Chapter XIV: Some Great Churches and Cathedrals (1)

EARLY BASILICA CHURCH ARCHITECTURE.

The basilicas of Pagan Rome were long rectangular buildings, divided along their whole length sometimes by two, not seldom by four, lines of columns, and serving as halls or courts of justice. The Christians of the fourth and fifth centuries often obtained from favouring emperors leave to turn these basilicas into churches. It was thought that this gave a pattern to early churches. The roof was gradually raised proportionately and the arms thrown out wider to accommodate an increased congregation, thereby assuming a cruciform outline. St. Peter's at Rome, before Michael Angelo's design, was a basilica, also St. Paul's without the walls, and the church of Maria Maggiore: these and the church of St. Apollinaris at Ravenna were the grandest of this class of churches. Justinian, the Emperor, reared many basilicas, and his masterpiece was St. Sophia's church at Constantinople, which was imitated in the church of St. Vitalis at Ravenna. The period is uncertain when the central dome or cupola came to be added. In the eleventh century a new era of church-building began, called the Romanesque, and lasted about two centuries in Italy and Norman England. Then came the Gothic, though the Goths had nothing to do with the invention: the pointed arch is the characteristic, and it was first noticed in Sicily, and then spread rapidly in Germany, Northern France, and England. In Italy the Renaissance was equally making its way, with its rich marbles, mosaics, and gold and silver decorations.

EARLY CHRISTIAN ARCHITECTURE.

Lord Lindsay, in his "Christian Art," says that the buildings required for the religious ceremonies of the Church in the fourth century were of three descriptions: (1) baptisteries for the performance of the initiatory rite of Christianity; (2) churches for the united worship of the initiated and the celebration of the mystery of the Lord's Supper; (3) sepulchral chapels for the commemorative prayers offered up for the welfare of the departed who sleep in Christ. For the first of these, the public baths; for the second, the basilicas or courts of justice; for the third, the subterranean cells of the Catacombs, presented ready models. The basilicas were models of everything that could be desired. Their plan was an oblong area, divided by pillars into a nave and two aisles, the nave being sometimes open to the sky, sometimes roofed in, the aisles always so protected, the whole bounded by a transverse aisle or transept, raised by several steps and terminating at the extremity opposite the door of the building in a semicircular niche or tribune where the judge sat. Nothing could be easier than to accommodate an edifice like this to the demands of Christian worship. Two basilicas, the Laterana and Vaticana at Rome, were actually converted by Constantine into churches. The basilica retained its form unchanged for ages.

THE COPTIC CHURCH.

The name of Coptic Church is given to the Church among the descendants of the ancient Egyptians, so called from Coptos, a city in Upper Egypt. This Church traces its origin to St. Mark, and had Origen, St. Antony, St. Athanasius, St. Cyril, and others as its early champions. The Coptic Church was almost identified with other Churches up to the council of Chalcedon in 451, from which date it was viewed as an unorthodox Church. One Timothy the Cat was the leader of the heretics, and he got this name from visiting the cells of the monks by night, and proclaiming himself an angel from heaven, and charging them to forsake the people whom he viewed as heretics, but whom we would call orthodox. The Timotheans murdered the arch-priest of the opposite party. Two rival sets of patriarchs headed these factions. The Copt who enters his church takes off his shoes, walks up to the curtain, kisses the hem, and prostrates himself before the sanctuary. Standing during the service is usual; hence all are supplied with crutches of a height to enable the worshippers to lean upon them. There are no organs, but musical accompaniments are made by cymbals, triangles, and small brass bells struck with a little rod. There are no images permitted, but paintings adorn the walls on every side, the principal of which is one of Christ blessing His Church.

SPIRES AND TOWERS OF CATHEDRALS AND CHURCHES.

The spire has for centuries been a frequent ornament of churches in all countries, though in England there were few spires in the earliest churches. The highest spires have been as follows: Old St. Paul's, 527 feet; Cologne, 510 feet; Strasburg, 500 feet; Vienna, 441 feet; St. Peter's dome, 434 feet; Amiens, 422 feet; Antwerp, 406 feet; Salisbury, 404 feet; Florence, 387 feet; Freiburg, 385 feet; Milan, 355 feet; Chartres, 353 feet; Segovia, 330 feet; St. Michael's, Coventry, 320 feet; Norwich, 309 feet; Louth, 294 feet; Chichester, 271 feet; Glasgow, 225 feet; St. Patrick's, Dublin, 223 feet. The towers of churches were also rare until the eleventh century. Owing to a faulty foundation or subsidence, some towers lean considerably out of the perpendicular, as St. Marian at Este, Pisa, and Bologna, Vienna, Delft, Saragossa, Weston (Lincolnshire), The Temple (Bristol), Wynunbury (Cheshire), and Surfleet. Galileo took advantage of the leaning tower at Pisa to make experiments on falling bodies. The following is the height of the highest towers: Bruges, 442 feet; Mechlin, 348 feet; Utrecht, 321 feet; Tournay, 320 feet; Ludlow, 294 feet; Grantham, 274 feet; Boston, 268 feet; Lincoln, 262 feet; Canterbury, 229 feet; Gloucester and Westminster, 225 feet; Durham, 216 feet; York, 198 feet.

INTERNAL DIMENSIONS OF CATHEDRALS.

The length, width at transept, and height in feet of the largest cathedrals are said to be: St. Peter's, Rome, 613, 450, 152; Old St. Paul's, 590, 300, 102; Modern St. Paul's, 460, 240, 88; Canterbury, 514, 130, 80; Winchester, 545, 209, 78; St. Albans, 543, 175, 66; Westminster, 505, 190, 103; Ely, 517, 185, 72; York, 486, 222, 101; Durham, 473, 170, 70; Lincoln, 468, 220, 82; Salisbury, 450, 206, 84; Florence, 458, 334, 153; Saltzburg, 466; Cologne, 445, 250, 161; Milan, 443, 287, 153; Granada, 425, 249; Amiens, 442, 194, 140; Paris, 432, 186; Chartres, 418, 200, 114; Rouen, 415, 176, 89; Valladolid, 414, 204; Seville, 398, 291, 132; Ratisbon, 384, 128, 118; Constantinople, 360; Palermo, 346, 138, 74; Drontheim, 334, 166; Upsala, 330, 140, 105; Vienna, 337, 115, 92; St. Patrick's, Dublin, 300, 157, 58; Glasgow, 282; Venice, 205, 164.

THE GOTHIC CATHEDRALS.

The birthplace of true Gothic architecture was north of the Alps--it would seem on the Rhine. The northern climate may have had something to do with its rise and development. Its high roof would cast off more easily the heavy snows; the numerous windows would welcome the flooding light; and to restore the solemnity and subdue the glare painted glass was resorted to. The Gothic cathedral, says Milman, was the consummation, the completion, of mediæval, of hierarchical, Christianity. The church might seem to expand and lay itself out in long and narrow avenues with the most gracefully converging perspective, in order that the worshipper might contemplate with deeper awe the more remote central ceremonial. The enormous height more than compensated for the contracted breadth. Nothing could be more finely arranged for the impressive services; and the processional services became more frequent, more imposing. The music, instead of being beaten down by low, broad arches, or lost within the heavier aisles, soared freely to the lofty roof, pervaded the whole building, was infinitely multiplied as it died and rose again to the fretted roof. Even the incense, curling more freely up to the immeasurable height, might give the notion of clouds of adoration finding their way to heaven. The Gothic cathedral remains an imperishable monument of hierarchical wealth, power, devotion. It has been described as a vast book in stone--a book which taught by symbolic language, partly plain and obvious to the simplest man, partly shrouded in not less attractive mystery. Even its height, its vastness, might appear to suggest the inconceivable, the incomprehensible, the infinite, the incalculable grandeur and majesty of the Divine works. The mind felt humble under its shadow, as before an awful presence.

THE ALTAR IN CHURCHES.

Christian churches had an altar, which, to distinguish it from the old altars of the Jewish and Pagan temples, on which sacrifices of blood were offered, was only a table, shaped in memory of the Last Supper. Altars of stone began to be used in the fourth century, and were directed by several councils to be used, as these were symbolical of Christ, the Rock. About the thirteenth century, the altar began to be shaped like a tomb. At first there was only one altar allowed in one church, to signify the unity of the Church; but at later dates more than one were introduced for convenience. The altar at first stood in the centre of the church, but in later times stood at the east end of the building. In the tenth century the cross began to be put on the altar, but neither cross nor candles were put permanently there till the fourteenth century. The great distinction in England after the Reformation was the substitution of a plain movable wooden table for the celebration of the Communion instead of the fixed altar.

INCENSE AND HOLY WATER IN CHURCHES.

Incense was a mode of symbolising the prayers offered to God. Some trace its origin to the fifth, and others no higher than the eighth or ninth, century. In the Catacombs it may have been useful to dispel damp and noisome smells. It was a very frequent accompaniment of Divine service in all Christian churches before the Reformation. Holy water was suggested as a mode of exorcising devils, and Pope Alexander I. directed it to be used in churches, and it was mixed with salt. A stone basin, called a holy-water stock, was kept at the entrance of churches, with a brush for scattering it.

ST. PETER'S AT ROME.

The great attraction of Christendom for centuries was the church of St. Peter's at Rome, built on the site of the original church in which it was said the Apostle Peter officiated. In 306 Constantine founded a basilica on the same spot. In 1450, the structure being ruinous, Pope Nicholas V. commenced the present extensive building, but it was long before it advanced. When Michael Angelo completed the design for a Papal tomb, it gave a stimulus to this undertaking, and Julius II. engaged Bramante to complete a design, and that was proceeded with. After two or three successors had been engaged, one of them being Raphael, Michael Angelo was appointed to complete the works, and he acted as chief designer till 1563, when he died at the age of eighty-nine. The main design was not completed till 1590. The number of architects has thus marred the unity of the building, and each having added or altered something, alterations still went on till 1780, so that nearly three and a half centuries passed in maturing it. It covers about six acres, and is about 100 feet longer than St. Paul's, London. The interior is of magnificent and harmonious proportions. The height of the nave is 152 feet, and 88 feet wide; the side aisles are 34 feet wide. The diameter of the interior of the cupola is 139 feet. The exterior height to the top of the cross is 448 feet. The nave is richly decorated with gilding and stucco ornaments, and colossal statues fill the lower niches. The dome is supported by four massive piers, each with two recesses. Above the lower recesses are four balconies, in which are preserved the relics of saints. One is the _sudarium_ or handkerchief of Veronica, containing a likeness of the Saviour. There is also a portion of the true cross discovered by St. Helena. The head of St. Andrew is also here. The cupola above the dome is divided into sixteen compartments, ornamented with gilded stuccoes and mosaics. The design, altitude, and decorations of the cupola are described as glorious, and the mind dilates with wonder and rapture as the details are examined. The Baldacchino or grand canopy over the high altar is under the centre of the dome, and is 95 feet high, supported by four spiral columns. The high altar is immediately over the relics of St. Peter. This altar is only used on grand occasions, and the Pope alone can celebrate Mass there, or a cardinal specially authorised by a Papal brief. On the right side of the nave is a bronze statue of St. Peter on a marble chair, and with the foot extended. On entering the basilica devotees kiss the toe of this foot, and press their foreheads against it. The figure is rude and of uncertain origin. The tribune, which is behind and east of the high altar, is decorated with the designs of Michael Angelo, and contains the chair of St. Peter, in which he is said to have once officiated, and which is kept in a closet high in the wall safely locked with three keys, and exhibited only on rare occasions. In one chapel the Pieta of Michael Angelo, a marble group, and a masterpiece of his, is placed. In another chapel there is a column in white marble, said to have been brought from the Temple at Jerusalem, and the one against which the Saviour leaned when He disputed with the doctors. The illumination of St. Peter's on Easter Sunday, when all the details are lit up with lamps, is like a blaze of fireworks. When lit up, there are 6,800 lamps burning.

THE SIXTINE CHAPEL AT ROME.

The Sixtine Chapel at Rome was built in 1473, under Pope Sixtus IV. The upper walls and roof are adorned with frescoes illustrating scenes in the Old and New Testaments. The architectural and pictured details are all in unison. Michael Angelo's genius is here transcendent. And Raphael was an admirer of the designs. The grand fresco of the Last Judgment by Michael Angelo is at one end of the building. To encourage the artist in this great work, the Pope, attended by ten cardinals, often went to visit him, and this was deemed at the time an unparalleled honour to Art. The Pope, it is said, was anxious to have this fresco painted in oils, but the artist declined peremptorily, saying that oil-painting was fit only for women and idlers who had plenty of time to throw away. The nudity of the figures in this work was much discussed at the time, and the Pope at last employed one Daniele da Volterra to cover some of them with drapery, and he was nicknamed the "Breeches-maker"; at a later date further draperies were added, which spoiled the picture considerably. The colours are now dim with age and the smoke of candles and incense.

THE CATHEDRAL OF GENOA.

About 1310 the cathedral of San Lorenzo was erected at Genoa, and the bas-relief over the principal entrance and a large fresco on the ceiling represent St. Laurence's martyrdom. The roof and pillars are of alternate white and black marble. The richest portion of the church is the chapel of St. John the Baptist, which no female is permitted to enter, except on one day of the year--an exclusion imposed by Pope Innocent VIII., in recollection of the daughter of Herodias. The relics of the saint are said to be contained in an iron-bound chest which is seen through the apertures of the marble covering. On the day of his nativity they are carried in procession. In the treasury of the cathedral is preserved the _sacro catino_, long supposed to be composed of a single piece of emerald, and also variously asserted by some to be a gift from the Queen of Sheba to Solomon; by others to be the dish which held the paschal lamb at the Last Supper; by others the vessel in which Joseph of Arimathæa received the blood flowing from the side of the Saviour. It was part of the spoils taken at Cæsarea in 1101. The Crusaders and their allies divided the booty, and the Genoese selected this precious vessel as their portion. It is exposed to the veneration of the faithful three times a year. No stranger is allowed to touch it under a heavy penalty. Yet some daringly curious have attempted to discover the metal or mineral. Some travellers affect to have discovered that it is glass, and this is the latest belief. The dish is hexagonal, the colour is beautiful, and the transparency perfect.

THE CATHEDRAL OF TURIN.

A church at Turin dedicated to St. John the Baptist was first erected in 602, but the present cathedral was begun in 1498, and the decorations are comparatively modern. The sacristy contains magnificent crosses, vases, and reliquaries, the chief object, however, being a large statue of the Virgin, crowned and standing under a silver-gilt canopy. Behind the cathedral is the Chapel del Sudario, which contains many unique architectural effects; the centre of a star-decorated pavement is the altar, on which is placed the shrine, brilliant with gold, silver, and precious stones. The _santo sudario_, according to the legend, is one of the folds of the shroud in which our Lord was wrapped by Joseph of Arimathæa, and on which an impression was left of His body, other folds being preserved at Rome, Besançon, and Cadouin. The one at Turin was brought from Cyprus in 1452 by a descendant of a Crusader. This shrine has been invoked by kings, and is worshipped with great reverence. In another church at Turin, called Corpus Domini, which is highly decorated, there is an inscription to commemorate the miraculous recovery of a piece of sacramental plate, containing the consecrated wafer. During a pillage a soldier stole it, and hid it in one of the panniers which an ass was carrying, but the ass refused to pass the church door. The sacred pyx fell to the ground, and the wafer, rising into the air, remained suspended there, encircled with rays of light, until the bishop and his clergy came out to receive it. This miracle happened in 1453, and three paintings on the vault of the nave represent it.

THE CATHEDRAL OF MILAN.

At Milan the cathedral has been rebuilt thrice, the present being begun in 1387. The central tower and spire are of great beauty. A statue of the Madonna crowns the spire, and it is 355 feet high. The interior is magnificent, and said to be the grandest in the world, and bears a long examination. The height of the pillars of the nave is 80 feet. The roof is painted to represent an elaborate fretwork. The painted glass is abundant and of extraordinary brilliancy. Suspended from the vaulting of the octagon over the altar is a reliquary, said to contain one of the nails of the cross, which once a year is exhibited on the altar. The circuit wall of the choir towards the aisles is covered with bas-reliefs representing the history of the Virgin. There is an altar with the celebrated crucifix which was carried about the city before St. Carlo during the plague at Milan. On the high altar is a magnificent tabernacle of gilt bronze with figures of the Saviour and the Twelve Apostles. The subterranean chapel of San Carlo is dedicated to that saint, who was a great sanitary reformer and excited the enmity of the monks, one of whom fired at him as he was kneeling at the altar during the anthem. The bullet struck him on the back, but fell harmless to the ground, and this was deemed an interposition of Providence. The saint continued in prayer undisturbed. He died in 1584, and his body is deposited in a gorgeous shrine of silver, and is seen through panes of rock crystal arrayed in full pontificals. The flesh has crumbled away, notwithstanding the efforts of the embalmers. St. Ambrose, who was born in 340, was chosen archbishop of Milan in 375.

THE CATHEDRAL OF FLORENCE.

The Florentines, in 1294, were determined to surpass their contemporaries in the grandeur of their cathedral, which is said to have given the idea of St. Peter's at Rome. The cupola is the largest dome in the world, though the summit of St. Peter's is higher. The interior is rather dark, owing to the smallness of the windows and the richness of the stained glass. The whole design is characterised by grandeur and simplicity, and the pavement in variegated marbles enhances the general effect. The choir and the high altar are placed beneath the dome. Behind the altar is a Pieta or group of the Virgin at the entombment, designed by Michael Angelo. The campanile or bell-tower is 275 feet high, and decorated with rich tablets from the designs of Giotto. The cost of the tower was said to be enormous. Six fine bells are hung at the top. The baptistery has as its chief glory the bronze doors executed by Ghiberti and Andrea Pisano, and which Michael Angelo said were worthy to be the gates of Paradise. They illustrate the chief events in the life of our Lord, as well as scenes in the Old Testament history. The perspective of these sculptures is in modern times viewed as defective, and too much detail is introduced; but the borderings are exquisite. The cupola is covered with mosaics, and the floor is a mosaic of black and white marble. In Florence there is also a chapel of the Annunziata, with altar and silver-work decorations and frescoes. The miraculous fresco of the Annunciation is believed to have been painted by angels, and is exhibited only on great occasions. A celebrated Madonna was here painted by Andrea del Sarto, which he gave for a sack of wheat, and hence called "Madonna del Sacco."

THE CATHEDRAL OF PISA.

The first period of Christian architecture was the Roman basilica, the second the Byzantine, and the third the Lombard and Norman style, which was followed by the Gothic. The most splendid specimen of the Lombard style is the cathedral of Pisa. It was the oblation of the richest and most powerful city in Italy at the height of her prosperity, her industry, her commerce, her fame; it was made in the pride of her wealth, in a passion of gratitude for a victory, and for rich plunder taken from the Mohammedans in the harbour of Palermo. The cathedral makes one of the four buildings--the dome, the baptistery, the leaning tower, the Campo Santo--which in their sad grandeur in the deserted city surpass all other groups of buildings in Europe. The cathedral, standing alone, would command the highest admiration. The west front displays a profusion of tiers of arches above arches, arranged with finer proportion, richness, and upward decreasing order than elsewhere. But its sublimity is within. Its plan, the Latin cross, in the most perfect proportion, gives an impressive unity to its central nave, with its double aisles, its aisled transepts, and its receding apse. Its loftiness is more commanding than any building of its class in Italy. The Corinthian pillars along the nave are of admirable height and proportion. The first stone of the cathedral was laid in 1067, and the whole was completed in 1118. The extraordinary campanile or bell-tower, now called the leaning tower, was begun in 1174, and the foundation giving way accounts for its falling from the perpendicular. The tower is cylindrical, is 53 feet in diameter, and is 179 feet high. On the summit of the tower are seven bells, which are sonorous and harmonious. The baptistery adjoining has a dome 99 feet in diameter. On the exterior of the eastern doorway are sculptures representing the martyrdom of John the Baptist. In the centre of the building is the font, about 14 feet in diameter. The great ornament of this building is the _pergamo_ or pulpit, by Nicolo Pisano, of hexagonal form, with bas-reliefs of the events in Christ's life. The Campo Santo is a cemetery containing a great collection of sepulchral monuments and a museum of the dead. Upwards of three hundred statues and sculptures are here, and six hundred tombs of families. The frescoes on the walls include pictures of a great variety of sacred subjects from the Old and New Testaments, and some of these are by superior artists.

CHAPEL OF SAN GENNARO AT NAPLES.

Near the basilica of _Santa Restituta_, which is the cathedral at Naples, is a chapel of San Gennaro, richly decorated. It is chiefly remarkable for the blood of St. Januarius, which is exhibited in two phials resting in a tabernacle behind the high altar. The blood of the saint liquefies three times a year. The saint was exposed to lions in the amphitheatre about 305, when the beasts prostrated themselves before him and grew tame. He was afterwards decapitated and his body deposited at Pozzuoli, and then removed to this church. The blood was said to have been first collected by a woman present at the martyrdom. In 1696 Lord Perth, the chancellor of Scotland, being on his travels, described the whole exhibition of the relics in his time. He said the blood looked like a piece of pitch clotted and hard in the glass, and when brought near to the head it liquefied; and "it was an admirable thing to see blood shed upwards of thirteen hundred years ago liquefy at this approach to the head. The Roman lady who had gathered it from off the ground with a sponge had, in squeezing of it into the glass, let a bit of straw fall in too, which one sees in the blood to this very day."

THE CATHEDRAL OF SANTIAGO COMPOSTELLA.

The cathedral of Santiago (which is the Spanish name for St. James the Elder) is also called Compostella, because a star is said to have pointed out where that saint's body was concealed, being in a wood near the present city. This shrine has been the favourite resort of pilgrims from all parts of Spain, France, and England. The cathedral was founded in 1078, and is on the same plan and design as that of Toulouse. The statue of St. James has figures of kings kneeling before it. Here there is a hospital for pilgrims built in four quadrangles, and so contrived that the patients can all see the sacrifice of the Mass. The interior of the cathedral is purposely kept somewhat dark to increase the effect of the illuminations of the high altar, thus rendering the image of the apostle the one prominent feature. The dark side aisles, which look almost like corridors, are filled with confessional boxes dedicated to different saints, while on those destined for foreign pilgrims are inscribed the languages which the priest understands. The image of St. James in the Capilla Mayor, is Gothic, of stone painted and gilt, and so covered with ornamentation that the head alone is visible. The image is seated, holding a book in the left hand and blessing with the right. It is placed in a fine silver shrine. Mass can only be said before this image by bishops or canons of a certain dignity, of whom seven attend on grand occasions. The aureola of the saint's head is composed of rubies and emeralds. The western portico of this church is considered the most glorious achievement of Christian art, and the Last Judgment is represented with the Saviour as the chief figure, being twice the size of life. The figures and architecture are alike exquisite. The ceremonial by pilgrims to this shrine begins with the ascent of some steps behind the image, and then the stranger places his hands on the shoulders and kisses the hood. This kiss is the chief object and end of the pilgrimage, without which all is ineffectual. He next proceeds to one of the confessors, by whom he is absolved. He then communicates and receives his certificate or compostella. This last is a printed document signed by the canon, and certifies that he has complied with all the devotional ceremonies necessary to constitute a real pilgrim. This compostella is kept along with the family title deeds as a voucher of the journey, and it is often made the condition of succession to landed estates. The ceremonies of the offertory on the great festival day, July 25th, are various and full of interest.

THE SPANISH CATHEDRAL OF LEON.

The cathedral of Santa Maria at Leon is one of the oldest in Spain, the present one being built about 1073. Its lightness of construction is proverbial. The grand western entrance is said to be the best of its kind in Spain. There are about fifty large statues and many small sculptures of admirable finish. On each side of the altar are buried two saints, Froylar and Alvito. The lofty windows are painted with apostles, saints, virgins, kings, and bishops; the reds and greens are among the finest specimens of the art, being executed by Flemish artists. In one of the chapels, called the Chapel of the Dice, is the miraculous image of the Virgin and Child, the chapel being so called because a gambler once, after being unlucky, threw his dice at it, and hit the infant's nose, which immediately bled. The chapel of St. Andrew, in the same cathedral, has doorways and doors richly and delicately carved in the finest style. The frescoes illustrate scenes in the life of the Saviour, and the drawing and colouring are the best specimens of early Spanish painting. In Leon there is also a church of St. Isidore, which contains the body of that saint, who worked miracles after his death. Though he was known only as a learned man in his lifetime, he is said to have become the tutelar saint of Leon after his death, and in this capacity to have fought at the battle of Baeza armed with a sword and cross. He was on that occasion mounted on horseback and arrayed in his pontificals. The high altar shares with Lugo the rare privilege of having the Host, the incarnate Deity, always visible; and the effect at night, when all is lighted up, with figures of angels kneeling at the side, is described as striking.

THE CATHEDRAL OF SEVILLE.

The cathedral of Seville is one of the largest and finest in Spain; its characteristic is solemnity, as elegance is the feature of Leon, strength of Santiago, and wealth of Toledo. The cathedral of Seville was begun in 1401, and its ample revenues and grand decorations long fostered and employed the artistic genius of Andalusia, and the interior, with its five mighty aisles and ample choir, remain still unrivalled. The see being vacant in 1401, the chapter determined to rebuild the fabric. "Let us build," said these magnificent ecclesiastics, "a church that shall cause us to be taken for madmen by them who shall come after us, so that at all events it shall have no equal." The name of the architect, though leaving his mark in this impressive way, perished with his original plans in a fire in 1734. The work went on for more than a century and a half, displaying in its many incongruous parts the successive changes of architectural style. To provide funds for so vast an undertaking, the prebendaries and canons gave up the greater part of their incomes--an instance of devotion not uncommon in those earnest times. The edifice inside and outside is a museum of fine arts. There are ninety-three windows, and the painted ones are among the finest in Spain. During Easter week the exquisite bronze candlestick, twenty-five feet high, when the _Miserere_ is sung, is lighted with thirteen candles: twelve are put out one after another, indicating that the Apostles deserted Christ; one alone of white wax remains burning, being a symbol of the Virgin true to the last. A great picture of the descent from the cross in the principal vestry was considered, before the colours somewhat faded, so lifelike, that Pacheco was afraid to remain after dusk alone, and here Murillo used to stand watching, as he said, till those holy men should have finished taking down the Saviour, and before this picture he desired to be buried. Underneath this picture the relics of the church are kept. In the Capilla Real, over the high altar, is an image of the Virgin of life size, like a movable lay figure, having hair of spun gold and shoes ornamented with the lilies of France, and seated on a silver throne. The cathedral is always thronged, not only by the devout, but by idlers and beggars.

THE CATHEDRAL OF TOLEDO.

The cathedral of Toledo is said to have been erected by the Virgin herself while she was alive, and she is said to have often come down from heaven to it, accompanied by St. Peter, St. Paul, and St. James. The present cathedral was built in 1226. It excels in fine, rich furniture, picturesque effect, and artistic objects of every kind. The one tower which is finished is 325 feet high. The painted windows are superb, and at dusk light up and shine like rubies and emeralds. The choir is a museum of sculpture. The 116 reliquaries are of gold, silver, ivory, and rock crystal. The church plate rivals that of Loretto in quantity. The Queen of the Cathedral is the image of the Virgin carved of black wood. It was saved in 711 from the infidels by an Englishman, who hid it in a vault. It is seated on a silver throne under a silver-gilt canopy, supported by pillars. The superb crown and bracelets of precious stones, made in the sixteenth century, were stolen in 1865. In a wardrobe near the Custodia, the famous manto of the Virgin is kept, which was embroidered with pearls in 1615. There are 257 pearls used, 300 ozs. of gold thread, 160 ozs. of small pieces of enamelled gold, and 8 ozs. of emeralds and precious stones. Her rings, necklaces, and trinkets are countless.

THE CATHEDRAL OF CORDOVA.

The cathedral of Cordova occupies the site of a basilica which had been erected on a Roman temple. About 780 Abderrahman I. determined to build a temple which would compete with the finest in the East, and in 786 the building was begun. At first there were eleven naves, and eight more were added about 988, so that there are no less than nineteen in all. This structure is the finest type in Europe of a true temple of Islam. The forest of columns supporting the low roof are not uniform, nor are they of the same diameter. Some are of jasper, porphyry, verde-antique, and other choice marbles. In sanctity this ranked as the third of mosques, second only to Mecca and equal to Al Aska of Jerusalem. Some of the upper arches of the pillars are beautifully interlaced like ribands. Some of the decorations were introduced after it had been converted into a Christian temple in 1238. The choir was added in 1523. The cinquecento ornaments and roof are picked out in white and gold. The pulpits are splendid, and the fine brass balustrades very effective.

THE CATHEDRAL OF AMALFI.

The cathedral of Amalfi is dedicated to St. Andrew. The bronze doors were made about 1000, and the nave has its roof richly carved and gilded. Below is the crypt, containing the body of St. Andrew, which was brought from Constantinople with other relics about 1200. This circumstance has made Amalfi a place of pilgrimage. The head of the apostle was enclosed in a silver bust and removed to Rome, where it is still preserved among the relics in St. Peter's. There is a handsome bell-tower of four storeys at this cathedral.

THE MISERERE AT VALENCIA.

In the chapel of the Colegia de Corpus, which is a museum of Ribaltas, a religious service of great interest is made one of the wonders. The chapel is purposely kept dark by the small windows, which allow only a dim, religious light. On a Friday morning the _Miserere_ is a service which interests every stranger. Ladies must go in black, with a manto or some thick mantilla. At ten a.m. the blinds of all the windows are drawn and the doors shut, and a gloom is thrown over the building, the whole space above the high altar being covered with a purple pall, as if in mourning. The silent choristers alone stand near it. A priest is seen to approach and prostrate himself; then all kneel, and the solemn chant begins. At the first verse the picture above the altar descends noiselessly and almost imperceptibly, and the vacancy is filled with a lilac veil with yellow stripes. As the chant proceeds this is withdrawn, and discloses one of a faint grey, which is next removed, then another of deep black, and then after a pause another veil. The imagination of the audience is worked upon, and all are hushed with breathless curiosity while the penitential psalm is sung. At last the veil of the Temple appears to be rent asunder, and the Saviour on the cross appears resplendent, while silvery voices are heard in the distance, and the pall again closes over this great central figure. After the service and later in the day the public are allowed for a small fee to ascend a ladder and see behind the machinery of ropes and contrivances for moving the various scenes which make up the impressive representation.

THE CATHEDRAL OF OVIEDO.

The cathedral of Oviedo was built on the ruins of a previous church in 1388. The western façade has a noble balustraded portico, rich in ornamentation. The most interesting piece of antiquity here is the Camera Santa or chapel of San Miguel, the second oldest Christian building after the Moorish invasion, being built in 802, as a receptacle for sacred relics. This holy of holies is lit by magnificent silver lamps, and the devout kneel before a railing while the relics are exhibited every morning. These relics are enclosed in superb silver workmanship of various designs. In a small case is kept the _santo sudario_ or shroud of our Saviour, which thrice a year and each Good Friday, if a bishop preaches, is displayed from a balcony. There is also a venerable cross, a thousand years old, inclosed in magnificent filigree work. At Oviedo there is an ancient church of San Miguel. On July 25th each year a great procession is seen of the peasants with their offerings of cows and heifers going to this church, the horns being gaily decorated with ribbons. They go to Mass on that day, and it is looked forward to as their chief religious event.

NOTRE DAME AND LA SAINTE CHAPELLE, PARIS.

The cathedral of Notre Dame, begun in 528, to commemorate the gratitude of Childebert on his recovery from sickness, replaced another at its side, and was in turn replaced in 1163 by the present structure. It is remarkable for now containing the crown of thorns given by St. Louis and the nail of the true cross. The crown of thorns was brought there from La Sainte Chapelle, which was built by St. Louis as a shrine worthy to contain it. This exquisite chapel, without visible aisles or transept, was begun in 1242 and finished in 1247. One of the little tourelles at the side of the shrine still contains the actual wooden stair which was ascended by St. Louis when he went to take from its tabernacle the crown of thorns, which he and he alone was permitted to exhibit to the people below through a large pane of glass purposely inserted and always movable in the end window of the apse. It is recorded that when St. Louis was in Paris he would rise to pray three times in the night, always approaching the altar on his knees. This chapel was called by the old chronicler St. Louis's arsenal and tower of defence against all the ills of life. The head of the saintly King was afterwards brought hither from St. Denis at the instance of Philip the Fair.

CHURCHES AT MARSEILLES AND STRASBURG.

On the rocky hill of Notre Dame de la Garde, above the harbour of Marseilles, is a Romanesque church, in which is a shrine with a famous image of the Virgin, carved in olive wood, and of great antiquity. All the sailors and fishermen in the Mediterranean venerate this object, and hang their offerings on the walls and roof. All kinds of objects connected with shipwrecks, plagues, storms, cholera, panics, are here represented. At Strasburg the cathedral, begun in 1015, is a noble Gothic edifice, the tower of which is 468 feet above the pavement. There is a circular window 48 feet in diameter, and rising to the height of 230 feet. The interior has much richly painted glass. There is also a famous clock in the south transept, dating from 1354, which shows the hour, day of the week, month, and year, and many other epochs, besides clockwork figures, with mechanism for moving puppets and images.

CHARTRES CATHEDRAL.

The cathedral of Notre Dame at Chartres, magnificent and strongly built, attracts the visitor by its two tall but unequal bell-towers and spires. It is vast and elegant, and excels in painted glass and its three rose windows. The tower and spire are the finest of their period in France, the steeple being 339-1/2 feet high without the cross. Above the Porte Royale or central door is the image of Christ in an oval, with the symbols of the four evangelists, and below these are the fourteen prophets, and in the arches above are the twenty-four elders playing on musical instruments. The church is a storehouse of painted glass, above one hundred and thirty windows being rich with splendid ornamentation, the rose windows being thirty or forty feet in diameter. The choir has double aisles and many bas-reliefs of Scriptural subjects. Outside of the screen which separates the choir from the aisles is a series of Gothic sculptures of events in the life of Christ and the Virgin in forty-five compartments, surrounded with elaborate tracery and tabernacle work begun about 1514. The execution has been compared to point lace in stone, some of the sculptured threads being not thicker than the blade of a penknife. This was the earliest and chief church in France dedicated to the Virgin, and was resorted to by countless pilgrims. The sacred image dating from the time of the Druids stood in the crypt. The famous relic of the Sancta Camisia given by Charles le Chauve is here. And the celebrated black image of the twelfth century, after having been crowned with a bonnet rouge during the Revolution, is still a subject of adoration.

THE CATHEDRAL OF AMIENS.

The cathedral of Amiens, one of the noblest Gothic edifices in Europe, was begun in 1220, about the same time as Salisbury, but the spire is 422 feet, being 20 feet higher than Salisbury. Yet owing to the loftiness of the roof of the nave, this great height does not strike the beholder. The interior is one of the most magnificent of spectacles, owing to this great height of the roof, which is about double the usual height of English cathedrals. The area of the cathedral is also larger than that of any other cathedral in France, and is only surpassed by that of St. Peter's at Rome, and by Cologne. At the crossing of the transept, three magnificent rose windows of elaborate tracery and rich stained glass, and about 100 feet in circumference, make this cathedral unique. The head of St. John the Baptist, brought from Constantinople at the time of the Crusades, has always been prized as an invaluable relic, and is deposited in the side chapel dedicated to St. John. Several other heads of St. John existed before the Revolution in other churches of France, but this was deemed the genuine one. Since the Revolution, however, the skull has been reduced to the frontal bone and upper jaw. The choir and its elegantly groined roof, resting on compressed lancet-pointed arches, are of great beauty, and there are one hundred and ten stalls of elaborately carved woodwork, showing the finest invention and execution. This carved work was done or finished in 1528.

THE CATHEDRAL OF RHEIMS.

The cathedral of Rheims is a Gothic edifice of great power and grace, commenced in 1212. The western front is thought to be unrivalled for the multiplicity of detail in sculpture and tracery. The interior is perfect in design, and the gorgeous stained glass in the rose windows, the largest being forty feet in diameter, adds to the grandeur of the general effect. The choir was consecrated in 1241. The clock over the sacristy, one of the oldest clocks known, strikes the hour, when a door opens and the effigy of a man looks out, while other figures sally forth and make the round. Here the coronation of the French kings took place. The holy oil, according to the legend, was at first brought by a dove from heaven.

THE CATHEDRAL OF AIX-LA-CHAPELLE AND RELICS.

The cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle is the most ancient polygonal church north of the Alps, the nave of which being octagonal, was erected by Charlemagne about 796, partly as a tomb for himself, in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem. The Emperor's tomb was opened by Otho III., and Charlemagne was found, not lying, but sitting on a throne as one alive, bearing a sceptre in his hand, and having a copy of the Gospels on his knees. These relics were removed to Vienna. The choir was rebuilt in 1413. It is 120 feet long, and 114 feet high, having the appearance of a gigantic lantern. The treasury of the cathedral has a rich collection of relics in shrines of great beauty. There is a locket of the Virgin's hair; a piece of the true cross; the leathern girdle of Christ (bearing Constantine's seal); a nail of the cross; the cord which bound the rod that smote Him; the sponge which was filled with vinegar; that arm of Simeon on which he bore the infant Jesus; some blood and bones of St. Stephen; some manna from the wilderness; and some bits of Aaron's rod. These relics were presented to Charlemagne by the Patriarch of Jerusalem and the Caliph Haroun Al Raschid. Another silver-gilt shrine contains the great relics which are shown only once in seven years. These are the cotton robe worn by the Virgin at the Nativity; the swaddling clothes of Jesus; the cloth on which John the Baptist's head was laid; the scarf worn by the Saviour at the Crucifixion, having stains of His blood.

THE CATHEDRAL OF TREVES.

The cathedral of St. Peter and St. Helen at Treves has five stately towers, and was completed in the twelfth century, being supposed to be begun about 550. The vast size of the building is imposing. One of the remarkable relics here preserved is the holy coat, without seam, and said to be made of camels' hair, five feet long. When not exhibited, it is carefully walled up inside the high altar. In 1844, when it was exhibited, about a million of pilgrims went to view it.

THE CATHEDRAL AND CHURCHES OF ANTWERP.

The cathedral of Notre Dame at Antwerp is one of the largest of the Gothic cathedrals. The great attractions in the interior are the masterpieces of Rubens. The steeple is one of the loftiest in the world, being 403 feet high, and of such delicate workmanship that Charles V. said it deserved to be kept in a case. Napoleon said it was as minute and elaborate as a piece of Mechlin lace. It was begun in 1422 and completed in 1518. The framework is chiefly of iron, with stones interlaced and bolted together with copper. In the tower there are sixty bells, which are made to chime in perfection. Another church of Antwerp, more highly decorated even than the cathedral, is that of St. Jacques, where marbles, glass, carved wood, and monuments give a rich appearance to the interior. The Holy Family, by Rubens, adorns the altarpiece, which for colour stands as high as any of Rubens' works. In another church in Antwerp, that of the Augustines, there is also an altarpiece by Rubens--the marriage of St. Catherine--where there are about twenty figures of saints, all of which are rendered with great skill, and the brilliancy of colour is impressive and fascinating. In the nave of the same church a picture by Vandyke, the Ecstasy of St. Augustine, is also famous.

THE CATHEDRAL OF COLOGNE.

The cathedral church of St. Peter at Cologne was commenced in 1248, to replace an earlier one which had been destroyed by fire. The work proceeded very slowly, came to a stop in 1509, and stopped for three hundred years. In 1830 the original plan was resumed. The two principal towers were to be raised to the height of 500 feet. A handsome terrace has been raised round the church. The entire length of the body of the church is 511 feet, equal to the height of the towers. It had always been intended to be the most regular and most stupendous Gothic monument existing. The choir consists of five aisles, and from the great height and arrangement of the pillars and stained windows the interior has a glorious effect. The exterior also is striking from its double range of vast flying buttresses and intervening piers bristling with a forest of purfled pinnacles. Round the choir stand fourteen colossal statues of the twelve Apostles, the Virgin, and the Saviour, coloured and gilt. The chapel immediately behind the high altar is that of the three kings of Cologne, or the Magi, who came from the East with gifts to the Infant at Bethlehem. The bones of these kings had been carried off from Milan by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa in 1162. The shrine containing the bones is of silver gilt, and curiously wrought. Even the skulls of the kings are exhibited crowned with diadems.

ST. ISAAC'S CATHEDRAL, ST. PETERSBURG.

The cathedral of St. Isaac's at St. Petersburg is of comparatively modern origin, being completed in 1801, the former one built in 1710 being destroyed by fire. The proportions are grand and the porticoes noble. The cupola, which is 296 feet high, supported by thirty polished granite pillars, is covered with copper overlaid with gold, and glitters brightly. The screen is supported by malachite columns 30 feet high, and on either side of the door of the screen there are pillars of lapis-lazuli. Into the inmost shrine or sanctuary women are not admitted. The most effective portion of the service in the Greek Church is the singing, boys always taking the soprano parts. Certain half-recitative solos are delivered by deacons with very strong and deep bass voices. One of the most impressive parts of the service occurs when the doors of the ikonostas or screen are shut; the chanting then ceases, the incense-bearers withdraw, and every one seems breathless with attention. The royal doors are then opened in the centre, and the chief officiating priest, attended by deacons, comes forward, carrying the Holy Eucharist, and commences a long recitative, which is a prayer for the Emperor and Imperial Family. While this prayer is intoned the audience bend low in attitudes of adoration. The outward forms of the service are joined in by the men as well as the women with great fervour. The first proceeding on entering a Russian church is to purchase a wax candle. With this the worshipper slowly approaches one of the shrines. He sinks on one knee, bowing his head to the pavement, and crossing his breast repeatedly with the thumb and two forefingers of his right hand. Having reached the shrine, he then lights his votive candle at the holy lamp, and sets it up in one of the various holes in a large silver stand provided for the purpose, falling at the same time on his bended knees on the pavement before the altar. He then says his prayers and retires slowly with his face to the altar, kneeling and crossing himself at intervals. The kindling of lamps and tapers is a custom in all Russian churches.

THE CATHEDRAL OF ST. STEPHEN'S OF VIENNA.

The cathedral at Vienna was begun in 1359, and has much rich tracery and curious carvings. The giant portal is a triumph of Gothic ornament. The lofty nave has rich sculpture and rich tinted glass, two of the windows being rose. The tower is a masterpiece, and is 444 feet high, and it is now made useful by the fire brigade as a watch-tower, there being a station half-way up, and watchmen posted there night and day.

THE MOSQUE OF ST. SOPHIA, CONSTANTINOPLE.