Chapter C: E. Knoeppel (7)

In a plant manufacturing small machines or a kind of product which is shipped in small quantities, it is obvious that the Shipping Room must be convenient to the point from which these goods are to be taken by railroad cars, by boat, or by teams. If most of the shipping is of large machines or articles which must be handled by cranes, the railroad tracks will be run into the erecting building, and the machines loaded there, in order to avoid the expense of extra handling and moving them. This is the arrangement shown in Fig. 1. In this case the shipping room may be in the Administration Building, so as to be convenient to the other office departments. In some kinds of business it is convenient to have the shipping room and general storeroom near each other, as there is considerable business done in each that is quite closely related to the other.

The Iron and Brass Foundry is usually located at some distance from the manufacturing buildings, in order that the latter may be as free as possible from the annoyance of smoke and dust. It is connected with the other departments by the system of shop and yard tracks, and the railroad siding track passes through one end of the building as a matter of convenience in shipping castings. There is also a branch track running along the side of the foundry building for the purpose of delivering coke, coal, moulding sand, pig iron, scrap iron, and other foundry materials.

It should be noted that the buildings shown in the plan are located in a compact mass, with considerably less than the usual yard room. In this instance, however, the plan was so drafted to economize space on the drawing. It is the law in some European countries that not over 50 per cent of the area of a manufacturing site shall be covered by roofs. Such a law would be of much value in this country, to prevent the crowding of buildings to such an extent as to be unhealthful to employees.

While factory buildings are frequently erected of from three to to six floors, the modern tendency is to reduce the number of floors in all shops and manufacturing buildings; and in the case of machine shops, a large majority of them are built of only one floor. Some, however, have wide galleries at the side, by which considerable second─floor space is added; while the central portion remains open to the roof, and supplies ample space for the accommodation of the overhead traveling crane, as well as the necessary added height needed for erecting large machinery.

Foundries are necessarily built of a single floor, although there are several in different parts of the country where moulding rooms are located as high as the third floor. This latter arrangement is usually made for brass moulding, rather than for iron moulding.

=Organization of a Manufacturing Plant.= Having the design of the plant, and assuming that the required buildings have been erected in accordance with this plan, the next step will be to organize the management both in a general way and also as relates to the various departments usually necessary to inaugurate the business of manufacturing.

As the scope of this treatise covers only the shop and its management, we need not take up the commercial organization of the company by which it is capitalized and maintained. We shall therefore consider the General Manager as the head of the organization, and proceed to examine the methods usually adopted for the division of authority and responsibilities from him to the actual workmen at the bench, at the machines, and on the floors.

The chart shown in Fig. 2 illustrates the plan of the organization. Nearly all minor officials and office employees, such as bookkeepers, clerks, stenographers, etc., are omitted from this chart, to avoid confusion and to simplify the understanding of the organization plan and its numerous details.

The General Manager has a personal Assistant, and, for his commercial affairs, the service of a commercial Accountant and a Cashier. Other office employees are similar in number, duties, and responsibilities to those in the usual commercial office.

By referring to the chart, it will be seen that the organization is divided into two distinctly different parts. First, that of _production_ or _manufacturing proper_; and second, that of _selling_ or _marketing_ the output produced.

In this case the production division is by far the most numerous and complex. This, however, is not always the case──as, for instance, in the case of a manufacturing concern selling its product through local agents. Frequently the territory over which sales are made is divided along state lines, and a _District Agent_ appointed for each state. These, in turn, appoint the _Local Agents_. This necessitates an organization of hundreds of local agents, supervised by state or district agents, and these in turn by a _General Agent_. Thus a very large organization is built up for disposing of the product.

Another plan is the employment of _Traveling Canvassers_, each having a certain territory to cover, who make their reports to either state or district agents, or to the general agent located at a central point──sometimes at the factory, but not necessarily so.

As competition becomes stronger and net profits smaller, the problem of marketing the product becomes more and more important; greater and more complex selling organizations are necessary; and the expense of selling increases. The advertising organization, or what has come to be known as the _Publicity Department_, is a most important adjunct to the modern manufacturing business; and large amounts of money are annually expended in its maintenance.

In the case under consideration, the selling of the product is in charge of a _Sales Manager_, who has as his office staff the _Publicity Manager_; the _Preliminary Engineer_, and the draftsmen and estimators who assist him; the _General Salesman_, who is in reality the personal assistant to the Sales Manager; and the _Credit and Collection Clerk_.

The _Publicity Manager_, sometimes called the _Advertising Manager_, has charge of all advertising of whatever kind, demonstrations at expositions and at agencies, and, in fact, all work that may be properly comprised under the term "publicity"──that is, keeping the public informed as to the product of the company and its adaptability to meet the needs of the public in the special lines it manufactures.

The _Preliminary Engineer_ is in charge of such engineering matters as are necessary upon new work, or work upon which the Sales Manager desires to estimate. It frequently happens that considerable designing and drawing are necessary in this connection, previous to definite orders being given or contracts signed. It often happens that the product of the concern must be changed in certain details so as to adapt it to the uses of various customers, to the different local conditions under which it is to be used, and to the various purposes for which it is to be used. In case an order is given and contracts signed, the preliminary drawings thus produced become a part of the transaction, and are used by the Production Department in getting out the machinery to fill the order.

The purpose of the _Credit and Collection Office_ is to canvass the financial standing of customers and prospective customers; to make collections when necessary to do so; and generally to advise the Sales Manager on these important matters. The official in charge of this office is frequently called the _Credit Man_, and must be a person of peculiar ability in his special line in order to protect the concern from fraud, imposition, and financial losses when dealing with customers of commonly unknown or doubtful financial ability and standing.

The Production Division is under charge of the _Factory Manager_, who has for his personal assistant a _Production Engineer_ or _Superintendent_, who plans the productive scheme of the factory and supervises the departmental distribution of the work and the shop operations necessary for the routine work upon it. In a large manufacturing establishment, the Production Engineer will be at the head of a considerable force of draftsmen and clerks comprising what is sometimes called the _Planning Department_, which arranges all operations, shop routine, time schedules, premium rates, and similar matters. The Factory Manager will also have the usual office assistants, and have direct control of the _Purchasing Department_, the _Time and Cost Department_, the _General Store─Room_, and the _Shipping Room_. In some concerns the Time and Cost Department is a part of the Planning Department, as the records of this department cover nearly every kind of information required for the Time and Cost systems.

All other departments of the factory are divided into two general classes. The first comprises the general departments, as follows:

The Engineering Department, or Drafting Room.

The Experimental and Development Department.

The Power Plant, for both the generation and the distribution of power.

The Iron and Brass Foundries.

The Forge Shop and Cutting─Off Rooms.

The Carpenter Shop (including sometimes the Flask Making and Repairing Departments).

The Paint Shop and Painters' Supply Room.

The Transportation Department for shops and yards.

These are under the supervision of the General Superintendent, who has charge of all mechanical matters except those strictly pertaining to production or to the actual manufacturing of the product.

The second general class is that of Production, and will ordinarily consist of the following departments:

The Planing Department, including shapers and slotters.

The Drilling and Boring Department, including vertical, horizontal, and radial drills and boring machines.

The Heavy Turning Department, including lathes of less than 24─inch swing.

The Milling Machine Department, including horizontal, vertical, and special milling machines, profile machines, etc.

The Gear─Cutting Department, for the making of all classes of gears.

The Grinding Department, including cylindrical, disc, and surface grinding.

The Polishing Department, which includes polishing, buffing, etc.

The Assembling Department, in which parts (usually comparatively small) are assembled in groups of related parts and stored, pending the final erection of the machines.

The Erecting Department, in which the entire machine is erected and usually tested, and inspected, receiving the final painting and other finishing work ready for shipping.

Should the character of the product be such as to require it, there will be also a Plating Department, usually located adjoining the Polishing Department.

This class of departments will be under the direct supervision of the _Production Superintendent_.

Each department is in charge of a _Foreman_, who is responsible for the discipline, the work, and the efficiency of the force under him. Frequently the department is large enough to require one or more assistant foremen. Under these may also be _Gang Bosses_, each of whom will have a small force of employees, called _gangs_, for whose work and efficiency he is responsible.

=Shop Management.= Referring to the Chart, Fig. 2, it will be noticed that the rectangular figures representing different offices, departments, or officials are connected by lines. These are commonly called _lines of authority_, and a careful study of them will show in what manner and through what channels the orders of an official pass to the employees for whose work he is responsible.

Tracing these lines from the head of the establishment through the various offices and officials to the different departments, we get a fundamental idea of _Shop Management_.

This system will be rendered somewhat simpler by reference to the Chart, Fig. 3, which shows the path or official channel of communication and authority from the Superintendent down to the workmen. It also emphasizes the fundamental idea of all official business passing through the officials in charge of intermediate departments.

Thus, if the Factory Manager desires a certain thing done, he does not give the order to one of the workmen, nor to a foreman, but to the Superintendent. The Superintendent will give his orders to the foreman of the department wherein the work is to be done. If this is a department in which there are gang bosses, the Foreman will give his orders to the proper gang boss, who will select a suitable workman, or as many of them as may be necessary, and instruct them as to the work, and will personally see that it is performed promptly and in the proper manner. When the work is completed, he will report the fact to the foreman, who will in turn report to the Superintendent, who informs the Factory Manager that his orders have been executed.

This process may seem unnecessarily complicated, and in consequence it is sometimes referred to as _red tape_. It is, however, necessary to have a well─defined and properly understood system and channel for all routine business, some of the reasons for which are as follows:

_First_──it has been said that "no man can serve two masters," and this is quite true in all questions of shop management. Every loyal workman has learned by precept and tradition to look to his immediate superior for all orders and instructions relating to his work, and he naturally and properly resents any attempt to ignore or belittle his legitimate "boss."

_Second_──As the efficiency of the workmen depends to a great extent upon their loyalty to the management, and as that loyalty can be secured and maintained only by a spirit of justice and fair─dealing to all, including officials and workmen, all authority and responsibility should be sharply defined and properly limited, to the end that the business and work may proceed in an orderly and efficient manner; that all officials and workmen may know when they are within their proper limit of rights; and doing their duties without fear of overstepping their due bounds or interfering with the rights and privileges of their fellows.

Nearly all rules are subject to some exceptions, and the above have theirs. The discipline of the shop, or what is sometimes referred to as the _police regulations_, are expected to be enforced by _all officials at all times_.

Two of these exceptions are of such a general nature and application that they are here noted.

_First_──Any official noticing an infraction of the discipline of the plant may call the attention of the employee offending, without regard to the department in which he works, and require him at once to cease violating the rules. But the official should, as soon as possible, report the matter to the head of the department in which the offending employee works.

_Second_──Any official noticing work being wrongly done, or material wasted, or machinery obviously injured, or the safety of the workmen, the building, or the machinery endangered, may peremptorily order the action to cease, and at once report the fact to the head of the department or to the Superintendent, as he may judge proper.

=Official Communications.= For ordinary communications other than General or Special Orders, Production Orders, letters, etc., a written form should be habitually used. The usual form is shown in Fig. 4. These forms are put up in pads of alternate sheets of white and light─tinted paper, the former being perforated at the top so as to be readily torn out while the tinted sheet remains fast at the stub. Both sheets are printed with the same form, and all are serially numbered in pairs of one white and one tinted sheet. Carbon paper is used, the white sheet being written upon and the tinted one receiving the carbon impression. Each official is supplied with these pads, and by their use he always retains a copy of any memorandum or communication he makes to another official or department. The serial numbers are intended to aid in the identification of any memorandum that may have become somewhat illegible. The use of these blanks saves any misunderstanding that might occur from giving and receiving verbal orders; and serves to prevent errors and mistakes, and to fix the responsibility for their occurrence upon the party in error.

=Successful Management.= The spirit of shop management should always be a spirit of _leadership_. This cannot usually be obtained unless the manager possesses natural ability as a leader. Successful military chieftains are examples of this condition. They _lead_ the men instead of _driving_ them, and the result is a condition of enthusiastic loyalty.

It is also quite as necessary that a leader should be a practical man with sound technical training and practical experience in the business which he undertakes to manage. If he is not thus equipped for his duties, the facts soon become apparent to his subordinates, and his reputation suffers accordingly. The workmen lose confidence in his leadership, and lack enthusiasm in the performance of their duties, going about their work in a listless and perfunctory manner that is very detrimental to the efficiency of the plant.

Still another quality necessary in the successful manager, is the ability to judge men and their capacities for various duties. To get always the right man for the position, the machine, or the job, is a valuable trait in any man who is to direct the work of even a moderate─sized establishment. The larger the plant and the more diversified the business carried on in it, the more valuable and indispensable this characteristic will become. The manager who is continually or frequently changing his subordinate officials, and consequently producing changes in the working force, will always find his duties arduous, and will also find it well─nigh impossible to get the plant up to the degree of efficiency that is to be reasonably expected. The volume of output will continually fall below the normal point, and the quality of the work will also deteriorate. The work of management should be a constant upbuilding of the force, and of development and education along the lines of advancement in the special output of the concern. This cannot be carried on if the composition of the force, or the officials who handle it, are in a transition state of change, doubt, and uncertainty.

There is, on the part of many officials having charge of men, a propensity to interfere too much with workmen and their work, and thus to hinder rather than help them. While it is quite true that every official from the Gang Boss up to the Factory Manager can, at various times, help the workmen in their allotted tasks by timely advice and suggestions, it is also true that this is a matter that can be easily overdone, until it becomes an annoying nuisance and unnecessarily interferes with the men in the discharge of their legitimate duties.

Workmen are quick to discern when suggestions and advice are well meant and instructive, and when they come as a kind of veiled criticism. The official who permits himself to indulge in this sort of dictation soon falls into a practice of _nagging_ that is most exasperating to the men. It is a practice that first weakens and then destroys the official's influence with the men, who obey only from necessity. When this condition exists, the working efficiency of the force is at a very low ebb.

On the other hand, really helpful advice and suggestions, made in a cheerful manner and from a quite apparent desire to assist workmen, will usually meet with a quick and loyal response that argues well for the efficiency of the workmen.

Another point on the road to success, is a patient and interested listening to suggestions that workmen have to make, even though it is on trivial matters. It should always be borne in mind that the workman laboring day after day on the same class, and often on the same kind of pieces, of work, is in a position to discern and to study out many minor improvements in tools and methods which are valuable. A kindly hearing accorded him, the adoption of such suggestions as are practical, with some substantial reward for his study, will encourage not only him but other workmen to study their work and endeavor to find better and more efficient ways of doing it. Thus an active and interested spirit of loyalty is brought about that is one of the most valuable assets of the plant.

The successful manager is he who is enabled to _unite_ his working force of subordinate officials and workmen in a complete and loyal organization, all working for the common good and for the success and prosperity of the concern. Having gained this condition, the question of efficient and economical manufacturing is practically as well as theoretically solved.

SHOP METHODS AND RECORDS

From the principles that have been advanced in connection with the subjects of Manufacturing and Shop Management, it will be readily seen that the work of the manufacturing plant of the present day is a very complex matter, and there must necessarily be very complete and carefully formulated plans and systems by which all its operations are regulated, and a somewhat elaborate plan of records by which these operations and their results are recorded and filed.

In formulating the necessary plans for the methods and records of a manufacturing establishment, we must first determine the requirements of the work and decide definitely on what we wish to accomplish. In other words, the conditions must be first examined and analyzed, their various factors studied at their true value, and the requirements determined, so that a general plan of operations may be followed.

These methods shall cover the following subjects:

1. The selection and employment of workmen.
2. The methods of keeping the time of all employees.
3. The manner of paying workmen.
4. The ordering of work into the shops.
5. The routine of passing work through the shops.
6. The method of drawing stock and materials.
7. The ways of keeping and issuing tools.

=Importance of Records.= Each of these methods will become a part of the routine of the establishment, and the operations carried on under it will be proper matters for regular records made from day to day.

Such records are exceedingly valuable as current information, and, when properly filed, become quite as valuable for reference in the future as for use in current operations.

In all improvements in the working routine of manufacturing operations, there should be previous records by which the present performances may be checked and compared. By this arrangement, it is comparatively easy to ascertain whether or not any improvement is being made, and in what direction it is being made. This knowledge will suggest further plans and betterments. Should the records prove that there are losses rather than gains being made, the warning is equally valuable, and we make haste to better results and greater efficiency in the work.

Thus, whether the plans and methods in use are really successful, or quite the reverse, it is of the utmost importance that we should know by prompt and accurate records just what the results are, in order to keep in close touch with the progress of events, and that, when plans do not produce the favorable results expected and desired, the information may be promptly available, the warning be heard, and plans altered or amended until they bring about a successful routine in the manufacturing operations.

=Selection and Employment of Workmen.= This is an important matter, since it costs money to introduce new men in any business, and requires from a day or two to several weeks for the new man to become sufficiently accustomed to his work and surroundings to be of the same value as the man who is perfectly familiar with the shop, the routine and methods of work, and the foreman under whom he works.

It is therefore necessary to go about this matter in a methodical manner, and to keep records of:

(_a_) All persons making application for employment.
(_b_) All persons regularly accepted as employees.
(_c_) Individual records of all regular workmen.
(_d_) All employees who leave the employment of the company.

To accomplish these results, the official whose duty it is to employ men will fill out, or will have a clerk fill out, an _Application Card_ of the form shown in Fig. 5, for each person applying for a position. It will be noticed that it is important to know whether the applicant has ever been employed in this establishment previous to the present application. If so, his record can be readily referred to for information as to the desirability of employing him again. It is also necessary that the record of his last employer be known, and frequently of the employer previous to the last, as these matters will also be taken into consideration in determining his fitness for the position for which he applies. It is also necessary to know how many years he has been employed in manufacturing establishments, as this fact, taken in consideration with his age, will frequently furnish information upon which to base judgment as to his fitness.

The Application Card, being on file, is available for the use of such foremen or other officials as may be in need of workmen. Should the applicant be decided to be available, after consultation between the official to whom application was made and the foreman desiring to increase his force, the applicant will be sent for, and employed at a rate mutually satisfactory, and an _Employment Card_ of the form shown in Fig. 6 filled out. This will repeat some of the information contained on the Application Card; but it is necessary to have two cards in any event, as the information must be filed in separate drawers.

The Employment Card will also give the name of the official employing the man, as well as that of the foreman under whom he is to work, the kind of work he is to perform, and when he is to commence work. It will also require the approval of the Superintendent or Factory Manager, as the case may be, to make it valid and operative.

The applicant having become one of the regular employees of the concern, a third card is made out for filing in the _List of Employees_ drawer. This will be upon the form shown in Fig. 7, and is called a _Service Card_. It will be noticed that each of these three cards is headed with the name and address of the person whom it represents.

The Service Card gives the department in which the employee is to work, the kind of work which he is to do, the date he begins work, and his rate of pay. Spaces are also provided for noting the amount and date of any increases in his rate, and for the record of a transfer to another department should he be moved, as is frequently the case with new men who may not be quite adaptable to the kind of work first attempted, but entirely satisfactory at some other class of work.

A space is also provided for noting the date of the workman's leaving the employ of the company, and also for giving the reason for it. This will be valuable information in case the workman should subsequently apply for employment. When an employee leaves the service of the company, his Service Card is removed from the List of Employees drawer, and placed in a fourth drawer labeled _Discharged or Quit_, being held there for future reference.

=Individual Record of Standing.= In many well─conducted manufacturing establishments, it is customary to keep a record of the standing of the men as rated each month, as a valuable reference in cases of proposed promotion, increases in pay, reliability for special work and positions of responsibility. Various methods of marking the records of the men each month have been tried, but the simplest method is to use the number 100 for perfect, and to divide it as follows:

Good workmanship 50
Punctuality in reporting for work 30
Deportment during working hours 20
────
Total 100

Demerits are marked off as to workmanship, by the foreman, according to his judgment aided by the Inspector's reports of the work done by the man.

Punctuality is judged by the number of times late, each instance reducing the mark by one unit. As the workman enters the shop twice a day, morning and afternoon, assuming 26 working days in the month, a practical disregard of punctuality soon reduces his record in this respect to zero.

Deportment is judged by the Foreman, who also takes into account occasions on which the workman may have been reported for violating the regulations in this respect.

A _Record Card_ is shown in Fig. 8, upon which monthly records are kept. The total for any period, divided by the number of months covered by the record, will give the percentage of a perfect record. This card provides for a record for two years.

If it seems advisable to do so for special reasons, a similar card may be formulated covering the six working days of the week. A year's record in this form may be entered on a card 4 by 6 inches, by arranging the horizontal and vertical ruling for that purpose.

Such a record may be profitably kept of the work of the office force, as well as of the men in the shops. It will be valuable in many ways in judging of the availability of the men for special work, as well as for promotion.

Necessarily such records should be very carefully kept; otherwise there is liable to be serious injury done to the working reputation and integrity, as well as reliability, of the men.

=The Employment Agent.= In large concerns, an official is regularly appointed as an Employment Agent, and it is his duty to keep the office and the shops supplied with competent men engaged at reasonable wages. He must therefore keep in close and accurate touch with the labor market, for the same reasons that the purchasing agent must know the state of the market for material and supplies. He must know how and where to reach workmen of the different classes whenever he is called upon to furnish them.

While ordinary laborers may nearly always be obtained from the daily applications made at the office, skilled men must be hunted up; and it is not usually easy to find just the man with the qualifications desired.

When men are wanted for positions above the average skilled workmen, the best and most promising will be nearly always distributed among the present employees who are deserving of advancement. To promote one of them, rather than hire some man from outside the organization, is usually good business policy. The man and his abilities are generally well known, while a stranger is always an unknown quantity. The men, being acquainted with the man, will be pleased to see him get the deserved promotion; and it is always wise to consider the popularity of proposed orders affecting the working force. The man himself will feel his added responsibilities much more than an outside man will, and will generally work harder to succeed in his new position. Therefore it is always best to give the first chance to present employees who have been faithful to the responsibilities thus far placed upon them.

It will be found that in most of the departments there are employees who from one reason or another are doing work quite below their real capacity, hoping that later on there may be better opportunities for the coveted position. The Employment Agent should know the men of the force, and their abilities, so as to take advantage of these conditions. A man may be needed by a foreman in one department who is not aware that in a neighboring department may be just the kind of man he wants. The Employment Agent should know where to find the man at once.

Again, one department may, from the condition of the work, be short of help, and may request the Employment Agent to hire a certain number of men of certain qualifications and abilities. At the same time, there may be another department in which there are more men than can be used to advantage. An arrangement for the temporary or permanent transfer of some of these men will be a great help to both departments, and will have the added advantage of keeping good men permanently employed.

If a workman feels that his employment is permanent, and that there are fair opportunities for advancement, this will be the surest way to hold him faithful and loyal to the interests of the establishment; and the conditions that bring about this condition of mind in him will also draw other good men who will be glad to be counted as among those faithful to a company which appreciates their services and which will look to their interests as they consider those of their employers. The result will be that these men will give their best services, and even be on the alert to further the interests of the employer who has favored them. Thus a strong working organization is built up, which becomes one of the best and most valuable assets of the company.

=Time Keeping.= As cost of labor is usually greater than any other in the manufacturing plant, and frequently greater than all other factors in the cost of manufacturing, it is very important that the records pertaining to this expense be properly planned and accurately kept.

Various methods have been adopted and used for this purpose. Some of the more prominent plans will be given. They are each adapted to some certain kind or class of work, and it will often be found that in practice still different forms must be devised in order to meet the existing conditions.

There are three methods of recording the time of employees──namely:

1. By entering the time in a book or upon cards, by a Time─Keeper.

2. By entering the time upon cards by the workman himself.

3. By stamping the time upon cards by the workman in a time─recording clock.

The first of these methods is the oldest form, and has now to a great extent gone out of use.

A large majority of the work of a manufacturing plant requires that the time worked by the employees shall be registered twice. That is, one entry shall be of the _day time_ (time paid for _by the day_), which necessitates the recording of the total number of hours worked each day; the second entry shall record the _job time_ (the time worked upon the different jobs during the day). This second entry is sometimes called _Time Distribution_, since the employee's time is distributed over the different jobs upon which he has worked.

=Time─Card Forms.= This work is sometimes done by means of time cards as shown in Figs. 9, 10, 11, and 12, which are given as characteristic examples of these methods. These cards are of different tints as a convenient method of recognizing them.

Fig. 9 is yellow, and is used in the Pattern Shop.

Fig. 10 is chocolate─colored, and is used in the Forge Shop.

Fig. 11 is blue, and is used by the Carpenters and Flask Makers.

Fig. 12 is white, and is used in the Machine Shop.

Similar card forms may be devised for any other department of a plant, or for the departments of plants doing entirely different work.

When these cards are used as a means of distributing the time to the various jobs or orders in force in the shop, the _day time_, from which the pay─roll is made up, is usually recorded on a strip of paper in a time clock, the operation being performed by each employee as he passes into the shop morning and afternoon, and when leaving at noon and night. Passing to the clock, the workman swings a lever to his individual number, and presses in a knob, whereby the exact time of the operation is recorded upon a slip of paper, a ribbon, or a disc within the clock.

In other forms of time clock, an individually numbered key is inserted in one of the individually numbered holes, turned around, and withdrawn. The time is recorded in a manner quite similar to that used in the case just described above.

The four forms for time cards shown are quite similar, the difference being in the list of operations given at the right─hand end of the card.

At the top of the card are spaces for the date, order number, workman's number, and the number of the machine upon which he works (provided the work is done on a machine). In the next space, the name of the department is given. This is followed by spaces for the _quantity_──that is, the number of pieces, feet, or inches of such material as is designated in this way, or the number of pounds in weight of the material. Then comes a brief description of the work.

Opposite each of these is a square in which the workman can indicate the particular kind of work he has been doing, by marking an X. Thus the form shown in Fig. 9 contains the following classes of work──namely, Pattern Making, meaning new pattern work; Pattern Repairs, referring to repairs charged to the job; Foundry Repairs, or repairs to patterns or fixtures the expense of which is to be charged to the Foundry Department; Equipment Repairs, referring to pattern shop equipment; General Office, consisting of small jobs of equipment and maintenance that are better done by a pattern maker than by a carpenter; Drafting Room, similar new work and repairs, such as drafting boards, angles, etc.; Tool Room, similar work chargeable to this department, such as boxes or cases for special tools, and work not entrusted to a carpenter.

Whatever may be the kind of work the employee is engaged upon, he checks it as described; and after the words "Time Started," he notes the hour and minute he begins work. When the job is completed, he notes the time after the words "Time Stopped," The elapsed time, the rate, and the value are filled in by the time clerk.

This card is turned in to the foreman or dropped in a box provided for that purpose, it having been approved by the foreman of the department in which the work is done. It then goes to the time clerk.

As each workman has a card for each different job and for each day, it follows that all the job cards for a single day must aggregate the same amount of time as that indicated on the stamped record within the recording time clock. Discrepancies of this kind are investigated, and the time distribution readjusted until satisfactory, the foreman of the department usually being consulted in the case.

=Recording─Clock Time─Cards.= Recording time clocks are also made which operate automatically to produce changes in the position of the card dropped into a receptacle provided for the purpose, such, that when a lever is manipulated, not only is the exact hour and minute stamped upon the card, but it is stamped in its proper place upon the card so as to correspond with the proper day of the week and also indicate whether forenoon or afternoon. The horizontal changes of position are made by hand, previous to manipulating the operating lever.

A form for a regular Day Time card is shown in Fig. 13. The days of the week are given, and each divided by horizontal lines into spaces for forenoon and afternoon. Vertically the dividing lines divide spaces for the time the workman comes IN, goes OUT, and for similar records for lost time or overtime, as the case may be.

At the top of the card is the date, generally given as the last day of the week for which time is made up. This is followed by the number and name of the employee. Following the table prepared for the time stampings, is a space for the total time, the rate, and the amount due for the week.

The back of the card is shown in Fig. 14, and is plain except at the top, which is printed in large and plain type "This Side Out," as employees are liable to introduce the card with its face outward. For convenience the employee's number and name are given on this side as well as on the face.

By the above method of time recording, _all_ employees will use the regular Day Time card. Such employees as work on the regular production orders, and on work properly chargeable to them, will in addition to the Day Time card use a Job Time card, of the form shown in Fig. 15. This card is provided with spaces at the top for the order number, date, employee's number, machine number, article or piece upon which the work is being done, and the name of the operation that is being performed. The body of the card has the same spaces for the recording stampings. It will be noticed that the card shown in Fig. 13 runs from Monday to Sunday, inclusive. This is the usual form, but in some shops the fiscal week ends on different days of the week. In the job card shown in Fig. 15, it ends on Thursday.

In the use of these job cards, a card is made out for each job or order, without regard to the number of different jobs an employee may have in a day. The aggregate of the time shown on all these cards for a day must aggregate the amount shown on the day time card from which the pay─roll is made up. Thus each card acts as a check on the other, and accuracy is insured to a considerable degree.

When the work for which the job time is issued has been completed, and the card receives its final stamping, it may be turned over to the foreman, who will send it to the Time Clerk. This gives the foreman an opportunity to look it over and correct any mistakes that may have been made. In some shops the card is dropped into a box marked _Job Time Cards──Completed_, whence it is gathered up with others, by the Time Clerk. Coming into the possession of the Time Clerk, he will check it up, together with such others as the workman may have used on the same day, in order to ascertain if the total time on the job cards for the day equals that shown on the day time card.

When the Time Clerk has compared the cards, he will send the job cards to the Cost Clerk, who will enter the amounts in a _Job Time Summary_ book of the form shown in Fig. 16. On this blank, the number, name, and rate of each man are written. The succeeding columns are headed with the various current order numbers. Entries are made opposite the man's name, of the pay─roll value of the time he has worked on the various orders or jobs for the day. The total, carried out in the extreme right─hand column, represents his pay for the day. The totals at the bottom of the job columns represent the value of the time spent on each order, for the day. The work is checked as correct when the sum of all the totals of the right─hand column is exactly equal to the sum of all the totals at the foot of the columns.

The entries in this book are made by quite young clerks, who handle only these job cards and books as their daily tasks, and who become very expert, accurate, and rapid at this work. The totals are carried by the Cost Clerk or one of his assistants to the _cost ledger_, in which the costs of both labor and material, as well as all expense charges, are brought together. Sometimes this work is done upon cards, each one representing an order and containing in brief and condensed form all the charges of whatever kind made against the order.

=Methods of Paying Employees.= The methods by which pay─rolls are made up and the employees paid, are important; and whatever plans are adopted, they should realize the following desirable requirements:

1. The record of amounts due the men should be absolutely accurate and in accordance with the rates at which the men were employed, subject (_a_) to such modifications as may be made by reason of properly authorized changes in rate; (_b_) to such modifications as may be made from week to week by overtime work, or by the operation of methods of "piece work," "premium work," or any of the several plans for rewarding exceptionally efficient work; (_c_) to such deductions as may properly be made on account of advance payments that have been made upon due authority.

2. The methods of making up the pay─roll and paying the men should secure promptness in this work, so that the pay of the employees may not be held back for an unreasonable length of time pending the necessary clerical work.

3. The methods of payment should be such that no workman can know the amount paid to any other workman.

To accomplish the results desired in the first requirement, if the amounts due the men are made up from the time recorded by the men themselves──that is, in a recording clock──is a comparatively easy task, since it is principally a matter of mathematics, with a strict attention to details.

Changes in rate of pay do not usually take effect until the week following that in which the order is given. This order will be in the form of a request by the foreman of the department in which the workman is employed, stating the reasons for the increase. This is sent to the Superintendent or Factory Manager for approval. If approved it is then sent to the Pay Clerk, who files the notice for future reference and makes the required change on his pay─roll.

Premium work rates will be made up by the foremen of the departments, and approved by the Superintendent, in smaller shops. In large plants the rates will be made up by a clerk in the Production Department, and approved by the Production Engineer. In either case they will be sent directly to the Pay Clerk.

Advances to men will be made only in special cases, upon a written request from the foreman, stating the reasons and approved by the Superintendent.

The second requirement can be met by having the time cards of the style used in recording clocks (as shown in Figs. 13,14, and 15). The convenience and rapidity of making up the time of these cards is apparent from the fact that the record of the entire week is contained upon the face of one day time card, lost time being checked only in red ink in the total column at the right, and the sum of the amounts of lost time being subtracted from the regular working time for the week Thus, if the working time is 55 hours per week, and the lost time was ½ hour one day and ¼ hour another, making ¾ hour, we subtract that from 55, leaving 54¼ hours as the time for the week. This is much more rapidly done than to carry out the total time for each day and add up these totals for the six days of the week.

The _Pay─Roll Sheet_ or _Pay─Roll Book_ is shown in Fig. 17. This is now frequently made as a loose sheet or such number of sheets as may be necessary to contain all the names, frequently as many as 50 names on the sheet. Upon examination of this printed form, it will be seen that the regular time is divided into _productive_ and _non─productive_ labor. This is for the purpose of ascertaining what portion of the labor is applied directly upon the product, and what portion is applied indirectly, such as foreman, clerks, general laborers, etc., whose work is classed as non─productive.

The amount of the regular time is computed, and entered in the column headed _Amount_. If there is an amount due in premiums, it is entered in the next column, and the two amounts added in the column headed _Total Amount_. In the next column is entered the amount of any advances that may have been made, which is deducted from the total amount, leaving the net _Amount Due_, which is entered in the next column. This amount is paid over to the employee, who signs his name in the space under _By whom received_, and the operation is complete. The men's numbers are placed at the extreme left hand and right hand of the form as a matter of convenience in rapidly handling the work of paying off.

When the pay─roll has been completely made up, it is submitted to the Superintendent, who certifies as to its being a correct list of men actually employed, and to the rates of the different men. It is then submitted to the Factory Manager for approval. After the amounts due the men are actually paid and receipted for, the Treasurer certifies the fact, and the pay─roll becomes a voucher for the amount represented on the roll.

=Giving Orders for Manufacturing Work.= As ordinarily considered, orders are of two general classes, namely:

1. _Production Orders_, by which the production departments are set to work manufacturing some regular or special product which is to be sold to customers.

2. _Plant Orders._ These orders relate to the repairs and maintenance of the grounds, buildings, and equipment of the plant, and to new additions to and alterations of the same.

Both of these classes originate with the Factory Manager, who receives instructions as to all important orders from the General Manager of the company, who will authorize and keep in touch, not only with the production of the plant, but in a general way with all changes, improvements, and maintenance expenses of the establishment.

=Production Orders.= Fig. 18 shows the form of a regular production order. This card or blank is made of such dimensions as the kind of manufacturing business to which it pertains may require. It is customary to use a card 4 by 6 inches; but if such is to be written upon the central space in order to describe the work properly, it should be somewhat larger. The principal features of this form are spaces for the title of the card, the order number, and date. At the bottom is given the date when the work is expected to be completed, and the date of its actual completion. These dates are important as a matter of reference in considering the promptness and efficiency of the departments where the work has been done.

The work to be done is briefly described in the central portion, together with such references to sets of drawings, etc., as may be necessary to render the terms of the order indisputably certain. This order is signed by the Factory Manager and sent to the Superintendent. In a large concern it is sent to the Superintendent of Production or the Production Engineer, according to the particular manner of the organization of the official force.

In any event the order is turned over to the official having charge of production, who will make out _Sub─Production_ orders (Fig. 19) for each department in which the particular work described upon the orders is to be done. A time limit is given for the completion of the work, and a space provided for the actual date of completion. They are not signed when issued, but are dated and signed by the foreman when the work is completed.

=Plant Orders.= As has been described, plant orders are those necessary for the changes, improvements, and maintenance of the plant and equipment. In some establishments there are two series of orders, namely: (_a_) those for improvements and maintenance of the _plant_ proper──that is, grounds and buildings; and (_b_) improvements and maintenance of _equipment_. This is a very proper and natural division. These accounts may be subdivided to a very great extent, but not with corresponding value.

Plant orders are usually issued by the Superintendent (or General Superintendent, in a large plant), and are returnable to him, as will be seen upon reference to the form shown in Fig. 20. This order is usually directed to a certain department. If more than one department is involved in the work, a separate order is issued to each. The general form of the order is the same as in the two preceding ones, the instructions being changed to suit the nature of the case.

On the back of this order is a form for entering the cost of material and labor, as shown in Fig. 21. The dates upon which each item (or group of items) of material is furnished, are given, as are also the dates for the various items of labor, although the work of an entire week may be entered upon a single line. On the second half of the card, space is provided for the totals of both material and labor cost; also such general expenses in the form of a percentage or such other apportionment as may be authorized, are entered.

By this method the order for the work, and a summary of the expense of executing the order, are contained upon the same card, which is very convenient for future reference and comparison.

=Storing and Issuing Stock and Materials.= The orders having been put in force in the shop, the next step is to obtain the necessary material or stock with which to do the work.

All purchased stock, material, and stores are turned over to the General Storekeeper, whose duty it is to classify them, store them properly, and issue them only on properly authorized requisitions. A large portion of his stock he obtains by making requisitions upon the Purchasing Agent.