Chapter II: Part 2

When putting in a background with the pumice stone as described in the fourth method on page 70, treat the whole surface of the paper with pumice stone in order to raise the grain of the paper, but go over the face lightly. Then place the strainer on which the portrait is mounted on the easel, and put in the shadows with the tortillon stump, producing the lights with the eraser; finish with the No. 0 crayon. But instead of producing a diamond effect, as you did with the lines, you now want to have a stipple effect, which is that of small black and white spots; the paper producing the white spots, and the crayon the black ones. To produce this make the lines in the shadows and half-shadows, but not in the light places, in the manner shown in the illustration on the following page; instead of crossing them to form diamonds, using short lines and varying their direction and intersection with reference to the ultimate effect; then rub them with the end of the finger. In finishing, gradually divide up all the small light parts with the pencil and the dark with the eraser: if it is necessary at any time to rub the crayon, use the end of the finger instead of the cotton. Be careful not to get too much crayon on the paper, that is, you must not "force up" or be compelled to make the shadows too dark by the use of the crayon; they should be made as dark as necessary with the stump before finishing. Should you find in finishing that they are not dark enough, use the stump to make them darker, as the pencil is only intended to give the stipple effect, and should be used in a very light and delicate way. Continue the process of finishing according to the directions hereafter given for bromide enlargements. The foregoing illustration is the first or ground work for the stipple effect produced by the aid of the fingers. To obtain this effect without rubbing with the fingers, make small black dots, instead of the lines shown above, until the desired effect is produced. The latter method results in a coarser stipple effect, but it requires a much longer time and is more difficult than the former.

BACKGROUNDS--GENERAL PRINCIPLES.

Always commence the portrait by putting in the background. Among the four different methods which I have given, the student can make his own selection. For myself, I prefer the last two mentioned.

There can be no definite rule given for the lights and shadows in the backgrounds, as every portrait will need a characteristic background adapted to the subject. There should always be a nice disposition of light and shade, the light coming against the dark side of the face and the dark against the light side, and generally a cast shadow. What this is may be learned by setting a cast (or any other object) near the wall, letting the light strike it at an angle of 90 degrees, and noticing the size and position of the shadow thrown on the wall. The cast shadow in your background must not be too near the head, as simplicity should be one of the principles of the background, and this can only be attained by breadth of light and shade. The background is of secondary importance, and should not intrude itself on the portrait in its effect of lines or light and shade. Backgrounds for half or full length figures need especial study in their effect of lines, and one who intends to succeed in making them properly should study linear composition in Burnet's essay on Composition,[A] especially the following passages. "Composition is the art of arranging figures or objects so as to adapt them to any particular subject. In composition four requisites are necessary--that the story be well told, that it possess a good general form, that it be so arranged as to be capable of receiving a proper effect of light and shade, and that it be susceptible of an agreeable disposition of color. The form of a composition is best suggested by the subject or design, as the fitness of the adaptation ought to appear to emanate from the circumstances themselves; hence the variety of compositions.

"To secure a good general form in composition, it is necessary that it should be as simple as possible. Whether this is to be produced by a breadth of light and shade, which is often the case with Rembrandt, even on a most complicated outline, or by the simple arrangement of color, as we often find in Titian, or by the construction of the group, evident in many of Raphael's works, must depend upon the taste of the artist. It is sufficient to direct the younger students to this particular, their minds being generally carried away by notions of variety and contrasts.

"In giving a few examples of composition, I have confined myself to the four simple and principal forms, not only from their being most palpable, but also from their possessing a decided character, which is at all times desirable. To those who imagine that such rules tend to fetter genius, I shall merely quote Sir Joshua Reynolds, whose works, if properly understood, render all other writings on the subject of painting superfluous: 'It must of necessity be that even works of genius, like every other effect, as they must have their causes, must likewise have their rules. It cannot be by chance that excellencies are produced with any constancy or any certainty, for this is not the nature of chance; but the rules by which men of extraordinary points, and such as are called men of genius, work, are either such as they discover by their own peculiar observations, or are of such nice texture as not easily to admit being expressed in words; especially as artists are not very frequently skillful in that mode of communicating ideas. Unsubstantial, however, as these rules may seem, and difficult as it may be to convey them in writing, they are still seen and felt in the mind of the artist, and he works from them with as much certainty as if they were embodied, as I may say, upon paper. It is true these refined principles cannot be always palpable, like the more gross rules of art, yet it does not follow but that the mind may be put in such a train that it shall perceive, by a kind of scientific sense, that propriety which words, particularly words of unpractised writers such as we are, can but very feebly suggest.' (Sixth Discourse)."

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote A: Essays on Art, by John Burnet, New York, E. L. Wilson.]

FIRST METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--STUMP EFFECT.

To produce the stump effect, rub the chamois block in the box of crayon sauce, and then with the large grey paper stump commence by putting in the darkest parts and the cast shadow. Use the broad end of the stump, moving it over the surface of the paper with an even and uniform pressure, so that you will not make any dark spots. Make broad lines and have them cross each other so as to form diamond shaped spaces, using considerable care and a very light touch in the lighter places. Finish with the large rubber eraser, cutting it so that it will make white lines about the same width as the black lines made with the stump. Have these light lines run into the dark ones in some places, and use the rubber so as to produce a dashing effect.

SECOND METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND.

Take a handful of cotton batting, rub it in the box of crayon sauce, and then on a piece of paper before applying it to the crayon paper to make the background, being careful to avoid rubbing harder in some places than others, as dark spots are likely to be caused in that way. Commence by rubbing in close to the face and work out towards the edge of the paper. Let the darkest part be closest to the face, shading out in the form of a circle about six or eight inches from the face, according to the subject, the upper line of the arc coming a little above the head. Then make the cast shadow and finish with the large rubber eraser, putting the lights, or cloud effect, as it is called, in the background. When doing this, place the strainer high enough on the easel to bring the centre of the picture on a level with your eyes, then standing in front of it and about six feet off, decide upon your plan of light and shade. After you have put in the first of the lights, step back to the former position, and see if it gives the proper effect. Continue this method of working until the background is entirely completed.

THIRD METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--LINE EFFECT.

With the cotton and crayon sauce as in the preceding method, put in the dark places and cast shadow, but not as dark as you want them when finished; then with the crayon point No. 2 put in three sets of lines thus:--

_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton & Co._]

Do not carry out the lines as far as the background will extend when finished. The lines should be one-quarter of an inch apart in life-size portraits, and a little closer in smaller sizes. As a rule the lines are a little further apart in the background than in the face. These lines need not be horizontal, crossed by oblique ones at obtuse angles, but they can be curved lines, if desired, provided they cross each other so as to leave diamond shaped spaces. After the lines are in rub a piece of clean cotton over them all, using pressure enough to subdue them to the degree of indistinctness desired; then finish with the large eraser and crayon point No. 2, putting in the cloud effect. Such lines as show too prominently you subdue with the nigrivorine eraser. If there are any light places, make them dark with the crayon.

The background should be very indistinct on the edges, and be vignetted in the shape of an oblong, having some very light clouds above and on either side of the head. Let there be a nice contrast between the face and the background, having light come against dark and dark against light; that is, when one side of the face is dark and one side light, have the background light against the dark side, and dark against the light side; when light and shade are about equal on both sides of the face, have the background about the same shade on both sides, without too decided a cast shadow. If you have a subject that has gray hair, have the background darker than it would be otherwise. The background should never be darker at any place than the shadows in the face, and close to the face it must be a shade between the light and half shadows. Never resort to the practice of leaving the background white, as this will only give a hard, stiff appearance. Clean off the outside edges of the background with a clean piece of cotton and the pumice stone.

FOURTH METHOD OF MAKING THE BACKGROUND--STIPPLE EFFECT.

Lay a piece of manilla paper on the table about twelve inches larger on each edge than your strainer, placing the strainer on it face up; rub a handful of cotton batting first in the crayon sauce and then on the manilla paper to remove any foreign substance. Then apply the cotton with a circular motion to the crayon paper to make the background desired. Next sprinkle the pulverized pumice stone over the entire background, and go over this with the fingers in a circular movement, using them flat from the second joint to the ends; then lift the strainer up, and, resting it on the edge, jar off all the pumice stone, and when this is done, lay it down again and rub it off with a clean piece of cotton. Now rub the fingers in the crayon sauce, keeping them flat so that it will adhere evenly to them, and go over the background lightly as when rubbing in the pumice stone and you will produce a nice stipple effect. Finally, place the strainer on the easel, and finish according to the directions given for finishing crayons made on bromide enlargements.

Of course it will need considerable experience before you can succeed in doing this perfectly, but patience and perseverance will ultimately accomplish the desired end. There are two matters of importance to be borne in mind in making these backgrounds--first, do not have any small, hard pieces of crayon on the cotton when you rub it on the paper, and second, use the fingers in as flat a position as possible, for if you do not have them flat down on the paper you are likely to make dark spots in the background.

FACE--LINE EFFECT.

_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton & Co._]

Commence on the hair with the crayon point No. 2, and put in all the shadows and half-shadows, carefully preserving the lines of direction, but avoid working over the lights more than necessary; then with the crayon point No. 1 strengthen all the shadows about the eyebrows, the eyes, the mouth, the chin and the ears. Next put the lines in the face. The following illustration shows the lines before they are rubbed. It will be well to remember that only two sets of lines are used in the face, as shown in the illustration, and the same number in the dress, while there are three sets required in the background. The lines in the face should be a little closer than those in the background, while those in the dress are about the same as those in the background.

In the effect of the lines in the face lie the chief merit and beauty of this method of crayon work. When properly drawn, the lines represent and give the grain of the flesh in a very beautiful broken effect. They are drawn so as to leave spaces shaped like diamonds, but in the finishing should be so treated as to lose their regularity, and to have the effect of "broken diamonds." If you will examine the back of the wrist joint when your hand is bent slightly backward, you will see more clearly what is meant by the term "broken diamonds" in the slight ridges which show the grain of the flesh. Begin with the forehead, using the crayon point No. 1, and put in one set of lines straight across, but curving downwards as the forehead commences to round off towards the hair at the sides; then one more set of lines in the direction that will produce the diamond spaces, continuing these two sets of lines throughout the face. These lines intersecting at the proper angles will indicate the grain of the flesh, if the line of direction be carefully followed. Remembering that the face is not a flat surface, make the lines darker in the shadows and lighter as they approach the lights. The high lights on the forehead, the nose, the highest point of the chin, and around the mouth, should, however, have no lines over them.

Having put in these lines take a small handful of cotton, and rub the hair and face over both the high lights and shadows, the motion following the line of direction; that is, being straight across the forehead, curving towards the hair at the sides, and circular on the cheeks. Care should be exercised not to rub too hard, it being a common fault of the beginner to rub the paper too much, and produce a dirty effect. The lines should be merely rubbed until they are somewhat blurred and indistinct. Remember that the crayon portrait is made on the surface of the paper, and not rubbed into it. After it has thus been treated with the cotton, go over the shadows with the crayon point No. 1, and rub again with the cotton.

The face of the crayon will now be about three shades darker in the lights than it should be when finished, and not quite dark enough in the shadows. Finish it with the No. 0 crayon and nigrivorine eraser, using the latter wherever a lighter effect is required; also break up the regularity of the diamond spaces, and whenever a line shows too prominently subdue it with the eraser.

If you would succeed in making good crayon portraits, it will be necessary for you to cultivate a light touch with the crayon in finishing.

The eraser is one of the principal instruments employed in making crayon portraits, and is used the same as if it were a crayon pencil, that is, on that principle, the difference being that you make white lines with it instead of black ones. Keep the eraser to a sharp point in the following manner: take a piece of emery paper about three inches square, and place it in the left hand between the index and second fingers, holding the fingers about half an inch apart, and bending the paper to fit between them; then rub the eraser in the crease thus formed, holding it at an acute angle. Sometimes it is necessary to sharpen the eraser with a knife or a pair of scissors before rubbing it on the emery paper. In working with the eraser on the crayon paper do not rub hard enough to remove all the crayon from the surface of the paper, except in producing the high lights and the white of drapery. Notice in particular in finishing the hair that where it touches the forehead there are no lines, as the light and shade should blend together so nicely as to leave no decided line between them.

DRESS--LINE EFFECT.

_From the Annual Encyclopedia. Copyrighted, 1891, by D. Appleton & Co._]

The above illustration represents the effect of the lines in the dress. In putting them in let every fold, sleeve and lapel have lines of its own, that is, lines differing in direction so as to discriminate it from the other parts of the clothing. These distinctive lines will lose themselves in the wrinkles, in shadows, and in the next fold, where the lines will have a different direction. The illustration is very crude, as it shows the lines before they are rubbed with cotton; after that process they have quite a different appearance. In men's clothing the lines may be drawn a little farther apart than in the treatment of the finer texture of ladies' garments. After you have put in the lines with the crayon point No. 2, go over them with a piece of cotton previously rubbed in the crayon sauce, and then complete this part of the work by the use of a dull eraser for the smaller lights, and the chamois for the broad lights.

The crayon is now in good condition for finishing, which you will proceed to do by the use of No. 0 Conte crayon and the nigrivorine eraser, softening the lights with the former and the shadows with the latter, until you have the whole portrait subdued, and no decided lines of light and shade. Of course throughout these processes you must pay close attention to all the characteristic points in the likeness, so that the crayon will be a true and life-like reproduction. Do not sit too close to the crayon in finishing; if you do, you will be disappointed when you come to look at it from a slight distance, and will not find at all that enchantment which distance is said to lend to the view, as the crayon will disclose a spotty effect, and too great a contrast between the lights and shadows.

BROMIDE CRAYONS.

In the bromide enlargement, while the paper has to undergo all the different manipulations of development, fixing and washing, that the platinum and silver enlargements do, yet the gelatin is not removed, and, when dry, remains as a strong sizing to the surface of the paper--in fact, so strong, that in some of the different kinds of bromide paper the surface is very nearly as hard as glass, and, therefore, the crayon cannot be used upon it with good results until it has received a special treatment, as the crayon would only make a black scratchy mark.

It has been said that the bromide paper and enlargement were entirely different from the platinum or silver enlargement and the crayon paper. While there is not as much difference between the bromide and other enlargements as there is between the former and the crayon paper, there should be this difference: the silver or platinum enlargement should only be printed strong enough to give the form and the larger details in the negative, while the bromide enlargement must be as nearly a perfect photograph as can be produced from the negative.

From the fact that, on account of the difference in the surface of the paper, there cannot be as much crayon put on the bromide enlargement as on the other kinds of paper, and that, therefore, it cannot be strengthened to the same degree in the shadows without spoiling the nice transparent effect that a bromide should have there, it follows that the best bromide crayons are those on which the least crayon is used to produce the desired effect. The bromide paper, on account of the gelatin surface, will not take the crayon from the stump as readily as the other kinds of paper; but after the surface has been treated with the pumice stone this objection is removed, and the paper can be worked on with the stump readily. I can say from my own experience, that for producing a crayon over a photographic enlargement with the stipple effect, it has no equal in the beauty of finish and rapidity of execution.

The illustration facing this page was made from a crayon executed over a bromide enlargement from the original negative. Better results can always be reached in a bromide enlargement when it is thus made from the original negative. The student will notice in particular the stipple effect in the reproduction.

FINISHING BROMIDE ENLARGEMENTS.

Examine the enlargement mounted on the strainer, looking at it from the side, to learn if there is any starch on the surface of the paper before commencing work on it. If there is any, carefully wash it off with a sponge and some clean water, and then set the enlargement aside until it has thoroughly dried. Then lay it down on the table with a piece of manilla paper under the strainer about 12 inches longer on each edge than the latter; take a handful of cotton, first rubbing it thoroughly in the crayon sauce, then on the manilla paper, and finally going over the surface of the enlargement with it in a circular motion. Then sprinkle pumice stone over the portrait, and using the ends of the fingers flat, rub it over the entire surface of the paper. This treatment cuts through the gelatin surface and prepares it for the stipple effect. Now stand the strainer on its edge and jar the pumice stone off, after which lay it down on the table, and with a piece of clean cotton lightly brush off the surface; then, having rubbed the finger ends in the crayon sauce, go over the entire surface of the enlargement, holding them flat, and you will produce a fine stipple effect.

If the shadows need to be darker, use a little more crayon on the fingers; also put the cast shadow in the background, applying the crayon with the fingers.

Before proceeding further it will be well to note that the crayon is entirely on the gelatin surface, and that the photographic image is on this surface also, and not on the paper itself; therefore, under the image and the gelatin you have the pure white paper. I call attention to this in order that you may work with a better comprehension of the materials you are using.

You now have four surfaces. First, the muslin cloth of the strainer; second, the starch; third, the white paper; fourth, the gelatin.

Knowing that the gelatin has a hard surface, you are prepared to learn that the crayon will come off from the bromide much more easily than from the other kinds of paper. These had but three surfaces, while the bromide has a fourth--a very hard one--between the crayon and the paper, and on account of its hardness it will need different treatment in its manipulation. Therefore you use the fingers in applying the crayon sauce, and, when it is necessary to make a place light, you do so with the cotton, chamois or eraser. Should you find it necessary to make a place white where it is dark, you can remove the photograph entirely, as this is on the gelatin, scraping it off down to the white paper with a sharp knife.

Resuming the process of finishing, place the enlargement on the easel and put in the cloud effect with the large eraser, then lay it on the table again, and clean it off about four inches from the edge all around with pumice stone and a fresh piece of cotton where you have rubbed with the eraser, and blend the background into this four inch space. Return the enlargement to the easel again, and with the broad eraser clean up the lights throughout, and with the cotton and pumice stone blend them into the shadows; then with the peerless stump, crayon sauce and fingers strengthen the larger shadows, using the nigrivorine eraser when necessary to clean up the lights, and the tortillon stump for the work in the smaller shadows, if it is required to make them darker. Now with the No. 0 crayon finish the face by completing the stipple effect in the patches of light and shade. You will have a good guide in the background for finishing and giving the stipple effect, as there you will have this stipple effect quite perfect, especially in the light places. This finishing with the No. 0 crayon is the nicest part of the work, and when doing it you must keep in mind that you are putting in the stipple effect, and that alone; that is, the portrait at this stage is supposed to be very nearly right in light and shade and expression, and it should not be necessary to strengthen it in the shadows by using the No. 0 crayon. You are to cut up or divide the portrait into small black and white spots, but do not take out white spots with the No. 0 crayon that are larger than the white spots desired in the stipple effect; these light places must be cut into smaller light spots. If you should take out these white spots (and this is an error you must be very careful to avoid), you would produce an effect of large dark and white spots that would be entirely wrong, the real process being to divide large white and dark spots into smaller ones of the same color.

This stipple effect should be worked all over the face with the exception of the highest lights, and even these will very often need to be worked over except at the single points of the very highest lights. In this work you now have an opportunity to demonstrate the theory of contrast. Sometimes the enlargement is too dark in the shadows, and although you require to have them lighter you have already removed all the crayon from the surface, and it still remains too dark. The crayon pencil is many shades darker and blacker than the shadows, yet you can by its use make them lighter by putting in the stipple effect, as the dark touches of the pencil in their contrast with the shadow color under them cause them to appear lighter. This is a very essential principle to remember in crayon portrait work: that the effect of dark against light is to make the light appear lighter, and the dark darker. After the face and hair are completed as above, then finish the clothes with the peerless stump, eraser and fingers. If there are any very dark strong shadows--for instance, under the collar or around the neck--put them in with the velours crayon and subdue them with the fingers. When at work on the clothes at the bottom of the portrait do not finish straight across, but in a circular way. Next taking up the background you will discover that there are some large patches of light and shade that must be changed and made the required color to correspond with the adjoining surface; lean back as far as possible in your chair, and join these places together with the pencil and eraser; then in the same position finish the face by removing any light or dark places, strengthening the eyes, nose, mouth, and any point of the likeness requiring a final touch. Remove with the point of your knife any small black spots such as sometimes show in the photograph, and then with a fresh piece of cotton and pumice stone clean off the edges of the crayon all around.

Before regarding the picture as quite complete, examine it by holding it at right angles to the light, to see if there are not some marks of the crayon pencil that show too prominently. These can be subdued with the ends of the fingers. Sometimes in finishing with the No. 0 crayon the paper will seem to be gritty so that you can hardly work on it. The difficulty is that some of the pumice stone has adhered to the surface of the paper. This can be disposed of by rubbing it with the fingers. It should be remembered that the pumice stone must be entirely removed from the whole surface of the paper, as otherwise it will settle in the crayon, and give a dirty gray effect. When, as sometimes happens in commencing the portrait, dark or white spots or streaks show themselves, do not pay any attention to them until you have entirely finished the crayon, then if they are dark, make them the proper shade with the eraser, and if light, with the crayon.

MONOCHROMES.[B]

These are portraits in one color on porcelain, glass or any hard material that has first been coated with gelatin and then photographed on. First treat the whole surface with pumice stone as directed for the bromide paper, afterwards go over it with the crayon and cotton. Then put in the cloud effect in the background, and clean off the lights in the face, hair, and clothes with the eraser; next put in the half-shadows with the peerless stump; then with a solution of India ink darken the stronger shadows throughout the portrait--in the eyes, nose, mouth and eyebrows, and finally in the hair. Finish the face with the No. 0 crayon and the 4 H. Faber's lead pencil according to directions given for finishing bromide enlargements. The Faber pencil is used almost exclusively throughout the face. Very nice effects of strong light can be made on porcelain by scraping through the gelatin surface with the knife. This process is specially adapted to making pictures of smaller size, say 10×12, or 11×14 inches, as it produces a very soft and delicate effect.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote B: For photographic process, see the American Annual of Photography and Photographic Times Almanac, 1888.]

VALUES.

The matter of values enters into the essential quality of every work of art, and especially of a portrait. It is the truth of their rendering that will give a faithful likeness. By the term values is meant the relations of light and shade to each other. This subject has been so admirably treated by John Burnet in his essay entitled "Practical Hints on Light and Shade,"[C] that I give his observations on this point.

"Before proceeding to investigate light and shade in their various intricate relations, it may be proper to notice a few of the more palpable and self-evident combinations; and for the better comprehending of which I shall divide them into five parts, viz.: Light, half-light, middle tint, half-dark and dark. When a picture is chiefly composed of light and half-light, the darks will have more force and point, but without the help of strong color to give it solidity it will be apt to look feeble, and when a picture is composed mainly of dark and half-dark the lights will be more brilliant; but they will be apt to look spotty for want of half-light to spread and connect them, and the piece be in danger of becoming black and heavy. And when a picture is composed chiefly of middle tint, the dark and light portions have a more equal chance of coming into notice, but the general effect is in danger of becoming common and insipid. Light and shade are capable of producing many results, but the three principal are relief, harmony and breadth. By the first the artist is enabled to give his work the distinctness and solidity of nature; the second is the result of a union and cement of one part with another; and the third, a general breadth, is the necessary attendant on extent and magnitude. A judicious management of these three properties is to be found in the best pictures of the Italian, Venetian and Flemish Schools, and ought to employ the most attentive examination of the student, for by giving too much relief he will produce a dry hard effect, by too much softness and blending of the parts, wooliness and insipidity, and in a desire to produce breadth of effect he may produce flatness."

The student should make a careful study of the values, as upon these will depend the entire effect of the portrait and its fidelity as a likeness; and the absence of these qualities of rendering light and shade are one of the marked features of the work of amateurs, as they are apt to make their shadows too dark and their lights too light. You should compare the portrait with the photograph you are working from, and preserve the same contrasts between the lights and shadows in order to produce satisfactory results. The best way of examining your work is by the use of a mirror. To the student the mirror is his best critic. It is before this silent observer that he submits his work with the certainty of receiving an honest criticism. At every step of your progress look at your work in a good mirror, as here it is changed about, the left side being the right side, and no error will escape detection. Sometimes you will see that what appeared true was in reality false, what seemed graceful in contour was distorted; here an eye which you thought was looking at you quite straight now mocks you from the glass in manifest obliquity; the mouth, which you thought had a pleasant expression, now looks as disdainful as can be. And so all through your work you will be startled; you will doubt the mirror. Doubt it not; your work is false. If you will be convinced show it to some competent artist, and he will confirm the judgment of the impartial mirror. Experience will soon teach you to put such reliance on its never capricious council that you will follow its suggestions implicitly, and, when your work is altered, the result will satisfy you invariably, that, as the proverb says of two heads, so two images are better than one. When you have come to this conclusion there is not a beauty of eighteen who will consult her glass (though it is true for a somewhat lighter purpose,) more eagerly, more devoutly, more frequently, or finally, we hope, with more triumphant satisfaction than will you.

FOOTNOTES:

[Footnote C: Essays on Art by John Burnet, New York, Edward L. Wilson.]

STUDIO.

The amateur is not to consider the selection of his studio or work-room of minor importance; the perspective, coloring, and the effect of the portrait will all depend, in a great measure, upon the situation and dimensions of the studio. It may be said in a general way that the larger the apartment the better. To secure the effect which it is essential to produce, there should be space enough left behind the artist to permit him to step back from six to ten or twelve feet to accurately view and see the effect of the portrait. I cannot urge too strongly upon the amateur the usefulness of frequently viewing his work from a distance. I would gladly save him the disappointment and chagrin which I have myself experienced, when having neglected this precaution, I have quite finished a portrait only to find it thoroughly unsatisfactory when looked at from a greater distance than that at which I had worked.

You should choose a room with a north light if possible; if that is not available then one with a south light, and the room should be as near the top of the house as possible. Let the light be arranged so as to strike the easel at an angle of 90 degrees, and if it is a side light darken the lower half of the window. Do not have the side walls white, they should be a neutral shade; reddish is the best. For work with water colors or India ink you need a stand, and be sure and set it so that the light will be at your left when you work. Keep the studio as free from dust as possible, and when you have finished working for the day wash your brushes and place the corks in the water color bottles, so as to exclude the dust from them. For crayon work also set the easel so that the light is at the left hand.

A word in regard to selecting materials. I have already spoken in regard to the selection of photographs for coloring. As to brushes--camel's hair will cost only about a third as much as sable, and will answer every purpose for beginners; the fine sable should be procured after the pupil has advanced sufficiently. In choosing a brush for water colors, dip it in a cup of water and draw it over the edge of the cup; if it has a little spring to it, and comes to a point readily without any of the hair straggling, it is all right; if not, reject it. Winsor and Newton's Chinese White is the best white paint. For mixing the colors you can get a slant with eight divisions, or a nest of saucers. In selecting glass for mounting pictures choose that which is free from blisters.

FRAMING.

The following directions in regard to framing will, I hope, be found advantageous. When framing with a passepartout mat, always use

For a 16×20 portrait an 18×22 frame,
" 18×22 " " 20×24 "
" 20×24 " " 22×26 "
" 24×29 " " 25×30 "

I make a life-size portrait 25×30 on a 24×29 strainer. The reason for using a larger frame than strainer is this: that it invariably happens that the head of the portrait will not come in exactly the proper place in the opening of the passepartout, and by having the frame two inches larger each way you will be able to bring the head wherever desired in this opening. When placing the picture in the frame, lay the latter face down on a table and put in the glass, which should have been perfectly cleaned; lay in the passepartout and fasten it with small brads. Then lay the crayon down on the table face up and turn the frame over on it, and after you have it in the proper place, draw the picture and frame partially over the edge of the table, and from underneath mark the back of the passepartout where the edges of the picture come; then turn the frame and picture over so that it shall be face down. Now cut eight strips of old tin-type metal one-quarter of an inch wide and three inches long, making holes at each end of them for the tacks, and with these strips fasten the picture in its place by tacking one end of each to the strainer and the other end to the frame. Also cut a piece of heavy manilla paper the size of the frame, lay it on a board, dampen it with a sponge, apply starch paste around each side and the ends for a space of six inches, and lay it over the back of the picture and frame, pressing it down on the latter; then set it away to dry. This will make a neat smooth back which will exclude moth and dust from the portrait.

PASSEPARTOUT MOUNTING.

The following method will be found useful, especially if you want to exhibit a crayon without the expense of framing it. Lay on the mounting board a piece of heavy manilla paper somewhat larger than the picture, then put the crayon on this face up, next the passepartout, and last the clean glass. Mark the size of this on the paper, and then, having removed the glass, crayon and passepartout, cut the paper enough larger than the marks to allow it to come up one inch all around over the edges of the glass; next dampen the paper, and apply the starch paste to its edges about six inches all around, then lay the crayon, passepartout and glass back where they were on the paper, and bring the latter up, lapping it over the face of the glass; cut the corners out so as to bring them over properly; rub the edges down thoroughly on the glass, and with a ruler and knife trim off the paper, allowing one-quarter of an inch margin; then set away to dry. This will put the crayon in good condition to be exhibited, and will thoroughly protect it.

Transparent Liquid Water Colors for Coloring Photographs.

TRANSPARENT LIQUID WATER COLORS FOR COLORING PHOTOGRAPHS

_Materials Required in Their Use._

A good photograph, an engraving or photogravure mounted on
card-board
Camel's hair brushes, Nos. 3 and 5,
Sheet of blotting-paper,
Small sponge,
Clean white cloth,
Cake of Chinese white, Winsor and Newton's water color,
A divided slant or nest of small dishes for holding the color when
mixed,
Box transparent liquid water colors,
Stick of India ink,
Box pulverized pumice stone,
Two tumblers for water.

It has passed into a proverb that he is a bad workman who complains of his tools. It is certain that good ones simplify work and give better results. One of the most important things for successful art-work is to have at hand the proper materials and good instruments. In their selection do not follow a penny wise and pound foolish policy, but get the best you can; and these you will often find not too good.

THEORY OF COLOR.

The principles connected with coloring should be understood if one desires to produce the most pleasing and harmonious effects in painting. The three colors, red, yellow, and blue, with the white of the paper, are equal in theory to all the requirements of art in its true relation to color. Red, yellow and blue are called primary colors; that is, we cannot produce these colors from the combination of any others. Orange, purple and green are called secondary colors, and are produced by the combination of the primary colors. By the mixture of red and yellow we obtain orange, from red and blue, purple, from yellow and blue, green. The tertiary colors--broken green, gray and brown--are produced by the mixture of the secondary colors. From orange and purple we obtain brown, from orange and green, broken green, and from purple and green, gray. The three primary colors must always be present in a picture to produce harmony. Colors are divided into what are called warm and cold colors, the yellow and red being termed warm, and the blue cold. Yellow and red produce light and warmth, and it is impossible to produce coolness without the use of blue. In painting we use the three terms, light, shade and color, because they best express the qualities of color. Light is expressed by yellow, shade by blue, and color by red. While red is particularly designated as color, we must not forget the claims of yellow and blue, as they, together with red, complete the primary scale of colors. It is by placing these different colors in juxtaposition that we produce the proper qualities existing in each of the other colors. It is impossible to produce the effect of warmth by red and yellow unless we use the blue in connection with them. It is this filling up, or completing the primary scale of colors, that gives the term complementary, so often employed in speaking of colors. Thus red is said to be complementary to green, as green contains the other two colors of the primary scale--blue and yellow. Blue is complementary to orange, as orange contains red and yellow. Yellow is complementary to purple, as purple contains blue and red. The principle of using the complementary color is of the utmost importance in painting, or the use of color by any method, and it is on this principle that the harmony of color is based. When a painting is produced that has the colors red, yellow and blue properly balanced, a pleasing and harmonious effect is attained; but if these colors are not used in their proper relations, there is a discord, and the work is not satisfactory. These rules must be borne in mind by every student in coloring, whether he uses oil or water colors. One of the most common errors of amateurs is to overlook the red in landscape. Thus trees are too green, and the grass is insufferably green: the complementary color, red, has been left out.

By the following experiment you may prove that when you see one color the eye is in a perfect condition to see its complementary color. On a piece of white paper, three inches wide and five inches long, draw with a lead pencil an oblong, half an inch from the top, one inch wide, and two and one-half inches long from right to left, and a similar oblong one-half an inch below the one already drawn. Then draw a six pointed star (or any other not too large figure you desire) in the centre of the upper oblong, and paint it with vermilion water color. Now look intently at the painted star for thirty seconds, and then look at the plain oblong below, and you will observe that the latter will gradually assume a very beautiful shade of green, the exact complementary color of the vermilion, with the figure in white upon it--unless you should happen to be color blind. If that is the case, the experiment will demonstrate that fact.

COLORS.

Transparent water colors are put up in boxes containing nine colors, and as you reduce them in the proportion of one part of color to eight of water, a single box will last a long time. They can be bought of almost any dealer in artist's materials, and are designated as Florentine, Egyptian, Grecian, and by other names. Care should be used in procuring those which are pure and fresh. The colors are yellow, blue, rose, violet, magenta, flesh, brown, gold and black. The labels on the bottles give directions for mixing.

YELLOW.

Yellow is one of the primary colors and one of the most useful, as it enters into the coloring of almost every picture. Transparent yellow is very brilliant, and can be used with any other color. Yellow and red make orange, yellow and blue make bright green, yellow and black a dull green. In landscapes, yellow is used in the middle distance with blue and rose and magenta. In the foreground it is used with blue and black for green, and is especially adapted for brilliant touches of foliage, grasses, and light places in the ground. In portraits a very little can be used in the reflected lights on the faces, and, when mixed with brown, for light shades of hair and eyebrows; for light dresses, used weak, it makes a very nice cream color. It can also be used very weak for laces, the strong lights being afterwards touched up with Chinese white, but not when the picture is to be mounted on glass. This color will ordinarily work nicely and give good results wherever its use seems appropriate, but care must always be exercised not to use it too strong.

BLUE.

This is another of the primary colors and a very essential one, it being the nearest allied to shade, and although not shade itself, no shadows can be produced without it. We will find it, therefore, mingling with all the shades of nature between the lights and shadows. It would be in vain for us to introduce all our warm colors, if the cool tints that are produced by blue are wanting; for, without that, the work will appear heavy, as it is the contrast between blue and the warm colors that produces a balance of color. Blue mixed with yellow makes a very brilliant green, with gold a duller green, with magenta a purple. In landscapes it is used in skies and the middle distances, but not in the foreground, unless mixed with yellow. Blue can be mixed with rose or magenta for sunset skies. When the horizon is represented a streak of blue or rose, or of blue and magenta, will give a very pleasing effect. In portraits if you have a light background, a thin wash of blue can be used over it. The same can also be used for blue eyes and for dresses when they are light in the picture, also in all the half-shadows of the dresses or draperies without regard to what their other color may be.

ROSE.

This is the nearest approach to red that we have in these colors, and as it fills out the scale it is an essential one. It is, in fact, a very delicate shade of rose. For landscape it is used only in the skies, and then only a little near the horizon for sunset effects. For portraits it is used in the drapery for making a very light shade of pink, and it can be used generally when you want to make a very delicate effect. The photographic print on which it is used should not be too dark.

VIOLET.

This is a very strong and brilliant color, and therefore needs more than usual care in handling. In landscapes it is only used in certain skies near the horizon, and but very seldom even then. It is more especially designed for portraits, and there particularly in drapery to make very decided effects of strong color; but it can only be used when the dress or draperies are dark in the photograph.

MAGENTA.

This also is a powerful color and must be used carefully. It is not adapted to landscapes, but in portraits is used for dresses and accessories. If the photograph requires a dark dress this color will make it a beautiful shade.

FLESH.

This color can be used a very little in the skies of landscapes when there is a sunset effect to be represented. In portraits it is used to color the faces and hands. After it is dry, retouch the cheeks and lips with the same color.

BROWN.

This color is used in all the shadows. In landscapes, in some instances, it serves for use in the middle distance and foreground; the light places should be retouched with yellow or gold. It is also used for tree trunks, fences, and the like. In portraits it serves to color the hair and eyes, and appears in the dark shadows of the drapery and furniture. If the background is dark, a nice effect is produced by tinting it a little with this color.

BLACK.

In transparent color this has more the effect of a dark gray than a brilliant black, such as is produced with body colors. When you want a very dark black, it is better to use a little India ink with it. It is used in the skies of landscapes when you wish a gray effect, or to subdue a too strong blue color or red, and in foregrounds for rocks. In connection with yellow it will make a sombre green for trees, mountains, etc. In portraits it is used for the hair and eyes, in the shadows around the mouth, and in drapery in connection with the other colors.

GOLD.

This is a combination of yellow and red, and in general can be used wherever either of these colors would answer. In landscapes a little can be used in the skies, the middle distances, and lights on the ground in the foreground. In portraits it is used to color the drapery and jewelry.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR USING LIQUID WATER COLORS.