Chapter I: Part 1

Series Two:
_Essays on Poetry_

No. 3

Rapin's _De Carmine Pastorali_, prefixed to Thomas Creech's translation of the _Idylliums_ of Theocritus (1684)

With an Introduction by
J.E. Congleton
and
a Bibliographical Note

The Augustan Reprint Society July, 1947 Price: 75c

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GENERAL EDITORS

RICHARD C. BOYS, University of Michigan EDWARD NILES HOOKER, University of California, Los Angeles H.T. SWEDENBERG, JR., University of California, Los Angeles

ADVISORY EDITORS

EMMETT L. AVERY, State College of Washington LOUIS I. BREDVOLD, University of Michigan BENJAMIN BOYCE, University of Nebraska CLEANTH BROOKS, Louisiana State University JAMES L. CLIFFORD, Columbia University ARTHUR FRIEDMAN, University of Chicago SAMUEL H. MONK, University of Minnesota JAMES SUTHERLAND, Queen Mary College, London

Lithoprinted from copy supplied by author
by
Edwards Brothers, Inc.
Ann Arbor, Michigan, U.S.A.
1947

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INTRODUCTION

Recent students of criticism have usually placed Rapin in the School of Sense. In fact Rapin clearly denominates himself a member of that school. In the introduction to his major critical work, _Reflexions sur la Poetique d'Aristote_ (1674), he states that his essay "is nothing else, but Nature put in Method, and good _Sense_ reduced to Principles" (_Reflections on Aristotle's Treatise of Poesie_, London, 1731, II, 131). And in a few passages as early as "A Treatise de Carmine Pastorali" (1659), he seems to imply that he is being guided in part at least by the criterion of "good _Sense_." For example, after citing several writers to prove that "brevity" is one of the "graces" of pastoral poetry, he concludes, "I could heap up a great many more things to this purpose, but I see no need of such a trouble, since no man can rationally doubt of the goodness of my Observation" (p.41).

The basic criterion, nevertheless, which Rapin uses in the "Treatise" is the authority of the Ancients--the poems of Theocritus and Virgil and the criticism of Aristotle and Horace. Because of his constant references to the Ancients, one is likely to conclude that he (like Boileau and Pope) must have thought they and Nature (good sense) were the same. In a number of passages, however, Rapin depends solely on the Ancients. Two examples will suffice to illustrate his absolutism. At the beginning of "_The Second_ Part," when he is inquiring "into the nature of _Pastoral,_" he admits: And this must needs be a hard Task, since I have no guide, neither _Aristotle_ nor _Horace_ to direct me.... And I am of opinion that none can treat well and clearly of any kind of _Poetry_ if he hath no helps from these two (p. 16).

In "_The Third_ Part," when he begins to "lay down" his _Rules for
writing_ Pastorals," he declares:
Yet in this difficulty I will follow _Aristotle's_ Example, who
being to lay down Rules concerning _Epicks_, propos'd _Homer_
as a Pattern, from whom he deduc'd the whole Art; So I will
gather from _Theocritus_ and _Virgil_, those Fathers of
_Pastoral_, what I shall deliver on this account (p. 52).

These passages represent the apogee of the neoclassical criticism of pastoral poetry. No other critic who wrote on the pastoral depends so completely on the authority of the classical critics and poets. As a matter of fact, Rapin himself is not so absolute later. In the section of the _Réflexions_ on the pastoral, he merely states that the best models are Theocritus and Virgil. In short, one may say that in the "Treatise" the influence of the Ancients is dominant; in the _Réflexions_, "good _Sense_."

Reduced to its simplest terms, Rapin's theory is Virgilian. When deducing his theory from the works of Theocritus and Virgil, his preference is almost without exception for Virgil. Finding Virgil's eclogues refined and elegant, Rapin, with a suggestion from Donatus (p. 10 and p. 14), concludes that the pastoral "belongs properly to the _Golden Age_" (p. 37)--"that blessed time, when Sincerity and Innocence, Peace, Ease, and Plenty inhabited the Plains" (p. 5). Here, then, is the immediate source of the Golden Age eclogue, which, being transferred to England and popularised by Pope, flourished until the time of Dr. Johnson and Joseph Warton.

In France the most prominent opponent to the theory formulated by Rapin is Fontenelle. In his "Discours sur la Nature de l'Eglogue" (1688) Fontenelle, with studied and impertinent disregard for the Ancients and for "ceux qui professent cette espèce de religion que l'on s'est faite d'adorer l'antiquité," expressly states that the basic criterion by which he worked was "les lumières naturelles de la raison" (_OEuvres_, Paris, 1790, V, 36). It is careless and incorrect to imply that Rapin's and Fontenelle's theories of pastoral poetry are similar, as Pope, Joseph Warton, and many other critics and scholars have done. Judged by basic critical principles, method, or content there is a distinct difference between Rapin and Fontenelle. Rapin is primarily a neoclassicist in his "Treatise"; Fontenelle, a rationalist in his "Discours." It is this opposition, then, of neoclassicism and rationalism, that constitutes the basic issue of pastoral criticism in England during the Restoration and the early part of the eighteenth century.

When Fontenelle's "Discours" was translated in 1695, the first phrase of it quoted above was translated as "those Pedants who profess a kind of Religion which consists of worshipping the Ancients" (p.294). Fontenelle's phrase more nearly than that of the English translator describes Rapin. Though Rapin's erudition was great, he escaped the quagmire of pedantry. He refers most frequently to the scholiasts and editors in "_The First Part_" (which is so trivial that one wonders why he ever troubled to accumulate so much insignificant material), but after quoting them he does not hesitate to call their ideas "pedantial" (p. 24) and to refer to their statements as grammarian's "prattle" (p. 11). And, though at times it seems that his curiosity and industry impaired his judgment, Rapin does draw significant ideas from such scholars and critics as Quintilian, Vives, Scaliger, Donatus, Vossius, Servius, Minturno, Heinsius, and Salmasius.

Rapin's most prominent disciple in England is Pope. Actually, Pope presents no significant idea on this subject that is foreign to Rapin, and much of the language--terminology and set phrases--of Pope's "Discourse" comes directly from Rapin's "Treatise" and from the section on the pastoral in the _Reflections_. Contrary to his own statement that he "reconciled" some points on which the critics disagree and in spite of the fact that he quotes Fontenelle, Pope in his "Discourse" is a neoclassicist almost as thoroughgoing as Rapin. The ideas which he says he took from Fontenelle are either unimportant or may be found in Rapin. Pope ends his "Discourse" by drawing a general conclusion concerning his _Pastorals_: "But after all, if they have any merit, it is to be attributed to some good old authors, whose works as I had leisure to study, so I have not wanted care to imitate." This statement is diametrically opposed to the basic ideas and methods of Fontenelle, but in full accord with and no doubt directly indebted to those of Rapin.

The same year, 1717, that Pope 'imitated' Rapin's "Treatise," Thomas
Purney made a direct attack on Rapin's neoclassic procedure. In the
"Preface" to his own _Pastorals_ he expresses his disapproval of
Rapin's method, evidently with the second passage from Rapin quoted
above in mind:
_Rapine's_ Discourse is counted the best on this Poem, for 'tis
the longest. You will easily excuse my not mentioning all his
Defects and Errors in this Preface. I shall only say then, that
instead of looking into the true Nature of the Pastoral Poem,
and then judging whether _Theocritus_ or any of his Followers
have brought it to it's utmost Perfection or not. _Rapine_
takes it for granted that _Theocritus_ and _Virgil_ are
infallible; and aim's at nothing beyond showing the Rules which
he thinks they observ'd. Facetious Head! (_Works_, Oxford,
1933, pp. 51-52. The Peroy Reprints, No. XII)

The influence of Rapin on the development of the pastoral, nevertheless, was salutary. Finding the genre vitiated with wit, extravagance, and artificiality, he attempted to strip it of these Renaissance excrescencies and restore it to its pristine purity by direct reference to the Ancients--Virgil, in particular. Though Rapin does not have the psychological insight into the esthetic principles of the genre equal to that recently exhibited by William Empson or even to that expressed by Fontenelle, he does understand the intrinsic appeal of the pastoral which has enabled it to survive, and often to flourish, through the centuries in painting, music, and poetry. Perhaps his most explicit expression of this appreciation is made while he is discussing Horace's statement that the muses love the country: And to speak from the very bottome of my heart... methinks he is much more happy in a Wood, that at ease contemplates this universe, as his own, and in it, the Sun and Stars, the pleasing Meadows, shady Groves, green Banks, stately Trees, flowing Springs, and the wanton windings of a River, fit objects for quiet innocence, than he that with Fire and Sword disturbs the World, and measures his possessions by the wast that lys about him (p. 4).

René Rapin (1621-1687), in spite of his duties as a Jesuit priest and disputes with the Jansenists, became one of the most widely read men of his time and carried on the celebrated discussions about the Ancients with Maimbourg and Vavasseur. His _chef-d'oeuvre_ without contradiction is _Hortorum libri IV_. Like Virgil, Spenser, Pope, and many aspiring lesser poets, he began his literary career by writing pastorals, _Eclogae Sacrae_ (1659), to which is prefixed in Latin the original of "A Treatise de Carmine Pastorali."

J.E. Congleton
University of Florida

Reprinted here from the copy owned by the Boston Athenaeum by permission.

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A

TREATISE

de CARMINE PASTORALI

Written by RAPIN.

_The First Part_.

To be as short as possible in my discourse upon the present Subject, I shall not touch upon the Excellency of _Poetry_ in general; nor repeat those high _Encomiums_, (as that tis the most divine of all human Arts, and the like) which _Plato_ in his _Jone_, _Aristotele_ in his _Poetica_, and other Learned men have copiously insisted on: And this I do that I might more closely and briefly pursue my present design, which, no doubt will not please every man; for since I treat of that part of _Poetry_, which (to use _Quintilian's_ words,) by reason of its Clownishness, is affraid of the Court and City; some may imagine that I follow _Nichocaris_ his humor, who would paint only the most ugly and deform'd, and those too in the meanest and most frightful dress, that real, or fancy'd Poverty could put them in.

{2} For some think that to be a Sheapard is in it self mean, base, and sordid; And this I think is the first thing that the graver and soberer sort will be ready to object.

But if we consider how honorable that employment is, our Objectors from that Topick will be easily answer'd, for as _Heroick_ Poems owe their dignity to the Quality of _Heroes_, so _Pastorals_ to that of _Sheapards_.

Now to manifest this, I shall not rely on the authority of the _Fabulous_, and _Heroick_ Ages, tho, in the former, a God fed Sheep in _Thessaly_, and in the latter, _Hercules_ the Prince of _Heroes_, (as _Paterculus_ stiles him) graz'd on mount _Aventine_: These Examples, tis true, are not convinceing, yet they sufficiently shew that the employment of a Sheapard was sometime look'd upon to be such, as in those Fabulous times was not alltogether unbecomeing the _Dignity_ of a _Heroe_, or the _Divinity_ of a _God_: which consideration if it cannot be of force enough to procure excellence, yet certainly it may secure it from the imputation of baseness, since it was sometime lookt upon as fit for the greatest in Earth or Heaven.

But not to insist on the authority of _Poets_, _Sacred Writt_ tells us that _Jacob_ and _Esau_, two great men, were Sheapards; And _Amos_, one of the Royal Family, asserts the same of himself, for _He was_ among _the Sheapards of Tecua_, following that employment: The like by Gods own appointment {3} prepared _Moses_ for a Scepter, as _Philo_ intimates in his life, when He tells us, _that a Sheapards Art is a suitable preparation to a Kingdome_; the same He mentions in the Life of _Joseph_, affirming that the care a Sheapard hath over his Cattle, very much resembles that which a King hath over his Subjects: The same _Basil_ in his Homily de _S. Mamm. Martyre_ hath concerning _David_, who was taken from following the Ews great with young ones to feed _Israel_, for He says that the Art of feeding and governing are very near akin, and even Sisters: And upon this account I suppose twas, that Kings amongst the _Greeks_ reckoned the name of Sheapard one of their greatest titles, for, if we believe _Varro_, amongst the Antients, the best and bravest was still a Sheapard: Every body knows that the _Romans_ the worthiest and greatest Nation in the World sprang from _Sheapards_: The Augury of the Twelve Vulturs plac't a Scepter in _Romulus's_ hand which held a Crook before; and at that time, as _Ovid_ says,

His own small Flock each Senator did keep.

_Lucretius_ mentions an extraordinary happiness, and as it were Divinity in a _Sheaperd's_ life,

Thro Sheapards ease, and their Divine retreats.

And this is the reason, I suppose, why the solitude of the Country, the shady Groves, and security of that happy Quiet was so grateful to the Muses, for thus _Horace_ represents them,

{4} The Muses that the Country Love.

Which Observation was first made by _Mnasalce_ the _Sicyonian_ in his Epigram upon _Venus_

The Rural Muse upon the Mountains feeds.

For sometimes the Country is so raveshing and delightful, that twill raise Wit and Spirit even in the dullest Clod, And in truth, amongst so many heats of Lust and Ambition which usually fire our Citys, I cannot see what retreat, what comfort is left for a chast and sober Muse.

And to speak from the very bottome of my heart, (not to mention the integrity and innocence of Sheapards upon which so many have insisted, and so copiously declaimed) methinks he is much more happy in a Wood, that at ease contemplates this universe, as his own, and in it, the Sun and Stars, the pleasing Meadows, shady Groves, green Banks, stately Trees, flowing Springs, and the wanton windings of a River, fit objects for quiet innocence, than he that with Fire and Sword disturbs the World, and measures his possessions by the wast that lys about him: _Augustus_ in the remotest East fights for peace, but how tedious were his Voyages? how troublesome his Marches? how great his disquiets? what fears and hopes distracted his designs? whilst _Tityrus_ contented with a little, happy in the enjoyment of his Love, and at ease under his spreading Beech.

Taught Trees to sound his _Amaryllis_ name.

{5} On the one side _Meliboeus_ is forc't to leave his Country, and _Antony_ on the other; the one a Sheapard, the other a great man, in the Common-Wealth; how disagreeable was the Event? the Sheapard could endure himself; and sit down contentedly under his misfortunes, whilst lost _Antony_, unable to hold out, and quitting all hopes both for himself and his Queen, became his own barbarous Executioner: Than which sad and deplorable fall I cannot imagine what could be worse, for certainly nothing is so miserable as a Wretch made so from a flowrishing & happy man; by which tis evident how much we ought to prefer before the gaity of a great and shining State, that Idol of the Crowd, the lowly simplicity of a Sheapards Life: for what is that but a perfect image of the state of Innocence, of that golden Age, that blessed time, when Sincerity and Innocence, Peace, Ease, and Plenty inhabited the Plains?

Take the Poets description

Here Lowly Innocence makes a sure retreat,
A harmless Life, and ignorant of deceit,
and free from fears with various sweet's encrease,
And all's or'e spread with the soft wings of Peace:
Here Oxen low, here Grots, and purling Streams,
And Spreading shades invite to easy dreams.

And thus Horace,

Happy the man beyond pretence
Such was the state of Innocence, &c.

{6} And from this head I think the dignity of _Bucolicks_ is sufficiently cleared, for as much as the Golden Age is to be preferred before the _Heroick_, so much _Pastorals_ must excell _Heroick_ Poems: yet this is so to be understood, that if we look upon the majesty and loftiness of _Heroick_ Poems, it must be confest that they justly claim the preheminence; but if the unaffected neatness, elegant, graceful smartness of the expression, or the polite dress of a Poem be considered, then they fall short of _Pastorals_: for this sort flows with Sweet, Elegant, neat and pleasing fancies; as is too evident to every one that hath tasted the sweeter muses, to need a farther explication: for tis not probable that _Asinius Pollio_, _Cinna_, _Varius_, _Cornelius Gallus_, men of the neatest Wit, and that lived in the most polite Age, or that _Augustus Cæsar_ the Prince of the _Roman_ elegance, as well as of the common Wealth, should be so extreamly taken with _Virgils Bucolicks_, or that _Virgil_ himself a man of such singular prudence, and so correct a judgment, should dedicate his Eclogues to those great Persons; unless he had known that there is somewhat more then ordinary Elegance in those sort of Composures, which the wise perceive, tho far above the understanding of the Crowd: nay if _Ludovicus Vives_, a very learned man, and admired for politer studies may be believed, there is somewhat more sublime and excellent in those _Pastorals_, than the Common {7} sort of Grammarians imagine: This I shall discourse of in an other place, and now inquire into the Antiquity of Pastorals.

Since _Linus_, _Orpheus_, and _Eumolpus_ were famous for their Poems, before the _Trojan_ wars; those are certainly mistaken, who date Poetry from that time; I rather incline to their opinion who make it as old as the World it self; which Assertion as it ought to be understood of Poetry in general, so especially of _Pastoral_, which, as _Scaliger_ delivers, was the most antient kind of Poetry, and resulting from the most _antient_ way of Liveing: _Singing first began amongst Sheapards as they fed their Flocks, either by the impulse of nature, or in imitation of the notes of Birds, or the whispering of Trees._

For since the first men were either _Sheapards_ or _Ploughmen_, and _Sheapards_, as may be gathered out of _Thucydides_ and _Varro_, were before the others, they were the first that either invited by their leisure, or (which _Lucretius_ thinks more probable) in imitation of Birds, began a tune.

Thro all the Woods they heard the pleasing noise
Of chirping Birds, and try'd to frame their voice,
And Imitate, thus Birds instructed man,
And taught them Songs before their Art began.

In short, tis so certain that Verses first began in the Country that the thing is in it self evident, and this _Tibullus_ very plainly signifies,

{8} First weary at his Plough the labouring Hind
In certain feet his rustick words did bind:
His dry reed first he tun'd at sacred feasts
To thanks the bounteous Gods, and cheer his Guests.

_In certain feet_ according to _Bern Cylenius_ of _Verona_ his interpretation _in set measures_: for _Censorinus_ tells us, that the antient Songs were loose and not ty'd up to any strict numbers, and afterwards by certain laws and acknowledged rules were confin'd to such and such measures: for this is the method of Nature in all her works, from imperfect and rude beginnings things take their first rise, and afterwards by fit and apposite additions are polish't, and brought to perfection: such were the Verses which heretofore the _Italian_ Sheapards and Plough-men, as _Virgil_ says, sported amongst themselves.

Italian Plough-men sprung from antient _Troy_
Did sport unpolish't Rhymes--

_Lucretius_ in his Fifth Book _de Natura Rerum_, says, that Sheapards were first taught by the rushing of soft Breezes amongst the Canes to blow their Reeds, and so by degrees to put their Songs in tune.

For Whilst soft Evening Gales blew or'e the Plains
And shook the sounding Reeds, they taught the Swains,
And thus the Pipe was fram'd, and tuneful Reed,
And whilst the Flocks did then securely feed,
The harmless Sheapards tun'd their Pipes to Love,
{9} And Amaryllis name fill'd every Grove.

From all which tis very plain that _Poetry_ began in those days, when Sheapards took up their employment: to this agrees _Donatus_ in his Life of _Virgil_, and _Pontanus_ in his Fifth Book of Stars, as appears by these Verses.

Here underneath a shade by purling Springs
The Sheapards Dance, whilst sweet _Amyntas_ sings;
Thus first the new found Pipe was tun'd to Love,
And Plough-men taught their Sweet hearts to the Grove,

Thus the _Fescennine_ jests when they sang harvest-home, and then too the Grape gatherers and Reapers Songs began, an elegant example of which we have in the Tenth _Idyllium_ of _Theocritus_.

From this birth, as it were, of _Poetry_, Verse began to grow up to greater matters; For from the common discourse of _Plough-men_ and _Sheapards_, first _Comedy_, that Mistress of a private Life, next _Tragedy_, and then _Epick Poetry_ which is lofty and _Heroical_ arrose, This _Maximus Tyrius_ confirms in his Twenty first dissetation, where he tells us that Plough-men just comeing from their work, and scarce cleansed from the filth of their employment, did use to flurt out some sudden and _extempore_ Catches; and from this beginning Plays were produc'd and the Stage erected: Thus {10} much concerning the _Antiquity_, next of the _Original_ of this sort.

About this Learned men cannot agree, for who was the first Author, is not sufficiently understood; _Donatus_, tis true, tells us tis proper to the Golden Age, and therefore must needs be the product of that happy time: but who was the Author, where, what time it was first invented hath been a great Controversy, and not yet sufficiently determined: _Epicharmus_ one of _Pythagoras_ his School, in his *alkyoni* mentions one _Diomus_ a _Sicilian_, who, if we believe _Athænæus_ was the first that wrote _Pastorals: those that fed Cattle had a peculiar kind of Poetry, call'd Bucolicks, of which Dotimus a Sicilian was inventer:_

_Diodorus Siculus_ *en tois mythologoumenois*, seems to make _Daphnis_ the son of _Mercury_ and a certain _Nymph_, to be the Author; and agreeable to this, _Theon_ an old _scholiast_ on _Theocritus_, in his notes upon the first _Idyllium_ mentioning _Daphnis_, adds, _he was the author of Bucolicks_, and _Theocritus himself_ calls him _the Muses Darling_: and to this Opinion of _Diodorus Siculus Polydore Virgil_ readily assents.

But _Mnaseas_ of _Patara_ in a discourse of his concerning _Europa_, speaks thus of a Son of _Pan_ the God of Sheapards: _Panis Filium Bubulcum à quo & Bucolice canere:_ Now Whether _Mnaseas_ by that _Bubulcum_, means only a _Herds-man_, or one skilled in _Bucolicks_, is uncertain; but if _Valla's_ {11} judgment be good, tis to be taken of the latter: yet _Ælian_ was of another mind, for he boldly affirms that _Stesichorus_ called _Himeræus_ was the first, and in the same place adds, that _Daphnis_ the Son of _Mercury_ was the first Subject of _Bucolicks_.

Some ascribe the Honor to _Bacchus_ the President of the _Nymphs, Satyrs_, and the other Country Gods, perhaps because he delighted in the Country; and others attribute it to _Apollo_ called _Nomius_ the God of Sheapards, and that he invented it then when he served _Admetus_ in _Thessaly_, and fed his Herds: For, tis likely, he to recreate himself, and pass away his time, applied his mind to such Songs as were best suitable to his present condition: Many think we owe it to _Pan_ the God of Sheapards, not a few to _Diana_ that extreamly delighted in solitude and Woods; and some say _Mercury_ himself: of all which whilst _Grammarians_ prattle, according to their usual custome they egregiously trifle; they suffer themselves to be put upon by Fables, and resign their judgment up to foolish pretentions, but things and solid truth is that we seek after.

As about the Author, so concerning the place of its Birth there is a great dispute, some say _Sparta_, others _Peloponesus_, but most are for _Sicily_.

_Valla the Placentine_, a curious searcher into Antiquity, thinks this sort of Poetry first appear'd amongst the _Lacedemonians_, for when the _Persians_ had wasted allmost all _Greece_, the _Spartans_ say {12} that they for fear of the _Barbarians_ fled into Caves and lurking holes; and that the Country Youth then began to apply themselves in Songs to _Diana Caryatis_, together with the Maids, who midst their Songs offerd Flowers to the Goddess: which custome containing somewhat of Religion was in those places a long time very scrupulously observed.

_Diomedes_ the Grammarian, in his treatise of _Measures_, declares _Sicily_ to be the Place: for thus he says, the _Sicilian_ Sheapards in time of a great _Pestilence_, began to invent new Ceremonies to appease incensed _Diana_, whom afterward, for affording her help, and stopping the Plague they called *Lyên*: _i.e._ the _Freer_ from their Miserys. This grew into custom, and the Sheapards used to meet in Companies, to sing their deliverer _Diana's_ praise, and these afterwards passing into _Italy_ were there named _Bucoliastæ_.

_Pomponius Sabinus_ tells the story thus: When the Hymns the Virgins us'd to sing in the Country to _Diana_ were left off, because, by reason of the present Wars, the Maidens were forc't to keep close within the Towns; the Shepherds met, and sang these kind of Songs, which are now call'd _Bucolicks_, to _Diana_; to whom they could not give the usual worship by reason of the Wars: But _Donatus_ says, that this kind of Verses was first sung to _Diana_ by _Orestes_, when he wandred about _Italy_; after he fled from _Scythia Taurica_, and had {13} taken away the Image of the Goddess and hid it in a bundle of sticks, whence she receiv'd the name of _Fascelina_, or _Phacelide_ *apo tou phakelou* At whose Altar, the very same _Orestes_ was afterward expiated by his Sister _Iphigenia_: But how can any one rely on such Fables, when the inconsiderable Authors that propose them disagree so much amongst themselves?

Some are of Opinion that the Shepherds, were wont in solem and set Songs about the Fields and Towns to celebrate the Goddess _Pales_; and beg her to bless their flocks and fields with a plenteous encrease and that from hence the name, and composure of _Bucolicks_ continued.

Other prying ingenious Men make other conjectures, as to this mazing Controversy thus _Vossius_ delivers himself; _The Antients cannot be reconcil'd, but I rather incline to their opinion who think_ Bucolicks _were invented either by the_ Sicilians _or_ Peloponesians, _for both those use the_ Dorick _dialect, and all the_ Greek Bucolicks _are writ in that_: As for my self I think, that what _Horace_ says of _Elegies_ may be apply'd to the present Subject.

But who soft Elegies was the first that wrote
Grammarians doubt, and cannot end the doubt:

For I find nothing certain about this matter, since neither _Valla_ a diligent inquirer after, and a good judge in such things, nor any of the late writers produce any thing upon which I can safely rely; yet what beginning this kind of Poetry {14} had, I think I can pretty well conjecture: for tis likely that first Shepherds us'd Songs to recreate themselves in their leisure hours whilst they fed their Sheep; and that each man, as his wit served, accommodated his Songs to his present Circumstances: to this Solitude invited, and the extream leisure that attends that employment absolutely requir'd it: For as their retirement gave them leisure, and Solitude a fit place for Meditation, Meditation and Invention produc'd a Verse; which is nothing else but a Speech fit to be sung, and so Songs began: Thus _Hesiod_ was made a Poet, for he acknowledges himself that he receiv'd his inspiration;

Whilst under _Helicon_ he fed his Lambs.

for either the leisure or fancy of Shepherds seems to have a natural aptitude to Verse.

And indeed I cannot but agree with _Lucretius_ that accurate Searcher into Nature, who delivers that from that state of Innocence the Golden Age, Pastorals continued down to his time, for after he had in his fifth book describ'd that most happy age, he adds,

For then the Rural Muses reign'd.

From whence 'tis very plain, that as _Donatus_ himself observ'd, Pastorals were the invention of the simplicity and innocence of that Golden age, if there was ever any such, or certainly of that time which succeeded the beginning of the World: For tho the Golden Age must be acknowledged {15} to be only in the fabulous times, yet 'tis certain that the Manners of the first Men were so plain and simple, that we may easily derive both the innocent imployment of Shepherds, and Pastorals from them.

{16} _The Second_ PART.

Now let us inquire into the nature of _Pastoral_, in what its excellencies consist, and how it must be made to be exact: And this must needs be a hard Task, since I have no guide, neither _Aristotle_ nor _Horace_ to direct me; for both they, whatever was the matter, speak not one word of this sort of Verse. And I am of opinion that none can treat well and clearly of any kind of _Poetry_ if he hath no helps from these two: But since they lay down some general Notions of _Poetry_ which may be useful in the present case, I shall follow their steps as close as possible I can.

Not only _Aristotle_ but _Horace_ too hath defin'd that _Poetry_ in general is Imitation; I mention only these two, for tho _Plato_ in his Second Book _de Rep._ and in his _Timæus_ delivers the same thing, I shall not make use of his Authority at all: Now as _Comedy_ according to _Aristotle_ is the _Image and Representation of a gentiel and City Life_, so is _Pastoral Poetry_ of a County and _Sheapards_ Life; for since _Poetry_ in general is Imitation; its several _Species_ must likewise Imitate, take _Aristotles_ own words _Cap._ 1. *pasai tynchanousin ousa mimêseis*; And these _Species_ are {17} differenc't either by the subject matter, when the things to be imitated are quite different, or when the manner in which you imitate, or the mode of imitation is so: *en trisi dê tautais diaphorais hê mimêsis estin, en hois kai ha, kai hôs*: Thus tho of _Epick_ Poetry and _Tragedy_ the Subject is the same, and some great illustrious Action is to be _imitated_ by both, yet since one by representation, and the other by plain narration imitates, each makes a different _Species_ of imitation. And _Comedy_ and _Tragedy_, tho they agree in this, that both represent, yet because the Matter is different, and _Tragedy_ must represent some brave action, and _Comedy_ a humor; these Two sorts of imitation are _Specifically different_. And upon the same account, since _Pastoral_ chooses the mannes of Sheapards for its imitation, it takes from its matter a peculiar difference, by which it is distinguish'd frõ all others.

But here _Benius_ in his comments upon _Aristotle_ hath started a considerable query: which is this; Whether _Aristotle_, when he reckons up the different _Species_ of Poetry _Cap_ 1. doth include _Pastoral,_ or no? And about this I find learn'd men cannot at all agree: which certainly _Benius_ should have determin'd, or not rais'd: some refer it to that sort which _was sung to Pipes_, for that _Pastorals_ were so _Apuleius_ intimates, when at the marriage Feast of _Phyche_ He brings in _Paniscus_ singing _Bucolicks_ to his Pipe; But since they did not seriously enough consider, what _Aristotle_ {18} meant by that which he calls *aulêtikên* they trifle, talk idly, and are not to be heeded in this matter; For suppose some _Musitian_ should sing _Virgils Ænæis_ to the Harp, (and _Ant. Lullus_ says it hath been done,) should we therefore reckon that divine and incomparable Master of _Heroick_ Poetry amongst the _Lyricks_?

Others with _Cæsius Bassus_ and _Isacius Tzetzes_ hold that that distribution of _Poetry_, which _Aristotle_ and _Tully_ hath left us, is deficient and imperfect; and that only the chief Species are reckoned, but the more inconsiderable not mention'd: I shall not here interest my self in that quarrel of the _Criticks_, whether we have all _Aristotles_ books of Poetry or no; this is a considerable difficulty I confess, for _Laertius_ who accurately weighs this matter, says that he wrote two books of _Poetry_, the one lost, and the other we have, tho _Mutinensis_ is of an other mind: but to end this dispute, I must agree with _Vossius_, who says the Philosopher comprehended these Species not expressly mentioned, under a higher and more noble head: and that therefore _Pastoral_ was contain'd in _Epick_. for these are his own words, _besides there are Epicks of an inferior rank, such as the Writers of Bucolicks_. _Sincerus_, as _Minturnus_ quotes him, is of the same mind, for thus he delivers his opinion concerning _Epick Verse_: _The matters about which these numbers may be employed is various; either mean and low, as in Pastorals, great and lofty, as when {19} the Subject is Divine Things, or Heroick Actions, or of a middle rank, as when we use them to deliver precepts in:_ And this likewise he signifys before, where he sets down three sorts of _Epicks_: _one of which, says he, is divine, and the most excellent by much in all Poetry_; the _other the lowest but most pure, in which Theocritus excelled, which indeed shews nothing of Poetry beside the bare numbers_: These points being thus settled, the remaining difficultys will be more easily dispatched.

For as in _Dramatick_ Poetry the Dignity and meanness of the _Persons_ represented make two different _Species of imitation_ the one _Tragick_, which agrees to none but great and Illustrious persons, the other _Comick_, which suits with common and gentile humors: so in _Epick_ too, there may be reckoned two sorts of _Imitation_, one of which belongs to _Heroes_, and that makes the _Heroick_; the other to _Rusticks_ and _Sheapards_ and that constitutes the _Pastoral_, now as a _Picture_ imitates the Features of the face, so _Poetry_ doth action, and tis not a representation of the Person but the Action.

From all which we may gather this definition of Pastoral: _It is the imitation of the Action of a Sheapard, or of one taken under that Character_: Thus _Virgil's Gallus_, tho not really a _Sheapard_, for he was a man of great quality in _Rome_, yet belongs to _Pastoral_, because he is represented like a Sheapard: hence the Poet:

{20} The Goatherd and the heavy Heardsmen came,
And ask't what rais'd the deadly Flame.

The _Scene_ lys amongst Sheapards, the _Swains_ are brought in, the _Herdsmen_ come to see his misery, and the fiction is suited to the real condition of a _Sheapard_; the same is to be said for his _Silenus_, who tho he seems lofty, and to sound to loud for an oaten reed, yet since what he sings he sings to _Sheapards_, and suits his Subject to their apprehensions, his is to be acknowledged _Pastoral_. This rule we must stick to, that we might infallibly discern what is stricktly _Pastoral_ in _Virgil_ and _Theocritus_, and what not: for in _Theocritus_ there are some more lofty thoughts which not having any thing belonging to Sheapards for their Subject, must by no means be accounted _Pastoral_, But of this more in its proper place.

My present inquiry must be what is the _Subject Matter_ of a _Pastoral_, about which it is not easy to resolve; since neither from _Aristotle_, nor any of the _Greeks_ who have written _Pastorals_, we can receive certain direction. For sometimes they treat of high and sublime things, like _Epick Poets_; what can be loftier than the whole _Seaventh Idyllium of Bias_ in which _Myrsan_ urges _Lycidas_ the Sheapard to sing the Loves of _Deidamia_ and _Achilles_. For he begins from _Helen's_ rape, and goes on to the revengful fury of the _Atrides_, and shuts up in one _Pastoral_, all that is great and sounding in _Homers Iliad_.

{21} Sparta was fir'd with Rage
And gather'd Greece to prosecute Revenge.

And _Theocritus_ his verses are sometimes as sounding and his thoughts as high: for upon serious consideration I cannot mind what part of all the _Heroicks_ is so strong and sounding as that _Idyllium_ on _Hercules_ *leontophonô* in which _Hercules_ himself tells _Phyleus_ how he kill'd the Lyon whose Skin he wore: for, not to mention many, what can be greater than this expression.

And gaping Hell received his mighty Soul:

Why should I instance in the *dioskouroi*, which hath not one line below Heroick; the greatness of this is almost inexpressible.

*anêr hyperoplos enêmeros, endiaaske
deinos idein*

And some other pieces are as strong as these, such is the _Panegyrick on Ptolemy_, _Helen's Epithalamium_, and the Fight of young _Hercules_ and the Snakes: now how is it likely that such Subjects should be fit for _Pastorals_, of which in my opinion, the same may be said which _Ovid_ doth of his _Cydippe_.

Cydippe, Homer, doth not fit thy Muse.

For certainly _Pastorals_ ought not to rise to the Majesty of _Heroicks_: but who on the other side {22} dares reprehend such great and judicious Authors, whose very doing it is Authority enough? What shall I say of _Virgil_? who in his Sixth _Eclogue_ hath put together allmost all the particulars of the fabulous Age; what is so high to which _Silenus_ that Master of Mysterys doth not soar?

For lo! he sung the Worlds stupendious birth,
How scatter'd seeds of sea, of Air, and Earth,
And purer Fire thro universal night
And empty space did fruitfully unite:
From whence th' innumerable race of things
By circular successive order springs:

And afterward

How Pyrra's Stony race rose from the ground,
And Saturn reign'd with Golden plenty crown'd,
How bold _Prometheus_ (whose untam'd desire,
Rival'd the Sun with his own Heavenly Fire)
Now doom'd the _Scythian_ Vulturs endless prey
Severely pays for Animating Clay:

So true, so certain 'tis, that nothing is so high and lofty to which _Bucolicks_ may not successfully aspire. But if this be so, what will become of _Macrobius, Georgius Valla, Julius Scaliger, Vossius,_ and the whole company of Grammarians? who all affirm that simplicity and meanness is so essential to _Pastorals_, that it ought to be confin'd to the State, Manners, Apprehension and even common phrases of Sheapards: for nothing can {23} be said to be _Pastoral_, which is not accommodated to their condition; and for this Reason _Nannius Alcmaritanus_ in my opinion is a trifler, who, in his comments on _Virgils Eclogues_, thinks that those sorts of Composures may now and then be lofty, and treat of great subjects: where he likewise divides the matter of _Bucolicks_, into _Low_, _Middle_, and _High_: and makes _Virgil_ the Author of this Division, who in his Fourth _Eclogue_, (as he imagines) divides the matter of _Bucolicks_ into Three sorts, and intimates this division by these three words: _Bushes_, _Shrubs_ and _Woods_.

Sicilian Muse begin a loftier strain,
The Bushes and the Shrubs that shade the Plain
Delight not all; if I to Woods repair
My Song shall make them worth a Consuls Care.

By Woods, as he fancys, as _Virgil_ means high and stately Trees, so He would have a great and lofty Subject to to be implyed, such as he designed for the _Consul_: by Bushes, which are almost even with the ground, the meanest and lowest argument; and by Shrubs a Subject not so high as the one, nor so low as the other, as the thing it-self is, And therefore these lines

If I to Woods repair
My Song shall make them worth a _Consuls_ care.

{24} are thus to be understood, That if we choose high and sublime arguments, our work will be fit for the Patronage of a _Consul_, This is _Nanniu's_ interpretation of that place; too pedantial and subtle I'me affraid, for tis not credible that ever _Virgil_ thought of reckoning great and lofty things amongst the Subjects of _Bucolicks_ especially since

When his _Thalia_ rais'd her bolder voice
And Kings and Battles were her lofty choice,
_Phoebus_ did twitch his Ear, mean thoughts infuse,
And with this whisper check't th' inspiring Muse.
A Sheapard, Tityrus, his Sheep should feed,
And choose a subject suited to his reed,

This certainly was a serious admonition, implyed by the twitching of his Ear, and I believe if he had continued in this former humor and not obey'd the smarting admonition. He had still felt it: so far was he from thinking Kings and Battels fit Themes for a _Sheapards_ song: and this evidently shows that in _Virgils_ opinion, contrary to _Nanniu's_ fancy, great things cannot in the least be comprehended within the subject matter of _Pastorals;_ no, it must be low and humble, which _Theocritus_ very happily expresseth by this word *Boukoliasdên* _i.e._ as the interpreters explain it, sing humble Strains.

Theefore let _Pastoral_ never venture upon a {25} lofty subject, let it not recede one jot from its proper matter, but be employ'd about Rustick affairs: such as are mean and humble in themselves; and such are the affairs of Shepherds, especially their Loves, but those must be pure and innocent; not disturb'd by vain suspitious jealousy, nor polluted by Rapes; The Rivals must not fight, and their emulations must be without quarrellings: such as _Vida_ meant.

Whilst on his Reed he Shepherd's stifes conveys,
And soft complaints in smooth Sicilian lays.

To these may be added _sports_, _Jests_, _Gifts_, and _Presents_; but not _costly_, such are yellow Apples, young stock-Doves, Milk, Flowers, and the like; all things must appear delightful and easy, nothing vitious and rough: A perfidious Pimp, a designing Jilt, a gripeing Usurer, a crafty factious Servant must have no room there, but every part must be full of the simplicity of the _Golden-Age_, and of that Candor which was then eminent: for as _Juvenal affirms_

Baseness was a great wonder in that Age;

Sometimes _Funeral-Rites_ are the subject of an _Eclogue_, where the Shepherds scatter flowers on the Tomb, and sing Rustick Songs in honor of the Dead: Examples of this kind are left us by _Virgil_ in his _Daphnis_, and _Bion_ in his _Adonis_, and this hath nothing disagreeable to a Shepherd: In {26} short whatever, the decorum being still preserv'd, can be done by a _Sheapard_, may be the Subject of a _Pastoral_.

Now there may be more kinds of Subjects than _Servius_ or _Donatus_ allow, for they confine us to that Number which _Virgil_ hath made use of, tho _Minturnus_ in his second Book _de Poetâ_ declares against this opinion: But as a glorious _Heroick_ action must be the Subject of an _Heroick_ Poem, so a _Pastoral_ action of a _Pastoral_; at least it must be so turn'd and wrought, that it might appear to be the action of a _Shepherd_; which caution is very necessary to be observ'd, to clear a great many difficulties in this matter: for tho as the Interpreters assure us; most of _Virgils_ Eclogues are about the Civil war, planting Colonys, the murder of the Emperor, and the like, which in themselves are too great and too lofty for humble _Pastoral_ to reach, yet because they are accomodated to the Genius of Shepherds, may be the Subject of an _Eclogue_, for that sometimes will admit of Gods and Heroes so they appear like, and are shrouded under the Persons of Shepherds: But as for these matters which neither really are, nor are so wrought as to seem the actions of Shepherds, such are in _Moschus's_ _Europa_, _Theocritus's_ _Epithalamium of Helen_, and _Virgil's_ _Pollio_, to declare my opinion freely, I cannot think them to be fit Subjects for _Bucolicks_: And upon this account I suppose 'tis that _Servius_ in his {27} Comments on _Virgil's_ _Bucoliks_ reckons only seven of _Virgil's_ ten Eclogues, and onely ten of _Theocritus's_ thirty, to be pure Pastorals, and _Salmasius_ upon _Solinus_ says, that _amongst Theocritus's_ _Poems there are some which you may call what you please Beside Pastorals_: and _Heinsius_ in his _Scholia_ upon _Theocritus_ will allow but Ten of his _Idylliums_ to be _Bucoliks_, 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 11. for all the rest are deficient either in matter or form, and from this number of pure pastoral _Idylliums_ I am apt to think, that _Theocritus_ seems to have made that Pipe, on which he tun'd his _Pastorals_ and which he consecrated to _Pan_ of ten Reeds, as _Salmasius_ in his notes on _Theocritus's_ Pipe hath learnedly observed: _in which two Verses always make one Reed of the Pipe, therefore all are so unequal, like the unequal Reeds of a Pipe, that if you put two equals together which make one Reed, the whole inequality consists in ten pairs_; when in the common Pipes there were usually no more then seven Reeds, and this the less curious observers have heedlessly past by.

Some are of opinion that whatever is done in the Country, and in one word, every thing that hath nought of the City in it may be treated of in _Pastorals_; and that the discourse of Fishers, Plow-men, Reapers, Hunters, and the like, belong to this kind of Poetry: which according to the Rule that I have laid down cannot be true for, as I before hinted nothing but the action of a {28} Shepherd can be the Subject of a Pastoral.

I shall not here enquire, tho it may seem proper, whether we can decently bring into an Eclogue Reapers, Vine-dressers, Gardners, Fowlers, Hunters, Fishers, or the like, whose lives for the most part are taken up with too much business and employment to have any vacant time for Songs, and idle Chat, which are more agreeable to the leisure of a Sheapards Life: for in a great many Rustick affairs, either the hardship and painful Labor will not admit a song, as in Plowing, or the solitude as in hunting, Fishing, Fowling, and the like; but of this I shall discourse more largely in another place.

Now 'tis not sufficient to make a Poem a true _Pastoral_, that the Subject of it is the action of a Shepherd, for in _Hesiods_ *erga* and _Virqils Georgicks_ there are a great many things that belong to the employment of a Shepherd, yet none fancy they are Pastorals; from whence 'tis evident, that beside the _matter_, which we have defin'd to be the action of a Sheapard, there is a peculiar _Form_ proper to this kind of _Poetry_ by which 'tis distinguish'd from all others.

Of Poetry in General _Socrates_, as _Plato_ tells us, would have _Fable_ to be the _Form_: _Aristotle_ Imitation: I shall not dispute what difference there is between these two, but only inquire whether Imitation be the _Form_ of _Pastoral_: 'Tis certain that _Epick_ Poetry is differenc't from _Tragick_ only by {29} the manner of imitation, for the latter imitates by _action_, and the former by bare _narration_: But _Pastoral_ is the imitation of a _Pastoral_ action either by bare narration, as in _Virgil's_ _Alexis_, and _Theocritus's_ 7th _Idyllium_, in which the Poet speaks all along in his own Person: or by action as in _Virgil's_ _Tityrus_, and the first of _Theocritus_, or by both mixt, as in the Second and Eleventh _Idylliums_, in which the Poet partly speaks in his own Person, and partly makes others speak, and I think the old _Scholiast_ on _Theocritus_ took an hint from these when he says, that Pastoral is a mixture made up of all sorts, for 'tis Narrative, Dramatick, and mixt, and _Aristotle_, tho obscurely, seems to hint in those words, _In every one of the mentioned Arts there is Imitation, in some simple, in some mixt_; now this latter being peculiar to _Bucolicks_ makes its very form and Essence: and therefore _Scaliger_, in the 4th Chapter of his first Book of Poetry, reckons up three Species of _Pastorals_, the first hath but one Person, the second several, which sing alternately; the third is mixt of both the other: And the same observation is made by _Heinsius_ in his Notes on _Theocritus_, for thus he very plainly to our purpose, _the Character of_ Bucolicks _is a mixture of all sorts of Characters, Dramatick, Narrative, or mixt_: from all which 'tis very manifest that the manner of _Imitation_ which is proper to _Pastorals_ is the mixt: for in other kinds of Poetry 'tis one and simple, at least {30} not so manifold; as in _Tragedy Action_: in _Epick_ Poetry _Narration_.

Now I shall explain what sort of _Fable_; _Manners_, _Thought_, _Expression_, which four are necessary to constitute every kind of Poetry, are proper to this sort.

Concerning the Fable which _Aristotle_ calls, *synthesin tôn pragmatôn*, I have but one thing to say: this, as the Philosopher hints, as of all other sorts of Poetry, so of Pastoral is the very Soul. and therfore _Socrates_ in _Plato_ says, that in those Verses which he had made there was nothing wanting but the _Fable_: therefore Pastorals as other kinds of Poetry must have their Fable, if they will be Poetry: Thus in _Virgil's_ _Silenus_ which contains the Stories of allmost the whole Fabulous Age, two Shepherds whom _Silenus_ had often promis'd a Song, and as often deceived, seize upon him being drunk and asleep, and bind him with wreath'd Flowers; _Ægle_ comes in and incourages the timorous youths, and stains his jolly red Face with Blackberries, _Silenus_ laughs at their innocent contrivance, and desires to be unbound, and then with a premeditated Song satisfies the Nymph's and Boys Curiosity; The incomparable Poet sings wonders, the Rocks rejoyce, the Vales eccho, and happy _Eurotas_ as if _Phoebus_ himself sang, hears all, and bids the Laurels that grow upon his Banks listen to, and learn the Song.

{31} Happy _Eurotas_ as he flow'd along
Heard all, and bad the Laurels learn the Song.

Thus every Eclogue or Idyllium must have its Fable, which must be the groundwork of the whole design, but it must not be perplext with sudden and unlookt for changes, as in _Marinus's_ _Adonis_: for that, tho the _Fable_ be of a Shepherd, yet by reason of the strange Bombast under Plots, and wonderful occurences, cannot be accounted _Pastoral_; for that it might be agreeable to the Person it treats of, it must be plain and simple, such as _Sophocles's_ _Ajax_, in which there is not so much as one change of Fortune. As for the Manners, let that precept, which _Horace_ lays down in his Epistle to the _Pisones_, be principally observed.

Let each be grac't with that which suits him best.

For this, as 'tis a rule relateing to _Poetry_ in general, so it respects this kind also of which we are treating; and against this _Tasso_ in his _Amyntas_, _Bonarellus_ in his _Phyllis_, _Guarinus_ in his _Pastor Fido_, _Marinus_ in his _Idylliums_, and most of the _Italians_ grievously offend, for they make their _Shepherds_ too polite, and elegant, and cloth them with all the neatness of the Town, and Complement of the Court, which tho it may seem very pretty, yet amongst good _Critics_, let _Veratus_ {32} say what he will in their excuse, it cannot be allowed: For 'tis against _Minturnus's_ Opinion, who in his second Book _de Poetâ_ says thus: _Mean Persons are brought in, those in Comedy indeed more polite, those in Pastorals more unelegant, as suppos'd to lead a rude life in Solitude_; and _Jason Denor_ a Doctor of _Padua_ takes notice of the same as a very absurd Error: _Aristotle_ heretofore for a like fault reprehended the _Megarensians_, who observ'd no _Decorum_ in their _Theater_, but brought in mean persons with a Train fit for a _King_ and cloath'd a Cobler or Tinker in a Purple Robe: In vain doth _Veratus_ in his Dispute against _Jason Denor_, to defend those elaborately exquisite discourses, and notable sublime sentences of his _Pastor Fido_, bring some lofty _Idylliums_ of _Theocritus_, for those are not acknowledged to be Pastoral; _Theocritus_ and _Virgil_ must be consulted in this matter, the former designdly makes his Shepherds discourse in the _Dorick_ i. e. the Rustick Dialect, sometimes scarce true Grammar; & the other studiously affects ignorance in the persons of his Shepherds, as _Servius_ hath observ'd, and is evident in _Melibæus_, who makes _Oaxes_ to be a River in _Crete_ when 'tis in _Mesopotamia_: and both of them take this way that the Manners may the more exactly suit with the Persons they represent, who of themselves are rude and unpolisht: And this proves that they scandalously err, who make their Shepherds appear polite and elegant; nor can I imagine what _Veratus_ {33} who makes so much ado about the polite manners of the _Arcadian_ Shepherds, would say to _Polybius_ who tells us that _Arcadians_ by reason of the Mountainousness of the Country and hardness of the weather, are very unsociable and austere.