Chapter II: Historic Review (1)

Some of the factors in the evolution of Art have already been briefly suggested, but to thoroughly appreciate artistic production a passing acquaintance, at least, with the various phases of historic developments is essential. The scope of the present work obviously renders it impossible to deal with the subject in detail, but libraries are accessible to those who are desirous of extending their knowledge.

It has already been stated that the earlier crafts were independent of any influence other than that of material and process, and this has continued in some of the crafts to the present time; but those more closely allied to building, particularly those associated with furniture and decoration, eventually became subject to the architectural phase or style of the period, which dominated form and detail.

_Style._

Style may be described as manner of expression, either individual or local, and for convenience is defined by nationality and period. It is usual to speak of Greek, Roman, Gothic, etc., of such a century; in the case of the Renaissance, it is customary to particularise the variants, as Italian, French, English, etc., also with the period or century.

The development of style, intimately involved as it is in the social, religious and political history of nations, must ever be powerful in its interest and far-reaching in its appeal.

The first idea in the mind of man is undoubtedly that of utility, but in succeeding stages of culture there comes a natural craving for something more than this. And so with the progress of a race we can trace the progress of its decorative art.

_Inter-Communication_

Then there is the consideration of the effect that one race or community inevitably has on another with which it comes in contact--either through conquest or through the establishment of commercial relations. Naturally the market is captured by the workmanship displaying the finest qualities, æsthetic and practical, and these qualities advance with the development of society and with progress in mechanical skill. As a result of conquest the civilisation of either conqueror or conquered must become the dominant influence, and the possible fusion and interchange of ideas may modify style to a considerable extent.

_Climate and Material_

Locality has always been a determining factor, particularly in architecture where the material available is of necessity utilised, and in most cases is the one best suited to the climatic conditions; for instance, where wood abounds we find it successfully employed.

Climate is also largely responsible for architectural form. In the North, owing to heavy snows, the roofs are high-pitched. The early Egyptian buildings were of mud and wattle, the readiest material to hand, and form ample protection from the sun in a practically rainless district. It is interesting to note that the character of these structures was imparted to their later work in stone. This was used in the most important buildings, and was readily obtainable from the Nubian quarries and transported down the Nile on rafts.

_Phases in Style_

It must be remembered that although broad classifications can be made in styles, yet there are intermediate stages which are transitional, and which are usually due to the importation of some foreign influence. The phases of a transitional period can usually be defined; at first the new style is slavishly imitated or else executed by the foreign worker exploiting it. This is followed by its being used in conjunction with the native construction, and lastly, the native interpretation of the foreign style is possibly grafted on to older forms.

It should be understood that at no time was there any great immediate change in style, but that there are phases which can be described as typical, connected by periods of gradual change or transition; due, doubtless, to individual expression of taste, either on the part of exponent or patron, or as previously suggested, by influences political, religious or commercial.

Careful study will show that the change in the majority of instances was due to reaction from a florid to a more severe treatment, which in its turn became redundant in character and detail. Apart from the artistic point of view, these changes are interesting as reflective of the character of the times.

From the constructive point of view there are two distinct principles to be appreciated, the Lintel and the Arch. The Lintel, which is the earlier, may be described as a large stone style, and consists of the bridging of apertures by means of horizontal slabs, supported by vertical columns or piers. This is a method of construction with distinct limitations, as it was impossible to bridge large areas or spaces without frequent support.

_The Lintel_

The joints of the Lintel necessarily occur over the centres of the supporting columns, and the space between was controlled by the size of the obtainable material and the imposed weight it could bear; the result being, as in the great hall at Karnak, a forest of closely spaced columns. It was not until the principle of the Arch was developed into vaulting that interiors of any considerable dimension with clear floor spaces were possible.

Lintel construction was employed in the Egyptian, Chaldean and Greek styles.

The Arch, as a constructive form, did not appear until a later period, and possibly was due to some extent to the employment of brick and stones of small size.

Form or shape is not involved, as it is quite possible to so shape the Lintel as to give the appearance of the Arch by cutting the underside to the required curve. In the early Greek architecture examples have been found of both Arch and vault appearance, but these are the result of horizontal courses, successively projecting; that is, built in the form of inverted steps, the underside being cut to the arch curve, and is a form of construction restricted to bridging relatively small areas.

_The Arch_

The principle of the Arch depends upon the separate pieces of material being formed to a wedge shape, the joints corresponding to radial lines drawn through the centre from which the Arch curve is struck.

The weak part of the Lintel is the centre of the span which may have a tendency to give way under pressure, but the wedged construction of the Arch renders the centre strong enough to bear the imposed weight.

In contrast with the Lintel, material of small size could be employed, not only stone, but brick being used in Arch construction.

The Lintel, in relatively small spans, is sometimes composed of separate small stones, shaped to fit each other in the form of Joggled joints.

A. Lintel in one piece.

B. C. D. Various forms of Joggled joints.]

The outward and manifest appearance suggests to the lay observer a striking divergence in the style known as Gothic from the Roman manner of building; but the main difference is in proportion and treatment of detail, the underlying principle being much the same. The use of the Arch and vaulting was common to both, but in the Gothic development greater strength was obtained, with even greater economy of material. The archivolts and intersecting ribs of vaults, with their supports, literally formed the bones of the building, constituting a framework to which the bays of walls and roofing were only a matter of filling in.

In the words of Mr. C. H. Moore, in his work on “Development and Character of Gothic Architecture”--“the Gothic style developed into a system where stability depends not upon any inert massiveness except in the outermost abutments, but upon a logical adjustment of active parts whose opposing forces produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system of balanced thrusts, as opposed to the former system of inert stability.”

_Egyptian_

The Egyptian buildings, in common with those of Palestine, were frequently of mud, strengthened by wattle or reeds interwoven, evidence of which is apparent in later incised decoration. Buildings were also of sun-baked bricks, those of an important character being faced with stone; the exteriors of these latter were simple and severe, the walls being slightly tapered and surmounted by a simple cove cornice, with gateways and entrances of massive form.

The internal effect was of mystery, doubtless due to the comparative absence of light, and to the many columns necessary to carry the roofings. The columns which were mostly employed in the interiors, were squat and stunted in proportion, being from four to seven diameters in height, with capitals of the Lotus, Papyrus or Hathor variety. Mouldings were of the simplest character and sparsely used, and the decoration included renderings of the Lotus and Papyrus plants, either painted or incised in stone with the addition of colour.

Egyptian architecture may be generally described as monumental, while the ornament was apparently inspired by religious feeling and desire for symbolic expression, rather than by more æsthetic considerations.

In Egyptian Art ornament is subordinated to the architecture, and the employment of wall pictures and of inscriptions in the hieroglyphic character, added considerably to the decorative effect. In the wall pictures the figures were depicted in silhouette, in conventional attitudes, the head and limbs being displayed in severe profile, while the torso is represented in full front view. The methods of expression were painting, or incised in outline on stone, invariably filled in with colour, the effect in both being of flatness, with little suggestion of modelling or rotundity, the various features being defined by local colour.

Though much of the Egyptian work was in the round, and evident of great sculptural ability and appreciation of form, yet generally their decorative work may be described as a colour style, rather than one in which light and shade were important factors.

With regard to the domestic life, the examples of furniture in the British Museum convey some idea, and these bear a remarkable similarity to forms with which we are familiar at the present day, both in detail and construction, which is simple and direct, with mortise and tenon joints. Turning was frequently employed, and, in the decoration of furniture, inlays of ivory, ebony and glass, the Egyptians being expert workers in both glass and enamels.

No. 13. Egyptian Furniture.

A. Stand Inlaid. B. Ebony seat inlaid with ivory. C. Folding stool. D. Ebony box inlaid with porcelain and ivory. ]

Illustrations taken from bas reliefs and wall painting give a good idea of the furniture, which is often depicted as gilded.

The Egyptian couch was straight like an ottoman. Sometimes the couch took the form of an animal with the head and tail at either end, and the legs and feet carved to complete the effect.

_Chaldean_

Chaldean art in character had much in common with that of Egypt, the difference being more that of expression than in idea, probably due to intercourse and mutual influence. The buildings, which were mostly in brick, often faced with a form of terra-cotta, stamped with relief or ornament, were pyramidal in general form, raised on terraces forming a succession of platforms, approached by steps or inclined planes. Columns were employed, but the capitals were distinctive in the use of volutes culminating in the Persian renderings at Persepolis.

No. 14. Egyptian Chairs.

A. Wall painting in British Museum, B.C. 1500-1400. B. at Thebes. ]

Compound animal and human forms, analagous to the Egyptian sphinx, were employed, such as the winged lion and bull with human heads, generally to flank the gateways. Wall pictures in low relief formed part of the interior decoration, these being arranged in successive rows and representing historic episodes were, like the Egyptian decoration, probably coloured. A prominent detail in the decoration is that of the date palm which, symbolical in meaning, was the prototype of the Greek anthemion; the volute also occurs in much of the decoration in the form of the evolute scroll.

Our conclusions regarding Assyrian woodwork are drawn from the sculptured bas-reliefs of stone or alabaster with which the Assyrians faced their brick structures internally and externally. The examples in the British Museum are about 888 B.C.

Furniture, such as tables, thrones and couches, was evidently made of wood, and was probably inlaid with ivory and other precious materials.

On the monuments of Khorsabad representations have been discovered of chairs, supported by animals and human figures. The intention in the use of figures was probably to depict prisoners taken in war.

Chairs, thrones, stools and tables were square in shape. The ends of the rails and legs were carved, and the ornamentation employed for these and similar positions included the heads of lions, bulls and rams, the sacred palm and pine cone.

The seats of chairs and thrones were much higher than is now customary, and necessitated the use of foot-stools. In some cases both chairs and tables were made to fold on a central pivot.

In some cases metal was used either for part or for the complete structure.

Exact chronology is a matter of surmise, but at an early period, about 4000 B.C., in the valley of the Nile and in Mesopotamia, civilization had attained a very high level, extremely favourable to the development of architecture and the artistic crafts.

The early Greeks, as a result of the peculiar formation of their coast line, like the later Scandinavians, were adventurers on the sea, piratical and trading, and were thus brought into communication with, and influenced by, the arts of Egypt and Chaldea.

_Greek_

Though, in their architecture, the Greeks progressed no further than the Lintel, yet they must be credited with the development of the system of the orders, which formed the basis of subsequent styles.

The two prominent orders were the Doric and the Ionic; the former has its prototype in the tomb of Beni Hasan, the date of which is 1740 B.C., while the latter is evidently derived as to the voluted form of the capital, from Assyrian and Persian originals.

The capital of the Corinthian order may be considered to be a development of the Egyptian Papyrus form, the earliest features of both consisting of an inverted bell-shape decorated with leaf-like detail.

Characteristic Greek details, such as the Anthemion and wave scroll, are traceable to the same sources.

Their architectural work, which was monumental in character, was mostly manifested in the temples, the domestic buildings being relatively unimportant.

Some idea as to these may be gathered from the vase paintings in the British Museum, on which they appear simple in form, mostly Doric in character, and probably of wood construction, the metopes in the frieze being open spaces for purpose of interior lighting.

Though the Greeks invested many of their creations with Epic and Symbolic meaning, much of their ornament was purely æsthetic.

The sculptured metopes of the Parthenon, representing the conflict between the Lapithae and the Centaurs, are an example of the Epic treatment.

The Sphinx, borrowed from Egyptian art, was, however, invested with a different meaning, and is an example of the Symbolic class, which formed so large a part in Greek art.

Greek architecture differs from preceding styles in the development of mouldings, and the exterior columnar effect. The mouldings in the Ionic and Corinthian phases were enriched with carved details, probably developed from or suggested by earlier painted decoration.

The Doric style was presumably so decorated, with painted details on the ovolo and abacus of the capital, and the corona and other members of the cornice.

Colour was employed on the backgrounds of the metopes, mostly blue and red, resulting in an alternation of colour with plain stone areas; the colour decoration forming horizontal bands.

One important development, due to climatic conditions, was the pitched roof, which entailed the end walls being carried up in triangular form (literally gables), which were framed by the upper members of the entablature.

This feature, technically known as the Pediment, was in buildings of importance invariably filled by sculpture, Mythological or Epic in subject, designed to occupy the shape.

The styles mostly employed were the Doric and Ionic, and these were exploited contemporaneously, the Parthenon, 430 B.C., representing the culmination of the former.

Of the Corinthian style--comparatively little used by the Greeks, though much employed and developed later--the Choragic monument at Athens, 330 B.C., is the most complete example, though the leaf capital was anticipated in a simpler form in the earlier Tower of the Winds.

The earliest representations of Greek furniture are to be found in the Syrian Room at the British Museum. These are the chairs dated about 6 B.C., in which the antique figures are seated. The backs are perpendicular, and the frame pieces of the seats are mortised into the legs.

The Greek couch was not unlike the modern sofa. It was used for sleeping and resting. Chairs and stools were sometimes made of metal, and were often of a folding type.

Tables were constructed in various shapes--sometimes the supports were fashioned as heads and legs of lions and leopards, and sometimes as sphinxes with lifted wings. In common with other pieces of furniture, they were made in wood, metal and marble.

A. Couch or bed, Archaic Etruscan. B. “ “ Vase painting. C. Archaic chair, 580-520 B.C. D. Chair from Hydria. E. } F. } Archaic chairs, Harpy Tomb, 500 B.C. ]

The vase rooms of the British Museum provide considerable matter for study with regard to the details of Greek furniture, couches especially are frequently depicted.

The Greeks were expert workers in cast bronze, as is evidenced, not only by their statuary, but in many utensils of domestic life, notably the oil lamps, which were also in many instances modelled in terra cotta.

A. Kelebe (mixing bowl), 6th century B.C. B. Lekythos (oil bottle), Athenian (about) 450 B.C. C. Mastos, coloured black, red and white. D. Hydria (pitcher), 350-250 B.C. E. Kylix (goblet), 520 B.C. ]

Soon after the sack of Corinth in 140 B.C., Greece became a Roman province, and the Greek art workers eventually found more encouragement from Roman patronage than in local requirement.

They therefore went where their work was appreciated and rewarded, thereby effecting a potential influence in the art and work of their conquerors.

_Roman_

Originally there were no special native characteristics by which Roman work could be distinguished, as the Romans absorbed various influences from the races that they conquered. Their conquests extended East and West, and from these widely differing outside influences the Roman style developed.

The Romans, who by temperament, were great soldiers, organisers and engineers, rather than artistic, in their early essays in architecture were influenced by Etruscan work.

Etruria (now Tuscany) is presumed to have been a Greek colony, and the local style, a form of debased Doric, was adopted by the first Tarquin (who was of Etruscan origin) and introduced to Rome about 610 B.C.

With the growth of the Roman Empire, and its consequent wealth and development of luxury, great impetus was given to building and the arts generally.

The orders based on the Greek originals were developed in detail and proportion, particularly in the latter respect. Whereas in the Greek Doric the height of the column varied from about four, to six and a half diameters, the Roman version became more slender, being about eight diameters in height.

The Corinthian order, perhaps, underwent the greatest change, a change that has practically remained unaltered to the present day.

_Vaulting_

The most significant development in building was the Arch and subsequent vaulting, by means of which extensive covered areas were rendered possible. The Pantheon at Rome is covered with a hemispherical vault or dome 139 feet in diameter.

The dome, which is interiorally occupied by radiating and horizontal ribs, resulting in five horizontal rows of cassons, or coffers, is really a casting in cement; and in principle is identical with the present method of building, in which concrete or cement forms a considerable part in construction.

Apart from other reasons, the Arch was necessitated by small material, which, in the case of the Lintel, could not be employed without the device of joggelled joints. In the absence of suitable material to cover spans, it became necessary to devise some means to the desired result. This was achieved by bridging the span with separate pieces of material cut to the necessary wedge form.

The Arch was first applied to such useful and necessary buildings as the Cloaca Maxima, to aqueducts, bridges, and viaducts, from which its firm construction and power of resistance were found to be applicable to buildings of many storeys.

_Greek Influence_

Apart from the early employment and development of the Arch, the Romans were content to borrow their architecture from outside sources, and also were indebted to the Greeks for their ideal expressions in poetry, art, even to religion, whose gods they invested with different names.

Notwithstanding, the Roman development in architecture was undoubtedly dignified and grand in manner, particularly in their treatment of the Corinthian order.

With regard to detail, much of the delicacy and refinement of the Greek character was lost, yet this was compensated by greater variety and freedom of treatment, especially in the development of the Acanthus type of foliage.

_Development of Ornament_

Decoration was more generally used, pilaster and other panels being occupied with ornament arranged on growth lines, mostly composed of undulate stems, with scrolling branches, clothed with conventional leaves and flowers.

There was also a tendency to employ occasionally natural types in foliage, and further variety was obtained by the introduction of human and animal form, which, though originally significant, were used for their æsthetic value.

The Roman domestic life was materially different from the Greek, and while they had their Temples, they also had their palaces, public halls and baths, besides the amphitheatre and the circus.

Excavations at Herculaneum and Pompeii have thrown considerable light on the domestic life of the Romans--their dwellings, decorations and furniture.

_Græco-Roman Painted Decoration_

In the luxurious life of the Romans colour

decoration played a conspicuous part, as is evidenced in the painted work of Herculaneum and Pompeii. In this, which is generally known as the Græco-Roman period, the interiors were decorated with paintings, the general scheme being based on an architectural setting, the wall areas being divided into bays by slender columns, sometimes by pilaster panels, with plinth, or dado, frieze, and cornice, the prevailing colours being red, buff and black.

Græco-Roman Hanging Lamp Bronze

No. 33.]

The decoration of the frieze in many instances suggested openings, through which distant vistas could be seen. The bays or spaces between the apparent dividing supports were further decorated with small panel pictures with frames; generally the supports were united by festoons or scrolling detail, the whole expressed by painting in colour without actual relief.

The use of glass for glazing windows was employed in the later period; that the Romans were expert workers in glass can be verified by the examples in the National collections.

Græco-Roman Hand Lamp and Stand. Bronze

No. 34.]

For artificial lighting of interiors oil lamps were customary, which were boat shape in form, sometimes used in groups or clusters suspended from branching stems or supported on tripod standards. These were invariably in cast bronze, though terra-cotta was also used, but in either material were extremely beautiful in form and detail.

In any attempt to review the past, it is difficult to visualise the actual life at the back of the pageantry, with which we are naturally prone to be obsessed, in history as written; but the exhibits of the various domestic appliances of the Roman period at the British Museum are of considerable interest, and a scrutiny of these cannot fail to bring the individual to a closer understanding of the times and people.

At Byzantium or Constantinople, the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire, a distinct style developed out of a curious mingling of the characteristics of East and West; and it was marked particularly by a grafting of earlier Greek detail on to simplified Roman forms.

The establishment in 330 A.D. of Byzantium or Constantinople as the Eastern capital of the Roman Empire and the recognition by the state of Christianity resulted in a great change in architecture and the associated crafts. Prior to this the early Christians had been compelled to hold their meetings secretly, and when this was no longer necessary they at first utilised for their public worship the existing Basilicas or public halls. Later on churches were built, the plan being arranged in the form of a Greek cross (_e.g._, with equal arms), surmounted by a central dome.

_Domes_

The dome was supported on four piers, united by arches, and the change in plan from these piers to the dome necessitated vaultings from the inner angles to reconcile the diagonal dimension to the diameter of the imposed circle. These vaultings spreading from the angles are technically known as Pendentives. The

four arms of the cross constituting transepts, nave and chancel were also surmounted by either complete or semi-domes.

The Byzantine dome differs from the Roman type in matters of detail, thus the interior surface is plain instead of the intersecting ribs with resulting coffers as in that of the Pantheon. In this latter the lighting of the interior is accomplished by a central opening or eye, but in some Byzantine examples, notably St. Sophia (built for Justinian by Anthemius) the lighting is the result of windows ranged round the base, constituting what is known as the ariel type of dome.

The dome of St. Sophia is segmental instead of hemispherical as in the Pantheon, being only one-sixth of the diameter in height, the diameter being 106 ft. 7½ ins.

The architectural features generally were considerably modified, particularly with regard to mouldings, which were almost eliminated. The entablature was also at times dispensed with, and arches springing direct from the capitals of supporting columns were general; a feature which is characteristic of the later Romanesque. The capitals became simple in form, being mostly inverted pyramidal or cushion shapes, in which the abacus is considerably enlarged and as a rule unmoulded.

The carved details reveal simplicity of execution, being merely cut back from the surface, the relief being uniform and greatly in contrast to the plastic feeling of the Roman work. Though the leaves employed were of the acanthus type, they were quite devoid of modelling, being merely channelled with V-shaped grooves; the eyes between the lobes being round and suggestive of the use of the drill, the execution being a reversion to the archaic Greek.

_Early Christian Art_

A notable feature in the Byzantine detail is the prevalence of the circle, frequently grouped in three, four and five, with the respective significance of the Trinity, the Evangelists and the Cross, or Five Wounds. The grotesques of the Pagan detail are conspicuously absent, giving place to forms more in keeping with the new religion, such, for instance, as the cross and the vine.

It is questionable if the polytheism of the average cultured Roman was taken very seriously, but incidental to the religious observances were certain rites and symbolic forms, with which the Christians were familiar, and the early preachers evidently found it a matter of policy to invest some of these with a new meaning. During the period of intolerance and persecution, signs and symbols grew in importance as a

From a Drawing by Miss Dora Bard.]

means of secret communication; and in the later period when secrecy was no longer necessary, these became a corporate part of the ornament and decoration.

In contrast to the Roman ornament, in which the effect depended mostly on light and shade, the Byzantine was a colour style, and it became customary to line the walls of the principal buildings with marble slabs quartered and placed reciprocally, so that the figurings formed symmetrical patterns. Mosaic work, either of marble or glass, constituted the decoration in such suitable positions as the floors, spandrils, lunettes and domes, gold being largely employed in the backgrounds. Windows, at times large in area, were glazed as in Roman times with cast slabs of glass, set in metal frames, usually bronze; and thin slabs of translucent marble and onyx were also used for glazing purposes.

_Metal Work and Enamel_

The Byzantines were also expert carvers of ivory and workers in metal, decorated in repoussé and with wire filigree; the metal work was invariably set with jewels and precious stones, in conjunction with champleve enamel, the whole being gilt.

As a result of the Iconoclastic movement, and the decree of Pope Leo III in 726 A.D., the art workers, deprived of local patronage and compelled to pursue their crafts elsewhere, migrated to the Rhine district, where for some centuries the Byzantine traditions were preserved and largely influenced Western art, particularly with regard to the working in metal and enamels. The attraction of the centre of the Eastern Empire for northern adventurers had its effect in the introduction of the Byzantine style into the detail of the different phases of the Romanesque.

The tradition thus becoming widely known was finally absorbed by local craftsmen and modified according to local conditions, with the result that both in expression and in execution, the style tended to become more and more crude, until the original forms and details were almost entirely lost. But in spite of changes the classic feeling never completely died out.

_Roman Influence Abroad_

Under the Roman system, in colonizing, their architecture, customs and laws were imposed on the conquered population. When later, under stress of events, the governing bodies and military forces had to be withdrawn, these left behind them universal traces of their occupation and influence. The inhabitants of the provinces thus abandoned and thrown on their own resources, were immediately menaced by invasions, which had been hitherto kept in check by the armies of occupation, and for some protracted period ensued a condition of unrest and conflict, under which the arts naturally suffered. Eventually, from the chaos emerged a native manner of building, which, though rude and coarse in execution, was based on the Roman tradition.

_Romanesque Style_

The transition thus brought about is known for convenience as Romanesque. Its most typical exponents were possibly the Scandinavians, whose Christianised descendants, the Normans, preserved the same tradition. The work of the Saxons in England, although stimulated by the same influences, was much cruder in execution.

This period was not remarkable for great artistic development, and luxury in any form was practically non-existent.

Notwithstanding local character, the prevailing features are similar, in that the round arch is employed, supported by columns or piers, from which the arches spring direct, the entablature being eliminated.

The columns are squat in proportion, and surmounted by capitals of truncated cone or cushion shape, the abacus being deep and square in plan.

Mouldings were little used, and the archivolts were formed in a series of recessed bands, either plain or decorated. Distinct from the Byzantine style, the Romanesque depended for effect upon contrast of light and shade.

Details were carved, and rude in execution, preserving to some extent the Byzantine feeling, the prevailing ornament being the undulate stem, with scroll branches, clothed with leafage, simply channelled or grooved, but less spikey in form.

_Church Development_

Of the buildings of importance of this period the churches form the most interesting examples of development. The usual plan consisted of an oblong nave with side aisles half its width and height.

At the end of the nave, projecting transepts separated it from the chancel (which is generally raised in level), continuing the line of nave, the whole taking the shape of the Latin cross in contrast to the Byzantine plan; the chancel end facing East, the nave West, and the transepts respectively North and South.

A feature of this period is the Apse, a semi-circular extension of the choir or chancel; when the side aisles were extended to the latter they formed what is known as an ambulatory, or passage way, round the choir, within which was the altar, and the stalls for monks and clergy.

The Narthex or atrium, of the basilicas, utilised by the early Christians for their public worship (to which were admitted those outside the community) was abandoned, its place being taken by the West entrance or porch, enclosed between two towers.

The upper walls of the nave were carried on arches supported by columns, which constituted the division of the side aisles; these latter being formed by vaultings from the nave columns to the outer walls, the vaulting being roofed over.

The upper part of the nave was pierced by windows, small and comparatively narrow, with semi-circular heads forming the Clerestory. Similar windows in some instances occur in the aisles, the jambs of these windows being bevelled both inside and out for the freer admission of light.

The nave was roofed in with timber, but as the result of frequent destruction by fire, the roof was eventually vaulted; in early examples by the barrel or tunnel vault, but later this developed into cross-vaulting, which was also introduced into the side aisles.

In the early churches of this period the walls of the nave were unbroken except for the upper windows. With the development of vaulting, the space above the aisle vaults and the covering roof was used as a gallery known as the Triforium. This was not lighted from without, and was a distinguishing characteristic of the Romanesque and early Gothic styles.

The introduction of vaulting in the roof of the nave entailed supports for the arch bands or vaulting ribs, which were carried on pilasters or half columns, dividing the interior façade into bays.

_Dark Ages_

The unsettled condition of Europe, both before and after the final subjugation of the Roman Empire by Charlemagne in 774 A.D., was necessarily detrimental to artistic progress, and the period to the fifteenth century may be truly described as the dark ages as regards the arts and culture in general.

Such literary knowledge as survived was mostly confined to the priests, and under the monastic and feudal systems that prevailed the bulk of the people were kept in ignorance and subjection.

Building was devoted almost exclusively to fortresses and churches, the domestic conditions being extremely crude as compared with earlier periods, though Eastern luxury must have been known and experienced by the alien adventurers to the Byzantine courts.

This was a period of reversion to comparative barbaric taste by people indifferent to refinement and luxurious environment, to whom, however, personal adornment would appeal in the form of jewellery and sumptuous attire.

Domestic arrangements were simple in the extreme. The dwellings of the well-to-do in England, similarly to those of the Scandinavians, consisted principally of a barn-like hall. The centre of the hall was occupied by a long table, and at one end raised on a platform or dais another table was placed in the opposite direction. At the latter sat the most important members of the household, while the lower part was reserved for retainers and servants. Heavy chairs and settles were used at the upper table, and benches or forms at the lower.

Walls, when covered at all, were adorned with hangings, but then only at the dais end of the hall. Fireplaces in the modern sense were not known. The fire was built on the floor, and the smoke allowed to escape as best it might.

Arrangements for sleeping were no more complex than those for dining. Beds were provided only for persons of distinction, and were placed in recesses screened off from the hall by curtains or shutters. They were, in fact, little more than wooden boxes, with sacks of straw to serve as mattresses.

Later, bedsteads were used of massive construction, which on occasions of journeying were placed on wheels, forming a sort of coach or carriage ironically termed whirlicots, in which the aged and infirm were transported.

For some time after the Norman Conquest the unsettled state of the country rendered it necessary that household effects and valuables should be few in number and of such a nature as to be easily transportable. Thus chests in which belongings could be stored came into general use. They were simple in construction, and without carving, but were strengthened and decorated by hinges and scroll strappings in iron. Such chests served a double purpose, as they could be used as tables and seats.

For convenience of transport, chairs and stools were made with projecting tenons secured by pins or wedges so as to be easily taken apart.

_Crusades_

That the Crusades were incidental to the importation of examples of Eastern art, is evidenced by the celebrated cup of Eden Hall, on the safe preservation of which depended the worldly welfare of the owners, according to the couplet:

“If that cup either break or fall, Farewell the luck of Eden Hall.”

This cup is of Saracenic origin, and is of glass, painted in enamels, similar in character to the mosque lamps in the British Museum.

Tapestries of Sicilian manufacture were also introduced through the medium of the Crusades, and led to the employment of painted wall decoration, evidently in imitation, even in some instances to indicating the folds of the material.

A precept exists in the twentieth year of the reign of Henry III directing “that the King’s great chamber at Westminster be painted a good green colour like a curtain,” and “that the King’s little wardrobe should also be painted of a green colour to imitate a curtain.”

This was undoubtedly suggested by the custom abroad of draping the walls with tapestries, though carpets were unknown. Probably the first time these were seen in England was in the apartments in the Temple occupied by the suite of the infant Don Sancho, archbishop elect of Toledo, who with Don Garcias Madinez, officiated as _avant-courriers_ to Eleanor of Castile in the autumn of 1255.

_Pointed Arch_

The origin of the pointed Arch, which is the chief characteristic of the Gothic style, is much disputed, but there is ample evidence that the new departure appeared almost simultaneously in different parts of Europe soon after the First Crusade. It is reasonable to assume that this particular form was suggested by examples in Syria, where arches elliptic and even ogival in shape were employed.

Though not common in Roman work, the pointed Arch was employed in the Aqueduct built to supply Constantinople with water, completed under Valens, 364-378 A.D., by which it is probable that the Saracenic work was inspired.

Whatever the origin, the innovation was found to be economic, and more sound in construction than the older prevailing method. It was also more flexible in design, as apertures of varying dimensions could be spanned with arches equal in height, which is not possible with the semi-circular form, except by the expedient of stepping.

Further strength was imparted by the employment of buttresses on the outer walls, as well as at the angles of the building.

_Gothic Style_

In France, England and Germany the Gothic style superseded the Romanesque with varying phases of transition, and with local development of character. In Spain the Moors had established a system of architecture thoroughly Eastern that was but little affected by the Gothic style, the influence of which is apparent in the later Spanish rendering of the Renaissance.

In Italy the Gothic attained but slight development in comparison with more northern and western treatments, at least from a structural point of view. The Italian phase known as Lombardic is conspicuous for the evidence of Eastern and Byzantine traditions.

_Phases of Gothic_

The phases and dates of the Gothic style in England are as follow, and lasted well into the sixteenth century, with periods of transition:

Early English or Pointed, 1189 to 1272. Transition 1272 to 1307.

Middle period or Decorated, 1307 to 1377. Transition 1377 to 1407.

Late or ... Perpendicular, 1407 to 1547.

In church architecture the general plan and essential features of the Romanesque style were preserved; but there was a complete change in the details, as well as a general lightening of the whole structure.

The heavy columns or piers gave place to clusters of slender shafts, which supported the archivolts and vaulting ribs, these shafts being bound together at bases and capitals.

The Triforium was retained, the openings being arched and similar in detail to the windows.

_Early Pointed_

In the early variety of the Pointed Gothic the arches were acutely pointed, technically known as “lancet,” but later became more equilateral. The windows were narrow in proportion, and were single, or in groups.

Later they were divided into compartments, and the triangular head filled in with stonework, pierced with simple geometrical openings, known as plate tracery, thus forming a transition between the simple open lancet and the intersecting ribs, which constituted the true tracery of the later periods.

Commonly shafts of circular section, with caps and bases, were employed in the windows, both internally and externally.

Roofs were high pitched, and the ceilings vaulted, the vaulting ribs being moulded and decorated at the intersections with carved bosses.

Mouldings were rich in effect, being composed of a succession of hollows or flutings, contrasted and divided by rounded ribs in relief.

Carved detail occurs in the capitals of shafts, sometimes in leaf-like forms in the bases and in the mouldings, also in the crockets, and finials of the gables, and pinnacles of the buttresses.

The ornament was extremely conventional, that on capitals, crockets and other free positions consisting of crisply curling trefoil or cinquefoil groups of lobes having little resemblance to natural type.

The later windows became more elaborate in the tracery, which was essentially geometric, and further elaborated by cusping. Triforium arches and canopy heads being similar in design.

The central tower, which was common in the Romanesque, developed into the spire, which was carried to a great height; the lower part occasionally pierced with openings for purpose of interior lighting, forming the lantern.

_Decorated Gothic_

The principal characteristics of the Decorated period are the form of the Arch, the elimination of detached shafts and the enlarged clerestory with increased lighting area.

The Arch, when used structurally, was still of the simple pointed form, but in small windows, niches and canopies, the shape at the head became ogival and the tracery displays considerable license as compared with that of the preceding phase.

Mouldings were shallower as contrasted with the undercut hollows of the earlier period; in many instances the arch mouldings were merely a continuation of those of the supporting piers, which took the place of the earlier detached shafts.

The greatest innovation occurs in the foliage, in which natural suggestion is evident, adapted with considerable freedom, and skilful in execution.

In the preceding style the foliage of the capitals invariably sprung from the necking, in simple firm curves, revealing the underlying bell-shape. In the Decorated period the foliage generally wreaths round the structural form, the detail being frequently deeply pierced and cut away at the back till it was almost detached, giving an extremely rich effect.

Diaper detail of pateræ, or foliage arranged in squares, occurs in the spandrils between arches.

A distinct feature of this period and of the succeeding Perpendicular style, is the battlement, which was used in all suitable positions either as a parapet or as a cresting. The Decorated variety differs from the later, in that the moulded edges only appear horizontally, whereas in the Perpendicular period the moulded edge is continuous, being carried round the angles of the battlement.

Externally the spire gave place to the tower with culminating lantern.

During the period of the style known as Decorated Gothic, furniture was framed and panelled, and the details closely resembled those used in architectural decoration in stone.

The general effect of Decorated is a tendency to horizontal banding, in contrast to the vertical effect of the earlier period, to which eventually the later Perpendicular reverted.

_Perpendicular Gothic_

In the succeeding phase the Triforium which had gradually become less important, entirely disappeared and the clerestory windows enlarged, to the extent that this part of the structure became merely a frame for the increased glass areas.

It will be apparent from the foregoing that whereas in the early churches of the Romanesque period the interior effect was mysterious owing to inadequate openings for light, the later and growing tendency was to increase the lighting capacity by enlarging the windows of the clerestory.

_Glass Windows_

Doubtless the development in the size of windows was due to some extent to the growing use of glass, which, though rare, was employed during the later Romanesque through Byzantine tradition.

These early windows were geometric in design, consisting of medallions, oval, circular or quatrefoil in shape, containing figure subjects set in a diapered background, the whole being executed in small pieces of coloured glass united by lead framings.

While the windows were single openings, this form of glazing necessarily restricted the size, though more adequate lighting was achieved by grouping two or more windows together.

With the development of tracery the technical difficulties were to some extent overcome; a window divided into comparatively small compartments could be more easily glazed than single openings of large size; thus glazed windows of greater dimensions were rendered possible.

A. Aylsham Church, Norfolk.

B. King’s College Chapel, Cambridge.]

In the Decorated windows the lower lights were devoted to the subject, which in many instances was carried through the area, regardless of the dividing bars or mullions. In the Perpendicular each light or opening had usually its own subject or figure, surmounted by canopies, the upper spaces formed by intersection of the tracery bars were occupied by various details suitable to the different shapes.

The Arch of the Perpendicular style is materially different, being composed of elliptic curves struck from four centres.

Mouldings became even more shallow in section, and the tracery less florid than formerly, though extremely rich in appearance when used in the profusion that developed in the fan vaulting of this period.

The foliation reverted to a more conventional character, and became lifeless and monotonous in comparison with the Decorated work.

It must not be assumed that examples in every instance will be found complete in any of these phases; on the contrary, the various styles are to be found side by side in the same building, the result of later additions or rebuilding.

Painted decoration and sculpture were also employed during the various periods; wood-work where necessary was used, and in detail was in harmony with the architectural character of the period.

_Civic Influences_

The feudal period was not favourable to the development of domestic conditions, though considerable advance had been made by the fourteenth century, chiefly by the Italian states and in the principal cities. The importance of the latter is evidenced particularly in the City of London, with its merchant class and civic authorities, who, by reason of their wealth, attained potential political influence, the prevailing contentious conditions necessitating the continual raising of large sums of money.

Such conditions were favourable to the merchants, who, acting as bankers, supplied the means, and thus a class was established and apparently lived in profusion and some pretention to sumptuous environment.

_Effect of Commerce_

Similar conditions to those in England prevailed on the Continent with certain local variations. A big stride was made with the development of commerce, mainly through the agency of Venetian and Flemish merchants. The effect of increasing opulence as signalised by the appearance in the home of such comfort and refinement as had formerly been possible only for princes and great nobles.

Among the luxuries imported were Oriental silks, carpets and pottery.

_Italy_

Whereas, throughout Europe generally, the Gothic character in furniture and woodwork developed on similar lines, in Italy alone its appeal to the national sympathies was not strong enough for it to become thoroughly assimilated, and there the Byzantine style persisted.

The woods most in use were oak and chestnut. In Italy walnut and cypress were used--the latter being considered especially valuable for chests.

Early examples of Italian chests are decorated with closely spaced incised ornament, filled in with colour.

The Venetians derived from Persia and India a form of marquetry or inlay of ivory, metal and various woods, generally geometric in design. The wood used was stained in order to vary the colour.

_Foreign Influence in England_

Through the policy of seeking foreign princesses as brides for the English kings, foreign influences crept in, and had a marked effect on the development of style. Moreover, increasing commercial intercourse with the Continent paved the way for the introduction of the new ideas of the Renaissance then beginning to dawn in Italy.

The Wars of the Roses checked progress in many ways, but this was but the more rapid when peace was restored with the advent of Henry VII.

_The House_

There was a great change in the character of the dwelling-house, which though still built on defensive lines, was also arranged with a view to domestic comfort and convenience. The commonest form of plan was that in which the buildings were grouped round a central court and surrounded by a moat. These buildings consisted of hall, parlour, kitchen and domestic offices. The hall itself was lofty, had an open-timbered roof, and was usually lighted from both sides. One end of the hall was invariably screened off, and as the screen did not reach to the roof the musicians’ gallery was placed above it. The fireplace was set in one of the side walls. The windows, as a rule, had few lights, and these had pointed and cusped heads. The upper rooms were accessible by staircases.

A not uncommon feature on the upper floor was the long gallery, which generally traversed the whole length of the building immediately under the roof.

The rooms were panelled most often to about two-thirds the height of the wall, while the remaining third was of plaster.

The ceiling also was of plaster, which was moulded into intersecting ribs arranged geometrically, sometimes with stalactite pendants at the intersections.

Fireplaces were made of stone, and chimney-pieces sometimes of wood.

Furniture was beginning to assume some of its modern forms, as shown by the chairs, which were railed, and copied from Italian models.

Buffets or sideboards with closed cupboards were in use. Table legs were carved or turned, and connected by stretchers.

Windows were now glazed with leaded panes, and when made to open were of the casement type, with iron frames which were hinged and furnished with turnbuckle fastenings.

Doors seldom had locks, but usually shut with latches of wrought iron. The hinges also were of wrought iron, and though simple in form were often quite ornamental.

Henry VII and his successor were responsible for various country residences, an example which was followed by the nobility.

During the latter monarch’s reign it became the fashion to arrange the plan of the mansion in the form of the letter H; that is, in two parallel wings connected at a right angle. In the reign of Elizabeth this was modified into a plan resembling the letter E, otherwise a façade, with wings bent at right angles, with a central projection forming the main entrance.

In the domestic Tudor style the Arch was in vogue for window openings, etc., but much flattened in form.

The windows were divided into a number of lights, by vertical mullions, with arch headings, occasionally cusped. If of tall proportions, they were further divided by horizontal bars or transoms, and were glazed with small panes of glass set in lead frames, arranged in some cases to open in iron casements.

_The Reformation_

An important factor in the development of this period was the Reformation, with the resultant liberty of thought. Before this, architecture and the associated arts were entirely dominated by the Church, at the sacrifice of the individuality of the artist and craftsman, who after this emancipation were enabled to exploit their work untrammelled by clerical restriction.

In some respects this was not productive of the best results, as it removed the various co-ordinated branches of work from the restraint of architectural dominance, with some loss to the unities. It also opened the way to the professional designer as distinct from the craftsman (who hitherto had been responsible for his share of the work) resulting in occasional loss of character.

_Renaissance_

The Renaissance, which had its origin it Italy, was the next factor in the evolution of architecture and the arts. As early as 1422 there were indications of the coming change, though the medieval system of construction was still adhered to.

Impetus was given to this revival by the taking of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453 A.D., resulting in the dispersion of the Greek scholars, who found refuge in Italy.

Gothic, essentially a Northern style, scarcely affected Italy, where Byzantine tradition persisted until the Revival of Learning in the latter half of the fifteenth century brought a fresh impulse into all branches of Art and Literature.

An awakened interest in classical remains was an integral part of the vitality with which the great change known in its culmination as the Renaissance was imbued; and the commercial prosperity of the times was favourable to its encouragement and development.

_Early Exponents_

An active agent in this revival was Brunelleschi, a native of Florence, who in company with Donatello, visited Rome to study the remains of classical antiquity. His principal successor, Leo Battista Alberti, contributed largely to the new style. Ultimately the Roman Orders and their details were appropriated and adapted to local requirements.

The most prominent artists of the day turned their attention to the designing and making of wood-work, and the decoration of rooms.

The earlier work is severely architectural in character, being closely based on the antique, with all the usual features of columns, pilasters, cornices and pediments.