Better not build at all than make our house the abiding-place of malaria. So we will carefully avoid marshy or ill-drained ground. Sandy or gravelly soil is good. Clay is bad. A side-hill has many advantages and affords opportunity for something picturesque. We need not fear it, for a broad trench dug deep as our cellar, and running obliquely back of the house, will leave us high and dry. If we are sensible rather than ambitious, we will not choose the summit of a hill. Sooner be a little lower down on the slope, securing shelter from the wind and a readier water supply. The question of site is an important one, and much depends on a wise selection. Even a small lot offers some choice, and a few feet in either direction may avoid damp cellars and future fevers.

But if we have a wider choice, let us exercise it well, and secure a position where we can study nature in her varying moods and enjoy her beauty. Let us be surrounded by meadows and flowers and trees. Trees by all means. Not too near, or we may shut out sunlight and secure dampness instead; but trees are good neighbors, and we owe them grateful shade in summer and shelter from winter storms. A stately oak and a few graceful maples, or perhaps some faithful evergreens, will take away the barren and forlorn appearance a house often presents when standing quite alone. A little terracing and grading, besides helping to shed the surface water, often give the building the appearance of being well and firmly placed.

Care will of course be taken to see that an abundant supply of pure water is obtainable; to decide its quality a few preliminary borings should be made.

Having roughly chosen the position and driven a stake in the site, we must decide in which direction our house shall face. The living rooms should look to the south or south-east, as they will be cooler in summer, receiving the southern breezes, and warmer in winter—and always cheerful. Next to a southern exposure an eastern one is best. We must consider how the grounds shall be laid out, the approaches to the house, position of the public road, and proximity of objectionable neighbors. Our friend Mr. Architect will want to know all this and more too. He will ask you from what directions come the prevailing winds, what is the character of the scenery, and whether there is any choice of prospect, or our pet view will stand in danger of being wasted on blank walls, or visible only from the kitchen. Then, after telling him how much we wish to spend, he will be in a condition intelligently to go to work and plan the house. A thorough understanding between architect and client is most desirable.

III.

“A history of house-planning is the history of civilization, one of the best means by which we can realize the social condition and family life of successive times,” says Stephenson in his interesting book on House Architecture. The gradual change in the arrangement of dwellings indicates most clearly the development of what we call civilized ideas.

In all important houses in the Middle Ages, the Hall, which was frequently an immense apartment, was the chief feature. To quote Stephenson again, “It was in reality the house, and hence (in England) country houses are still called Halls.” The ends were screened off by wooden partitions, the kitchen at one side, the private apartments at the other. The Hall was used as a dining-room and sitting-room, and the household would sleep there, both tables and beds being movable. Later, the tendency arose to have separate apartments for different purposes, and the number of rooms in a house multiplied. In modern planning strict privacy is essential, and each room must be accessible from the halls and stairways. As soon as a room becomes a mere passage to another, it loses its chief value. The arrangement of a house is, to a certain degree, influenced by considerations of exterior effect, but use and comfort are of prime importance. In the so-called “classic” houses, where symmetry was imperative, convenience of plan was often sacrificed.

A well-studied plan is characterized by compactness and the absence of any visible make-shifts or after-thoughts. Everything fits well and seems in its natural place.

A rectangular house is the cheapest and best, the octagonal and circular forms are better adapted for bays or projections only. Very irregular and straggling plans may produce picturesque results, but are sure to be comparatively expensive. A square house has always been a favorite with many practical-minded people. It is such a “sensible” shape and cuts up well into rooms. True, a given length of line, as a square, encloses a greater area than in any other rectangular form, so we get the most house for our materials and money. Still, we will probably find that, after arranging our plan, considering comfort and convenience alone, it will not result in a mathematical square; but, if it be compact and capable of being simply roofed, we need not reproach ourselves with undue extravagance.

All space occupied in passages and corridors, increasing the size but not the capacity of the building, is wasted.

Light and air are, we know, essentials of life. Let us not forget it in planning our house. Dark passages and stairways should not be tolerated.

In our cities, where land is very expensive, and the houses which often cover nearly the entire building lot are crowded closely together, many expedients have to be adopted to render the inner rooms habitable. Light-shafts are used, and rooms often receive only borrowed light by means of glass doors or partitions. In country houses these methods are inexcusable. Fresh air and the light of day should have access to every nook and corner.

IV.

In our modern houses the hall is generally a mere narrow passage connecting the rooms, and only large enough to contain the staircase. Lately there has been a tendency to give the hall greater prominence; and, as many of the plans in this book show, it may be made a most desirable sitting-room, by adding a few feet to what before was almost waste space. It may have an open fire-place and some little nook arranged with a seat. The stairs may be partly or wholly screened, a treatment giving opportunities for a picturesque effect. Let us have plenty of light on our staircase, and plan it so that even at night one is not liable to stumble. “Winders,” that is to say, steps which radiate at the corners, are to be avoided as much as possible, for it is easy to slip on the narrow end. Do not try to have your stairs in a single run. Platforms, which should be square, form a convenient rest. For ordinary stairs the risers may be 7½ inches, and treads 10 inches. If the risers are less, the treads must be proportionally greater. The old rule of a 6 inch riser and 12 inch tread is almost too luxurious, and when the risers are less than 6 inches they become actually uncomfortable and tiresome. If newels are used, as they are in the better class of work, have the tops rounded, and let there be no sharp angles that would be disagreeable to the touch.

The dining-room should have an eastern or north-eastern exposure, so that it may receive the cheerful rays of the morning sun. A western outlook is undesirable, for at sunset the “western waves of ebbing day” will flood the apartment, making it necessary to close the shutters, excluding the air and leaving the room in darkness. 11 feet in width is sufficient to admit of chairs on both sides of the table, with space for a servant to pass around, but a larger room is desirable.

The kitchen should be near the dining-room. It may be in the basement, and if the house is on a side hill this is a good arrangement, as the kitchen may then be entirely above ground. In some of the Southern States it is the custom to separate the kitchen entirely from the house, thereby avoiding all the smell and heat of cooking. It is a good plan for summer cottages to have the kitchen in a wing by itself, even if not disconnected with the rest of the house. In a small house, where the dining-room and kitchen must be placed next to each other, a pantry with doors not opposite each other, between the rooms, will do much to intercept odors and noises.

A sitting-room or living-room should be bright and cheerful. Let it have the benefit of any good view that the situation of the house may command. Give it broad, generous windows, admitting plenty of light and sunshine. Sunshine may not be good for the carpets, but you are not building the house for them, and the health and cheerfulness of the inmates are the first consideration. If carpets will fade we may use matting, which is now obtainable in good designs and excellent colors. Or let us have good honest wood floors oiled or waxed, for they need not be very expensive. Then with a pretty rug, perhaps, in the middle of the room, we secure greater cleanliness than is possible with a carpet, and need not be afraid of the light of day, two points which should help to decrease our doctors’ bills. In providing for light it is better to have one large window than two small ones. A broad casement with a window-seat, or a three-sided or semi-circular bay, with room for a few flowers, or perhaps a small work-table and chairs, will be a delightful feature.

In the pride of our heart we may want a parlor, or drawing-room, as our English cousins would call it.

Well, let us have it if we must, for hospitality is a virtue to be cherished. But true hospitality consists in giving our friends what we deem to be our best. Now a parlor that is kept for state occasions and is such a prim, formal room, that everything in it is too awfully nice to touch, is not a place where true friendship is likely to flourish. If we need another apartment for our guests, let it merely be an extension of our sitting-room. The room we occupy most will be the pleasantest in the house, as we will naturally surround ourselves with the objects we love best. But the spirit of cheerfulness and cosiness should pervade the entire house, and the selection we make of books, pictures and ornaments, will do much towards giving a room a friendly or unfriendly aspect.

In a large country-house a separate room for a library is convenient, also a breakfast or morning-room, and a billiard-room, is a luxury to be enjoyed, if possible. If we can manage it, a nursery, where the children can make a noise and have a real good time without shocking anybody’s nerves, will be found a great comfort. Give the little ones space, where they can romp to their hearts’ content, a large, sunny room, with broad windows and a big fire-place, a room with nothing in it that will spoil by contact with little hands, and you will contribute much to their happiness.

If we can contrive a little retreat or “den” in some out-of-the-way corner of the house, it may be well, for, although man is a social animal, “solitude sometimes is best society.”

Many of us will appreciate a little sanctum entered by one door only, where we can leave our books and papers, having the sweet satisfaction that they will remain undisturbed.

The bed-rooms should be specially light, airy and well ventilated. Space must be left for the bed, a consideration which, if overlooked in the plan, may make it necessary to put the bed in front of a window or against a closet door.

The arrangement of doors and windows requires particular attention, and a little care in regard to this will contribute much to comfort. A certain amount of wall-surface should always be left, or there will be no place to put the furniture—a fault often found in our houses, and productive of much discomfort. Every bed-room should have a closet, and, indeed, an abundance of closets is necessary, it being hardly possible to have too many of them. One for coats, in the front hall, one for linen, one for stores, and a good-sized pantry for the kitchen, are dear to the heart of a housekeeper.

No house should be without a bath-room, large and conveniently located. Care must be taken that the plumbing apparatus is not exposed to the cold, or the pipes will freeze in winter. The matter of ventilation and construction of the plumbing work, is ably discussed in a separate article devoted to that and other sanitary questions.

V.

Doors are generally hung according to the sweet will of the carpenter, but there are two ways to hang a door, one so as to expose the room, the other so as to screen it. The first may be good for the more public rooms, but, in regard to bed-rooms, the doors must swing so that, when partly open, they will shield the apartment from view. Closet doors should be hung so that the closet may receive light from the nearest window. Doors are sometimes made to swing out on stair landings or halls, and who has not seen two doors so placed that they strike each other when opened? It is hardly necessary to say that these methods should not be adopted.

The question of how to heat a house is discussed at length elsewhere, but from the point of beauty, cheerfulness and comfort, we must enter a plea for the open fire-place. It may be troublesome to keep clean, although this may be obviated by an ash-shoot to the cellar. We admit that the open fire-place is wasteful, as two-thirds of the heat goes up the chimney. And then most of the foul air in the room goes with it, and we have the best and surest ventilating flue yet devised. But the cheerful appearance, the crackling of the logs, the sparkling embers, the ruddy flames twisting themselves into fantastic shapes—are these worth nothing to us? Contrast a roaring fire of hickory logs, blazing on a broad brick hearth, with the dismal hole in the floor or wall covered with a cast-iron register. The cricket on the hearth is a little out of fashion now, and with it has gone the sense of comfort that the broad, picturesque chimney-piece always gave. Open fire-places alone are often insufficient in our climate, and furnaces are extremely useful for heating the halls and the house generally; but to rely on their heat entirely excludes one of the features which make home more home-like. The fire-place should be in a position so as to admit of a group sitting around it; it should not stand between two doors, for instance. A little nook or seat may be contrived next to it, making a cosy corner in the room. Chimney-stacks can be combined if the house be judiciously planned, and a saving of expense effected. The plans in Plates VI, X and XVII, show how one stack can serve three rooms on the same floor with fire-places, and in the case of the double houses all the designs show that this method of saving expense has been adopted. Chimneys must be carefully built of good, hard brick, laid in cement mortar, the flues straight and smooth and of uniform size. To allow of better arrangement in the upper floors, the flues may be safely drawn on one side to at least 30° from the perpendicular. There must always be at least 8 inches of brick work when the chimney-stack comes in contact with any wood-work.

Every house should have a cellar with stone or brick walls and cement floors. And it is of the utmost importance that the cellar be dry. To insure this, the greatest care should be given to the _outside_ finish of the walls—reversing the usual practice of carefully finishing the interior, and on the exterior allowing the rough edges of stone to project and form little courses and channels through which the moisture will pass. In case the cellar extends only under part of the house, the rest of the walls should be supported upon brick piers, only filled in between with wooden lattice, giving free access to the air, thus preventing dampness and rotting of timbers.

If the reader desires to study construction, or intends to superintend the building of his own house, he cannot do better than consult Mr. T. M. Clark’s book on “Building Superintendence.” The standard of workmanship that it gives may be a little too high for cheap work, otherwise it is an extremely useful volume.

VI.

Planning has been called a series of compromises, and in fact we will nearly always find it impossible to secure all we desire. Something must be sacrificed, and the best plan is the one that fulfills the most important requirements at the expense of the minor ones. After securing the proper relative arrangement of rooms, their exposure may be wrong, or the chimneys will not combine. We secure an economical combination of chimneys and find that the doors come “all wrong,” and the staircase is crowded to one side. Then the shape of the rooms is ugly, the veranda seems only possible in front of the kitchen, the entrance porch faces the north, and there is no way of getting to the cellar.

These little difficulties overcome, we find that we cannot get up-stairs, and even if we could, the rooms in the upper floors come just as we do not want them, and the hall will be dark. Then we will begin all over again. The amateur must not be disheartened if this is the result of his first attempt to plan a house. The best and seemingly most simple arrangement of rooms is generally the result of the most study.

In planning, as in many other things, the simplest is often the best, and what appears so satisfactory and looks as if it were quite the most obvious thing to do, was probably arrived at only after much consideration and thought.

Irregularities in our plan may be turned to account and picturesque and useful features result, but they must come naturally and not be forced, or they will give the appearance of striving to be eccentric.

It is a comparatively easy matter to plan a house which is intended exclusively for summer or for winter occupancy. But in those sections of the country where we have successively samples of every conceivable kind of weather, and we wish to build a permanent residence, the difficulties are numerous.

During part of the year we need broad verandas, large windows and doors so arranged that we can get a current of air through the rooms. The heat from the kitchen distresses us, and the refrigerator is regarded with more affection than the fireplace. In a few months the veranda only serves to shut out the precious sunlight, and double sashes for the windows may be desirable to keep out the cold too easily admitted by the doors. We draw close to the hearth, piled high with blazing logs, and rejoice that the slight heat from the kitchen chimney is not wasted on the outer air.

Fortunately, what keeps out the heat keeps out the cold—or rather keeps in the heat—and walls constructed so as to keep the house warm in winter will keep it cool in summer.

The veranda is a particularly American feature, and should be encouraged, not only because it is American, but because it is a great comfort and a sensible contrivance. Let it be broad and low, to keep out the sun’s rays; let it be large enough for plenty of chairs and a work table, and perhaps a rattan sofa or a hammock, and during the long summer months it will be a most delightful retreat.

Even in winter the veranda serves to keep the wind, sleet and snow from our windows, and so contributes a little warmth if it does rob us of some sunlight. It can be so constructed that it may be enclosed in winter, but it is difficult to heat, even if the cellar extended beneath it.

VII.

Materials of all kinds have been used for building, but for our purpose only stone, brick and wood are suitable, and mud, papier-maché, glass, iron, and many others need not be considered. Stone is the favorite for all monumental buildings, but it may be occasionally used to advantage in low-cost country houses. If it must be brought from a distance, and is to be cut, tooled and dressed, it will be much beyond the average cottager’s means. But when found in the immediate vicinity and laid in irregular courses “just as it comes,” with the corners squared off only enough to make good joints, we shall get excellent effects without great expense. It is well to use it only for the first story of the house, as shown on Plate XII. If cut stone lintels and jambs are too costly, we may use brick, either red or buff, selecting the one which harmonizes best with the color of the stone. The doors and windows in this case will be arched and not square-headed. Stone walls need not be very thick—18 inches will be ample—and they need not be damp if properly furred, leaving an airspace.

Frequently use large stones, the entire thickness of the wall, as “binders,” and leave the natural surface as much as possible. Then, if the stones are well selected, we shall have a beautiful surface, whose color, softened by that of mosses and lichens, and partly covered by the creeping ivy, will become more beautiful and mellow with age.

Brick is a most valuable building material, wonderfully durable, as the remains of the old Roman buildings testify, and fire-proof, as often demonstrated. To the minds of many, brick suggests all the ugliness of the immense crop of buildings that has sprung up in our American cities—buildings with wondrous painted and sanded cornices and window caps, with a front pierced with regularly spaced square-headed openings. But the builder and not the material is at fault, for as countless European examples show us, brick can be used with most excellent effect. Bricks are now made in many shapes, and good mouldings can be obtained for cornices, belt courses, etc.

Then terra-cotta, which is nothing more than its name implies, baked earth, or brick in other forms, comes to our aid, and we have ornamental panels, columns, pilasters, voussoirs and all sorts of architectural finery. For small cottages we may use brick laid in red mortar, combining it with wood, and perhaps some of the simpler mouldings, with a terra-cotta panel or two, to give character to the design.

Wood is the material that will commend itself, as being the cheapest for building country houses, needing only a light foundation and being easily handled. The old “half timbered” houses give us suggestions for a most picturesque treatment. In these buildings the frame is exposed and filled in with brick or stucco, producing an excellent effect. In the north of France, where rain is abundant, the exposed wood is sometimes covered with slate. This method of construction is adapted to our climate, but brick is better for filling in than plaster or stucco, which is likely to be affected by our severe frosts. Clapboards and shingles are both excellent. The shingles may be cut in different shapes, or irregularly laid, giving a variety of surface. Tiles, which are more durable but more expensive, may be substituted. Battened houses, that is, houses faced with vertical boards, the joints of which are covered by narrow strips of wood or “battens,” are not recommended.

VIII.

The first four plates in this book show designs for the simplest kind of cottages. Strict economy has been observed, and the arrangement is as compact as possible, no space being wasted. The first has two rooms on a floor—the living-room containing the stairs. The roof is unbroken, overhanging enough to cover the bay, and merely extending to form the porch. Plates II, III and IV show a separate hall for the stairs, and closets and pantry are provided. In one case the upper floor contains two large rooms, in the others, four smaller chambers. Plate III shows the kitchen and living-room separated by a pantry with two doors, and in the next design, communication between these rooms is had through the hall, an arrangement quite suitable for such a small house. Nothing could be plainer, or more straight-forward, than the plans and exterior treatment of these four cottages, and the result is interesting in showing that even the simplest house may be planned with some reference to comfort, and a pleasing exterior expression attained without the least ornamentation.

Plates V, VI and VII, give designs for slightly larger cottages, with three rooms on the first floor. The roofs are boldly treated, and in Plate V we see the picturesque effect obtained by an exterior chimney. This design also shows an effective treatment of windows in the sitting-room, and a broad low veranda covered by a continuation of the main roof. Designs VI and VII are two six-room cottages very compactly planned; the exteriors show clapboards on the first-story, and shingles above.

Plate VIII gives a cottage without a kitchen (there is space for it if desired), which may be built in connection with a hotel. This is becoming a favorite way of living during the summer, the inmates of the cottage taking their meals at the hotel, and thus much of the trouble of housekeeping is avoided. Several of the plans in this book could be used in a similar way; the space for kitchen devoted to other uses or omitted entirely. In this plan the two rooms on the first floor open into each other, making practically one large airy apartment, which, with the shady veranda in front, is an arrangement well adapted for warm weather.

In Plate IX we have a small seven-room house. The sitting-room has a large fire-place with seats at the side, screened by an arch or transom, and making a pleasant little nook.

Plate X is a design of a picturesque cottage which shows in plan a nearly square hall with a fire-place, opening into a broad piazza. At a little extra expense the small bed-room on the second floor could be made wider, or a bath-room added to advantage.

The plan of Plate XI provides an entrance hall or vestibule, which will be of special use if the house is occupied in winter. The side door opens into the end of the main hall, and the arrangement of rooms is well studied. The overhanging gables have a bold effect, and the materials used are the same as in nearly all the preceding designs.

Plate XII gives plans and elevations for a house, the first story of which is to be built of stone—the second of wood. The stone is irregularly laid, the rough surface contrasting well with the shingles above. The plan provides for six good-sized rooms with plenty of closets.

In Plate XIII we have a house planned so that the two main rooms on each floor are exposed on three sides, an arrangement which, if the size and shape of the lot permits, is good for a summer residence. The treatment of exterior also indicates this use.

Plate XIV gives a design for a seven-room cottage, with a wide hall and a bath-room. The kitchen is conveniently placed, both in regard to the dining-room and front door. The balcony in the second story adds to the exterior effect by giving more shadow to the front.

Plate XV is a design for a sea-side cottage. The hall is so arranged that the stairs are screened, thus making a little vestibule. The dining-room and parlor are only divided by an arch, and may be separated by a portière or thrown into one large room, while the veranda gives the shade so desirable at the sea-shore.

Plate XVI shows a picturesque house broadly treated. The second story overhangs the first, covering the piazza. The rooms are large and of good proportion, and each bed-room has its closet.

Bungalows, as the one-story houses used in India are called, seem adapted to some parts of America, particularly as summer cottages.

Plate XVII and the frontispiece show a house which will commend itself to those who dislike going up and down stairs. This plan provides a hall, dining-room and kitchen, each with its fire-place and closet, and three bed-rooms. The door of the bath-room and that of the bed-room opposite are misplaced, and should open into the corridor. There is a small stairway to the attic, where there is space for dormitories, if desired. The construction of this sort of house is so simple, and the foundation may be so light, that it will cost but a trifle more than if the rooms were arranged in the ordinary way. The bungalow here given is very simply treated, the roof being only broken for the outlook from the attic, and extending to cover the veranda.

Plate XVIII shows a house suitable for an ordinary “fifty-foot suburban lot.” The entrance hall is divided by an arch and book-cases, making an agreeable sitting-room or library. The second story contains three bed-rooms and a bath-room. There are accommodations in the attic for servants.

Plate XIX is a design for a cottage on a side hill, with the kitchen in the basement. The projection of the stairs in the main hall gives place for a seat opposite the fire-place, and may be made a cosy little corner. The dining-room, hall and sitting-room, open into each other.

The last four Plates are designs for double or “semi-detached” houses. If, instead of building single houses, two persons will combine, adopting some arrangement such as these designs show, they will effect a considerable saving of expense. The houses, although receiving light and air only on three sides, are bright and comfortable. Privacy is not destroyed, as the entrance porches are separated, and windows placed so as to avoid looking from one house to the other.

The exterior treatment in Designs XX and XXI seems to indicate more clearly than the others that they are double houses, while Nos. XXII and XXIII, though not concealing this fact, have more the air of large single houses. This is a nice question of “expression” which our readers may decide for themselves.

These drawings show different architects’ conceptions of what small and medium-sized cottages should be. They differ greatly from each other, both in plan and exterior design, but the general expression seems to be much the same. They are not pretentious, and no ornament exists for its own sake. Chimneys and roofs are boldly and frankly treated, and a certain breadth and hospitality are expressed by nearly all. Only a few of their special features have been mentioned, a fuller description being deemed unnecessary.

IX.

It will be noticed in all these designs that whatever grace or charm they may have is the result of the simplest treatment. A building should be logically designed, and the exterior be the natural expression of the plan. This is what is meant by Truth in Architecture. But just how much need be expressed, is not always clear. A proper regard for our architectural morals does not require us to exhibit to the passer-by every detail of construction and arrangement. Only what _is_ shown must be _true_. A building ought at least to declare its purpose, which should be recognizable at a glance. But a house may well express more than the fact that it is a house. It may have a pretentious and showy appearance, or be modest and unassuming. It may look cheerful and hospitable, or cold and forbidding.

Now, for a cottage to be pretentious is in bad taste. It need not be so humble as to nestle among the violets, but it can assert itself sufficiently without being decked with tawdry ornaments, or the vanity of cupola or towers.

On the other hand, it would be equally false for a large mansion which should have an air of dignity and magnificence to attempt to assume a simple, rustic appearance. Indeed, Southey informs us that the devil’s “favorite sin is the pride that apes humility.” Proportion—that is, the relation of parts to each other and to the whole, is the most important element of beauty in architecture. This has been the subject of much discussion and controversy. The parts of a building having a certain mathematical relation to each other, numerous attempts have been made to formulate this and establish reliable rules for the guidance of the designer. All the theories, however, are conflicting; notwithstanding that most of them are proved by their authors to apply directly to the Parthenon, which

“Earth proudly wears...
As the best gem in her zone.”

It seems that the sense of proportion, like an eye for color or an ear for music, is an innate quality possessed by some and lacked by others; and that it is as impossible to design a building as to make a musical composition by mathematical rules.

Beauty alone is not sufficient to constitute architectural excellence. Architecture is the art of building, and utility is the first consideration. If the architect be an artist, endowed with an appreciation of form and color, he will so combine the materials at his command that he will produce a building at once useful and beautiful. Exterior ornament should be sparingly used on cottages, and, if at all, should be so employed as to emphasize the design. But it seems more sensible in an economical dwelling to keep the exterior quite simple. While we should not inflict our neighbors with an ugly house, we will not be open to the charge of selfishness if we choose the extravagance of a daintily carved oak mantel in our sitting-room to that of ornamented brackets and posts on the veranda.

X.

In these designs for cottages it will be observed that there has been no attempt made to adhere to any historical style. And this, we believe, shows a greater appreciation of the beauties of architectural styles than if they had been misapplied and tortured into what once was known as “Rural Gothic” or “Italian.”

After defining architecture to be “the material expression of the wants, faculties, and the sentiments of the age in which it is created,” Owen Jones, in his “Grammar of Ornament,” said that “Style in architecture is the peculiar form that expression takes under the influence of climate and the material at hand.” Accepting this definition, we see the absurdity of copying buildings erected under totally different conditions from ours. Although an Italian villa is more adaptable to our wants than a Greek temple (and our country-houses have often copied both with lamentable results) it does not readily submit to be Americanized. Italy may give us suggestions, and France, England and Germany offer us many and valuable ones, but in adapting them to our country houses we must show discrimination. And our own wants and sentiments, if well and naturally expressed, take forms that are not displeasing, even if Corinthian columns and Gothic arches are absent.

The question of color is an important one, as an unfortunate selection may spoil the (otherwise) prettiest house. We have discovered that considerations of cleanliness do not require us to paint our houses white, which, even with the addition of green shutters, is hardly satisfactory. The staring, conspicuous effect of these white houses is what we should avoid, and the tints we choose must be those that will blend harmoniously with the surrounding landscape. The pearly gray that shingles become after exposure to the atmosphere has a very good effect if relieved by contrast with some other color. A good treatment is to give the house a coat of crude petroleum, and, if desired, a transparent stain may be mixed with it which will show the grain of the wood. A range of soft yellows, reds and browns, may be so obtained. Messrs. Rossiter and Wright have published a book entitled “Modern House Painting,” which gives excellent directions and examples.

XI.

If we strive to give to the exterior of our houses a pleasing appearance, how much more reason is there to beautify the interior.

It has been claimed that pretty and comfortable homes exert a decided moral influence. Be this as it may, we are all interested in making our homes attractive. And there is no reason why they should not be so. We are apt to think that costly things must be beautiful, but this is by no means true, nor is it true that inexpensive objects must be ugly. The same materials used in the construction and decoration of an ugly apartment might, with the exercise of a little taste, be so employed that a graceful combination result.

Low ceilings give an air of comfort, while very high ones have a cold and barren effect, and increase the cost of the house.

The ventilation of a room should be quite independent of the height of its ceiling, that is to say, a room with a low ceiling may be well ventilated, and one with a high ceiling may gain nothing by the extra height but greater facilities for retaining poisonous gases and foul air. Gwilt gives as a rule that the height of the ceiling of a rectangular room should be the same as the width of the room; but since the apartments on a floor are of unequal size and the ceiling commonly of the same height throughout, no such proportion can be kept. Nor is it necessary for a small cottage. From 9 to 10 feet is ample for the first story rooms.

The proportion of a room may be modified by the treatment of its walls. Vertical lines give an appearance of greater height, and horizontal lines make a room look lower. Accordingly, the division of a wall into horizontal bands by means of the dado and frieze, now in such favor, has a tendency to make a room look lower than it really is. This division, however, is a good one. The dado is simply a substitute of a cheaper material for a paneled wainscot of wood. The wooden base board and chair-rail should be retained, as they serve to protect the wall. A broad frieze is an excellent decorative feature. It should be separated from the wall surface by a picture-moulding from which the pictures will hang.

The excavations at Pompeii have shown many beautiful examples of harmonious wall decoration. The walls are divided by dado and frieze, the dado being generally darker and the frieze lighter, than the intermediate surface. We will do well to follow this arrangement even if we do not adopt the Pompeian colors.

If the plaster is finished with a rough surface (sand finish) it takes color well, and makes a satisfactory wall. Within the last few years, wall-papers have been manufactured which are good in design and low in cost. Many of them, printed in two tones of the same color, are delicate, and make good backgrounds for pictures. Being delicate and quiet does not necessarily mean that the paper must be gray and colorless. It may have a decided color, and still harmonize well with the pictures and other objects in the room.

Dark red matting used for a dado gives a most satisfactory effect. It may be continuous or divided in panels by narrow strips of wood.

Cartridge or ingrain-paper is now made in excellent colors, and is a good substitute for printed wall-papers. To break the flat surface a stencil pattern may be traced on it, or this may be done directly on the plaster, which must first be colored.

A good ceiling is made of simple felting-paper in lieu of plaster; the paper divided into small panels by narrow beaded strips of wood.

Lincrusta-Walton is a valuable material for some choice bit of decoration.

For door and window trims and other interior woodwork, white pine is recommended, as it is the cheapest, and, if properly finished, looks very well.

It may be stained, if too light—the transparent stains merely darken the wood and do not conceal the natural grain. Under no circumstances try to imitate oak or walnut by graining. Such shams deceive no one and are in the worst taste. If we use paint for interior work let us use it frankly, carefully selecting the color, and avoiding a shiny surface, a flatted or dull finish being preferable.

We have a great variety of wood to choose from, if not limited in expense, but “hard woods,” such as cherry, oak, mahogany, etc., not only are expensive in themselves, but require more labor. Ash is the cheapest of them. If some of the patent “fillers” are used, an excellent surface may be given to the wood, but these require to be finished with shellac, and carefully rubbed down. For cheap work, two coats of boiled oil may be used; or, if a polished surface is desired, varnish may be substituted.

Our fire-places may be of brick laid in red mortar, with wooden shelves, and perhaps lightly framed with wood. Tiles are appropriate for facings and hearth, as they are not affected by the heat. Let our windows be large and extend well up to the ceiling. Have window-seats if we can, and dispense with interior doors as much as possible. A curtain of some soft material (it need not be expensive) will look better than a six-panel door, and it may be pushed to one side, while the door is irrepressible. Let us make our hall a bright, cheerful apartment, that may aid us to “welcome the coming, speed the parting, guest.”

XII.

The cost of building depends so largely upon varying circumstances that it is impossible to give precise estimates without exact information upon such points as the amount of excavation needed, facilities for obtaining stone for foundation, etc. Then the prices of labor and materials vary greatly in different localities, so the figures here given can only be approximately correct. Cottage No. I could be built as shown on plan, for $500. A cellar under it would make it cost about $100 more. Cottages Nos. II, III and IV would cost from $600 to $1000. Those shown in plates VI, VII, IX, X, and others of similar character and size may be estimated to cost from $2.50 to $3.00 per square ft. That is to say, if, as in Fig. IX, the extreme exterior dimensions are 21 ft. by 29 ft., the house covers 609 square ft., and would cost from $1522 to $1827. Cottage No. XIV could be built for from $3000 to $3500.

These prices are given as guides, and may serve the reader as a standard to follow. If plain interior finish is adopted, these figures may be relied upon for ordinary cases. Some sites, however, present unexpected difficulties, and some localities are peculiarly favored. Then the style of interior finish adopted affects the cost greatly, and the expense may be easily doubled by the use of elaborate cabinet work.

A brick house of the same capacity as a wooden one, will cost nearly 20 per cent. more. Rubble stone, if easily obtained, costs about as much as brick.

In building double houses, we may save from 10 to 15 per cent. on the cost of the houses singly.

Good materials and workmanship are always the cheapest in the end, and it is by no means advisable to economize too closely on that score. There can be no comfort in a house that constantly needs repairs; and the money spent in building a home, carefully and substantially constructed, will never be regretted.

_By WM. PAUL GERHARD, C. E._

In selecting a site, a loose, porous =soil= is, for obvious reasons, preferable to ground liable to be damp or wet. Pure, dry sand, and gravel, make excellent sites for building purposes. Next to these, rocky soils may be chosen, and are usually quite healthy. Clay soils, which are more or less impervious to water, and therefore always damp and chilly, and alluvial lands, must not be chosen as a site for dwellings. But, above all, avoid _made_ land. Although this refers more particularly to city lots, it is not uncommon, even in the suburbs of large cities, to find low ground filled with garbage, rubbish, and decaying vegetable and animal debris, which are prime causes of impure air in dwellings. Ground which has not before been built upon is, undoubtedly, preferable to sites of old, torn-down buildings. If the latter must be taken, a detailed and thorough examination should be made with respect to the purity of the soil. Some lots are literally honey-combed with cesspools, privy-holes, or have a net-work of broken drains full of accumulated filth, and the soil is at times found to be contaminated from liquid house refuse, or by soakage from barn-yards, stables, etc. A well should never be sunk through such formerly occupied ground. It is quite important to ascertain by preliminary borings, the level of the ground water, for a high water level means continuous dampness, and must be abated by thorough under-drainage.