Chapter II: Part 3: Guide and Adviser 66 (2)

The many thousands of insect species requiring an underwater environment for their larval stage help sustain many species of terrestrial predators when the insects emerge from the water as adults. The kingfisher that nests here and the occasional great blue heron that stops during migration also enjoy the fruits of the water community, taking fish and frogs. But the process is not a one-way street. Nutrients leached from the land help fertilize the aquatic food chain. And the grasshopper that inadvertently hops into the river, only to disappear quickly into the gullet of a fish, represents another of the ongoing exchanges between land and water.

As I round the sharp bend that sends the river flowing north again, a muskrat hurries into the water and submerges. On the steep bank high above the river, I wait until it surfaces in midstream. It floats lazily for a while, its long, naked tail straight with the slow current. Then it heads back toward shore. Across the river, the floodplain cottonwoods bear the scars of beaver teeth. Some are girdled and dead. Others are in full leaf despite deep but incomplete incisions.

Growing dusk fills the river valley. In the failing sunlight vanquished to a thin, vertical display on the Tower face, it is almost possible to imagine what this splendid landscape must have been like as wilderness. Bison, not cattle, would have grazed nearby. Instead of the howling dog that has escaped the campground and races into the prairie dog town, a wolf might be pressing home its attack on an injured pronghorn. Grizzlies and cougars knew this valley, and the river was tamed not by a nearby reservoir but by a latticework of beaver dams.

There are no prairie dogs left above ground now to challenge my trespass as I head back toward the welcome firelights of the campground. The deer have left their daybeds to graze in the open, and the great horned owl again asserts its dominance in the river timber. With a long rattle, briefly echoed from a cliff, the kingfisher quits the day.

Beneath the expanding population of stars, I return to the comfort of hot coffee and the confines of my own world. For now, I am content with the memory of eagle and falcon. In my mind they will continue to soar, inspecting the splendid terrain my memory today acquired.

Prairie Dogs: A Tight-Knit Society

When the long grip of winter's crusted snow relaxes, pasqueflowers burst forth in ravines, unplowed pastures, and abandoned cemeteries. Their delicate silvery purple contrasts with the bleak stubble of last year's ruined grasses. Before plows ever broke the grassland sod, pasqueflowers were so profuse the distant ground seemed veiled in haze. The pioneers called it "prairie smoke."

With the appearance of the pasqueflowers, spring begins to renew the sun-warmed ground. Gone are the long days of waiting. Perhaps, the few prairie-dog sentinels that had stood motionless in the March wind wished that the spring would come. The sharp wind divides the dense fur of their winter coats while they survey the snow-skiffed ground of their silent town. They almost appear to regard the sun wistfully, wishing it strong, the snow gone, and the grass resurgent once again. But at last the meadowlarks lose their winter-long quiet, and the horned larks now lift up with extravagance, unhuddling from their long ordeal. Below ground, in the deep, secure warmth of their nursery chambers, a new generation of prairie dogs is developing, part of the ancient ritual of replenishment that spring brings to the Great Plains.

The breeding season of the prairie dog is determined by geographic location and weather conditions. On the southern plains of Texas it may be as early as January; on the Canadian plains as late as March. For four or five weeks there is much kissing, grooming, and investigation. Males become aggressive and squabble over territory. Besides the older females, perhaps half of the yearling females will mate.

After a month's gestation, the litters are born. In the dark quiet of specially prepared nesting chambers, the babies appear, hairless, sightless, uncoordinated, weighing but 14 grams (0.5 ounce). They live in grass-lined nests for seven or eight weeks, attended almost constantly by the females as they develop. Growth is rapid. At 28 days they are crawling, and by 32 days the finely furred pups can walk and bark. Soon their eyes open and they fully resemble the adults. Until now the pups have known only darkness, blind passageways, and a single adult. One day soon they will be led upward.

That first moment above ground marks for them another birth. Now their senses experience a sudden flood of light and sound, coolness, wind, a world of shape, motion, and perspective, whose staggering brightness extends forever beyond their own rim of familiar scent. Huddled together and shivering in the wind, they are at first loath to accept this world of sight and sun, so different from the soundless wrappings of dark, warm soil. But soon, as with all young animals, curiosity leads them to investigation and then to boldness.

Each day the young spend more time above ground. Nearby, the mother remains alert for danger and solicitous, accepting the maulings of her playful and increasingly independent pups. Although ranging farther and farther afield, they remain obedient to their mother, and scamper back to their burrow when commanded. The first few weeks above ground is a time of weaning, learning, and conditioning.

During their first few days in society, pups have the run of the town. Boundaries that adults respect do not exist for them, as they wander about, inspecting every feature of their new world. The young have an insatiable need for body contact and much time is spent at play, and in grooming and kissing, activities that seem to reinforce the social nature of the prairie dogs. Adult males tolerate the young for a time during this period of general acquaintance. At first the pups attempt to nurse from any adult they encounter, and these misguided attempts are not rebuked, even by the males; they are turned into grooming sessions.

Life on this greening land seems too good to be true. Entertainment is everywhere. Grasshopper nymphs, which the adult prairie dogs occasionally capture and consume unceremoniously, provide them with hours of chase and stalk. Food is everywhere and easy to obtain. Imitating their elders, the pups sample the wide array of grasses and forbs surrounding every burrow.

Like the young of all the other animals they see, the pups have no way of realizing that their debut coincides with the season most favorable to their survival. So they scamper about in witless abandon, uncautious and innocent, ignorant as yet of the harsher outlines of their world. For a time, their place in the community is as idyllic as the soft-winded afternoons of spring. But on the Great Plains, spring is at best an uncertain season, its lifespan often breathtakingly short. As the days pass, the dominant males that patrol their territories rapidly lose patience with neighboring pups. Those that stray outside the invisible boundaries of their clan's living-space are now met with annoyance. Soon the displeasure turns to snarls and bites. More and more, their own mothers refuse them milk. Nipples bleeding from the constant pesterings of their young, the mothers finally move out altogether, to establish new burrows of their own.

To survive predatory perils, the new generation of prairie dogs, like countless previous ones, must master a two-pronged defense system evolved over millions of years. First, the pups must learn to engineer a burrow system with alternate escape routes. Second, they must learn to live in a highly organized social order, heeding its signals and respecting its boundaries.

Prairie dogs are divided into two general classes, the blacktailed and the whitetailed. Blacktails inhabit the semi-arid regions of the Great Plains; whitetails live in the higher elevations of mountain parks and foothills. But it's difficult to generalize, for Devils Tower and Wind Cave National Park, in South Dakota, are in the Black Hills and the prairie dogs at both are blacktails. The dog town at Devils Tower occupies a level grassland bench between the Tower's base and the nearby meandering Belle Fourche River. Blacktails are protected in their more typical arid topography at two other National Park System areas: Badlands National Park in South Dakota and Theodore Roosevelt National Park in North Dakota.

Generally, as a result of dissimilar habitats, the two species exhibit slightly different patterns of behavior. Unlike the blacktails, which emerge to forage on sunny winter days, whitetails are confined to their burrows by deep mountain snows. Those at high elevations must hibernate to survive the long winter.

The whitetail community is a much less highly developed social structure than the blacktail community. The animals are unable to enjoy the luxury of long summers. In the short season they must spend a great amount of time feeding to store up body fat for winter. They have little time for social rituals--grooming, greeting, or play. Time does not allow them to establish and maintain territories.

The burrow is to the prairie dog what speed and endurance is to the pronghorn: its chief means of protection. Yet it is more than just a hole in the ground, a temporary refuge from the threat of danger. More than half of a prairie dog's life is spent below ground, so the burrow must accommodate a wide range of needs (See pages 56-57.).

Often old burrow systems are abandoned and new tunnels excavated. The debris from the new tunnel system is dumped into the old burrows. These plugged burrows, called cores, may, in time, be more extensive than active tunnels in a long-occupied town. Whether knowingly or unknowingly, the prairie dog, by plugging unused passages, is practicing sound engineering; if all excavated material were brought to the surface, the weakened sub-surface, riddled with tunnels, would begin to settle and the burrows would eventually collapse.

As with the beaver--the only North American mammal whose engineering feats surpass the prairie dog's--it is often difficult to distinguish instinctive behavior from actual problem solving. Burrow systems vary from individual to individual and with local topography. However, as early attempts to "drown out" prairie dogs soon proved, the overall design of their burrow networks minimizes the dangers of flooding. While the lower angle of the tunnel may fill with water, the portion of the burrow that culminates in the sealed escape hole serves as an air bell, preventing a further rise of water and protecting the animal from being flooded out of its sanctuary during periods of heavy rain. Not realizing that prairie dogs can live without water--as can many other plains mammals that manufacture metabolic water from foods they eat--instigators of attempts to drown out the animals concluded that the animals dug down to ground water. The myth of the "town well" persisted until well diggers discovered that the water table in most townsites was hundreds of meters down.

More than once their burrows have saved them from talon and teeth, and they take care to maintain the mounds surrounding the entrances to their tunnels. These structures serve not only as watch-towers, but also as dikes against downpours that may temporarily turn a town into a lake.

But even instinctive digging habits and well engineered burrows, by themselves, would not have permitted prairie dogs to achieve their once staggering population levels--estimated to have been about 25 _billion_ individuals. Only through the additional benefits of some form of social organization and an effective means of communication could such success have been attained.

_continues on page 58_

Togetherness--Prairie Dog Style

Prairie dogs also eat insects that inhabit their towns and sometimes
prey upon the eggs or young of animals, such as the burrowing owl,
that dwell in homes deserted by prairie dogs.]

Burrowing Out a Home

Safety hatch
Plunge hole
Listening post and turning bay
Nesting chamber

Gregariousness is a common trait of many plains animals. In a land where movement is necessary and concealment difficult to achieve, it provides a definite survival advantage. Bison calves find protection in the herd, where their defense is the concern of all adults. Pronghorns take turns as sentries, allowing the other members of the group to rest and feed. Coyotes are more effective when hunting in pairs. The success of the wolf in bringing down large prey and even evicting grizzlies from their kills was largely due to their family group or pack organization. But lacking physical adaptations for speed and mobility, prairie dogs are forced to rely on their burrows for refuge. The need to remain close to their burrows imposes on the animals a serious problem: how to maintain an adequate food supply?

Although a dog town might appear to be one big collection of affectionate family members, all coming and going at will, the impression is false. Instead, each town is divided up into small groups of related animals. These family groups, called coteries, are the basic social unit, much as human families are in our own society. As the prairie dog pups soon learn, each coterie defends its own territory from intrusion by others, thus preserving for itself necessary living space and an adequate food supply close to the safety of its own burrows. Only in times of dire emergency, when the scramble to safety supersedes all territorial claims, will prairie dogs allow other coterie members the use of their burrows. So strong is an offending animal's sense of trespass, it will often brave the hazard of dashing back to its own burrow rather than staying long in a neighbor's territory.

The typical coterie consists of about seven to eight animals, arranged in a hierarchical order. Each usually has a dominant male that protects the coterie's territory from invasion by other males and oversees the activities of the females and young. If the coterie is a large one, more than one individual may enjoy dominant status and share the duties of leadership. In some cases, females may be dominant in rank; the role generally falls to the males, however, possibly because of their slightly larger size or because they have more time to observe and patrol, not being tied to the demands of the young.

Not only their social organization, but also their social behavior makes prairie dogs unique among rodents. The function of coterie hierarchy is cooperative, rather than oppressive, resulting in a remarkable absence of conflict and social stress. Aggressiveness is generally limited to inter-coterie contacts along the invisible boundaries. In an established town, infractions are usually accidental and seldom precipitate lasting disputes. The end result of intra-coterie cooperation and inter-coterie respect is a stable and harmonious town. Energies and attention that would otherwise be squandered in conflict can thus be focused on mutual defense.

For brief periods during spring and fall, the strict laws of territoriality are relaxed. In spring, the period coincides with the appearance of pups. Not only does this prevent undue strife in the community over the wanderings of the socially ignorant pups; it also allows those females seeking new territories to cross established ones. In the fall, the period is also necessary, accommodating the dispersal of overcrowded family groups. During autumn, the urge to emigrate is strong, and many animals move out into the "suburbs" of the town. Thus the town maintains a degree of flexibility and avoids permanent pockets of overpopulation.

Coterie members maintain mutual recognition through an often-repeated ritual involving mouth contact. Prairie dogs that appear to be "kissing" or "talking" are simply establishing identities. Generally the most dominant member will initiate mouth contact, approaching the second animal with head tilted back and presenting its open mouth, to which the other responds in like manner. Often the recognition ceremony is accompanied by tail wagging and frequently leads to another form of social reinforcement, the process of grooming. Generally, the prairie dog that initiates the mouth contact does the grooming, nibbling, and combing the fur in an effort to dislodge dirt and parasites. The act is more significant for its symbolic value, however, for the animal of lower rank will often completely roll over on its back during the process; by exposing its vulnerable undersides, it is submitting, canine fashion, to the dominance of its fellow. Pups that annoy adult males with their attentions are often rather roughly groomed. No doubt the procedure communicates authority as well as affection.

_continues on page 62_

Dog Town Predators and Fellow Inhabitants

Many pups and some adults are lost to predators. While small, prairie
dogs are fair game for rattlesnakes and burrowing owls. Hawks, like
the eagles, ambush pups from the sky. Patrolling coyotes are quick to
sense the pups' hesitation and to capitalize on the uncertainty.
Badgers excavate with astounding speed; bobcats rush from concealment
of any nearby cover. And in some places the most dreaded predator of
all is the black-footed ferret, which enters the burrow itself to
surprise and trap its prey. But eradication programs against the
prairie dog have made the ferret nearly extinct; none has been seen at
Devils Tower since the late 1800s. Some of the other predators of the
prairie dog also have been nearly eliminated by man. And with the loss
of natural predators, prairie dog populations flourish rapidly. Unless
these predators are allowed to make a comeback, prairie dog control
programs will be inevitable.

Should the individual invited to mouth contact not reciprocate, an immediate challenge is made. Apparently, mouth contact is the only positive means of identification available to prairie dogs, and any animal refusing it is immediately deemed a trespasser and aggressively evicted. The wild chase that ensues, accompanied by indignant calling and fierce chattering of teeth, sometimes leads the righteous landowner deep inside its neighbor's territory. The roles abruptly reverse and, after a moment of mutual realization, the pursuer suddenly becomes the pursued.

In the glare of the early evening sun it is difficult to distinguish the individual prairie dogs as they go about their various activities. A single warning call, however, and the town instantly sprouts battalions of erect postures. For a moment, each motionless, backlit figure shines its sun-haloed position. All the disparate activities of the scattered animals become instantaneously fused to a single purpose: identifying the danger.

Vocalizations distinguish the prairie dog from all other rodents. At least ten different calls have been identified in the blacktail class of prairie dogs. Most of the calls--such as the challenge bark, defense bark, disputing "_churr_," fighting snarl, fear scream, muffled bark, and tooth chattering--do not involve the entire community. Except for the fear scream, which is immediately noted by all members, these vocal signals are largely ignored by neighboring animals since they usually denote a local disturbance among the prairie dogs themselves. There are three warning calls, however, that are intended for the entire community; these constitute the bond that unites all the separate coteries of the town into a single social unit.

At the sound of the _warning bark_, usually uttered by many animals at once and quickly relayed through the entire town, each prairie dog immediately rises to alert in an attempt to define the immediate danger. If the wave of alarms is particularly intense, the animals usually rush to burrow mounds, where they will await further developments. Usually only the prairie dogs in the immediate vicinity of an enemy will retire below ground. The remainder of the population continues to observe and sound the alarm. As an enemy approaches a particular burrow, the frequency and intensity of the occupant's warning bark increases. Only at the last moment will the prairie dog cut short its tirade, capping it with an indignant _churk_ as it dives below ground.

Another, more urgent, signal is the _hawk warning call_. The high-pitched, musical twin notes of this cry prompt an immediate dash for cover. Unlike the typical reaction to the warning bark, response to the hawk warning call is unhesitating. When this cry is given, seconds count, and visual confirmation of danger is not required to prompt a rush to safety.

After danger has passed, the all-clear is sounded. Known as the _song bark_, this melodic whistle is always associated with a particular body posture. Rising up on its haunches, the prairie dog points its nose to the sky, gives the whistle, and promptly falls back on all fours. When learning to execute this call, pups usually topple over backwards. Once uttered, the call is repeated sporadically throughout the town.

Communication is as important to the survival of the prairie dog society as is adequate food and shelter. Towns decimated by disease or poisoning soon vanish if the survivors are too few or scattered to communicate effectively. Deprived of an efficient warning system (and perhaps of the psychological need of social contact, as well), individual animals make easy targets for predators. Certainly they are too large and conspicuous to blend in well with their sparse surroundings. Unlike their small, well-camouflaged cousins, the thirteen-lined ground squirrels, prairie dogs cannot survive as individuals.

After the females leave their weaned pups to establish new burrows for themselves, the young will remain together for a while until they, too, begin to split up. No longer do they resemble the playful, romping pups of spring, annoying their elders with their ceaseless games, demands for attention, and disregard for territorial boundaries. Now full-fledged members of their clans, they capture grasshoppers in a business-like fashion. Like the season, they have matured. With the company of their elders they now share a suspicion of the sky and every uninspected plot of ground.

Lessons a Long Time Learning

In the early days of the cattle range, before sound land management of the plains was understood, cattlemen were perplexed to witness mushrooming populations of prairie dogs. Formerly lush grassland often became a dog town "wasteland" following the introduction of cattle. Believing that the prairie dog, and not the cattle, was responsible for this sudden transformation, ranchers rapidly came to despise prairie dogs. A massive war of extermination began against these "varmits" that "ate the grass down to nothing." In reality, the appearance of prairie dogs merely indicated that the land was being overgrazed. As the bison had done before them, cattle now began to open up to the prairie dogs new territories that they could not otherwise colonize. Prairie dogs were never found on the eastern prairies simply because they could not contend with the taller growth of the more humid grasslands.

On their own, prairie dogs cannot easily invade unbroken areas of established grassland. The grass cover simply rejuvenates faster than the animals can work. But if the land has been disturbed by overgrazing, prairie dogs can quickly spread. Once established in an area, the animals wage a constant struggle against the vegetation. Since tall-growing plants offer concealment to a predator, the plants are routinely clipped off even if they are not to be eaten.

The feeding, clearing, and burrowing activities of the dog town tend to retard the grasses while encouraging the persistence of forbs--the broadleaf plants that quickly invade disturbed ground but are eventually crowded out by the returning grasses. By arresting the normal process of plant succession, an active dog town delays the return of the site to its climax vegetation of grasses. In so doing, it inadvertently perpetuates a wider variety of plants than would otherwise be found on the site.

Selective feeders, prairie dogs put pressure on a particular plant species when it becomes most abundant, then ignore it almost entirely in favor of another, and so on. This cyclic feeding allows each species to recover, preventing it from being eliminated.

Dry years help the prairie dog maintain control over the vegetation, and thus favor town expansion, while wet years speed recovery of the grasses and work against the town. Towns that had spread into lush grassland during the favorable conditions of drought may be severely reduced or even eliminated with the return of adequate precipitation.

In some cases, the clearing activities of prairie dogs may actually speed plant succession. As a direct result of overgrazing by domestic stock, much of the grassland of the semi-arid West was invaded by sagebrush, a tough, drought-resistant plant that tends to perpetuate itself indefinitely once introduced. By cutting down the sage, prairie dogs eliminate it from the plant community and open the land to grasses.

In its struggle for control of territory, the prairie dog was aided by the bison. The vast herds that moved across the landscape like a black plague of giant locusts left choice tracts of the grasslands devastated in their wake. The effects of such a physical force are difficult for us to comprehend today. Migrating northward in huge columns that sometimes measured 80 kilometers (50 miles) across, the bison cropped and trampled the greening spring grasses. Surely when the bison and the prairie dog were finally replaced by cattle, the grasslands, free at last from such punishment, would flourish. But no, instead the grasses languished. How could this be so?

Nature is always more complex than our perception of it. For countless centuries the Great Plains had survived its many moods of drought, dust storm, and wildfire, its scattered plagues of bison and grasshopper. Nature knows no "varmits," and change is not catastrophe, but opportunity. But to the settler who shot hawks, owls, and eagles to protect his calves, poultry, and children, the lesson was a long time dawning.

Ironically, the grasslands needed the periodic despoilment of bison and burrow. When the bison herd moved on, it left behind tons of fertilizer, key to the area's future rejuvenation. But the millions of hoofs also left the ground compacted. Were it not for the ceaseless activities of countless burrowing animals, including the industrious prairie dogs, loosening the soil and undoing the damage, the bison would have eventually destroyed much of their range.

For an animal so successfully adapted to life on the unrelieved expanses of the open plains, it is ironic that today prairie dogs survive in isolated colonies at the very margins of its desirable habitat.

3 Guide and Adviser

Regional Map

Visiting the Park

Location

On the fringe of the Black Hills in northeastern Wyoming, northwest of Sundance, northeast of Moorcroft, and southwest of Hulett.

Area

545 hectares (1,347 acres).

Elevation

The park is about 1,290 meters (4,250 feet) above sea level. The Tower rises another 264 meters (867 feet) to the top.

Climate

Summer temperatures cover a wide range from daily highs of 29°C (83°F) to lows of 10°C (50°F). Winter temperatures plunge below freezing for long periods of time. Spring arrives usually sometime in April, but the temperature drops quickly at night and stays cold during the day if it's cloudy. About the end of September, fall begins, and with it the golden color of changing cottonwood leaves along the Belle Fourche River.

Best times to visit

Spring is short in the Rocky Mountain West and can be a time of violent shifts in weather: summerlike days alternating with cold, always the possibility of late heavy snowfalls, and no inbetweens. These extremes seem to be tempered somewhat at Devils Tower, and the fun of watching deer can more than make up for any inconvenience due to the weather. Whitetail deer, followed by their spotted fawns, are rubbing off winter coats. They seem to be browsing the park hungrily everywhere you look.

Summer heat, because of elevation and dry air, radiates quickly but never becomes stifling. Winds are strong and steady and there is always a danger of exposure for those unprepared for sudden thunder and lightning storms, or for the sudden cooling after sunset. Most visits to Devils Tower are made in the summer when the surrounding rangelands are green and the sparkling watercourses invite refreshment under shade of cottonwoods.

Early fall, just as the range begins to brown, is perhaps a perfect time to be at Devils Tower. The park is uncrowded after Labor Day. Protected meadows are still green. Animals are in their prime and ready for the rigors of winter. The faint odor of decaying vegetation and the foretaste of winter on a particularly bracing chill wind--these are the pleasures of a long Wyoming fall.

Winter brings an air of enforced isolation to Devils Tower. Heavy snows and frequent blizzard conditions on the highways discourage most travelers. A rare treat awaits those who do come here in winter, however. Bald eagles migrate down from the north. You might see them wheeling in pairs over an otherwise frozen landscape, or making a feast of carrion on the ground.

Access

Highways--From Rapid City, S. Dak., take I-90 west to Sundance. Wyo.; then U.S. 14 to Devils Tower Junction; then Wyo. 24 to park. From Gillette, Wyo., take I-90 east to Moorcroft, then U.S. 14 to Wyo. 24. From Newcastle, Wyo. take U.S. 16 to Moorcroft. From Belle Fourche, S. Dak., take S. Dak. 34 to Wyoming line, then Wyo. 24 via Hulett to park. Buses--Nearest regularly scheduled buses serve Moorcroft; no service to park. Railroads--Nearest rail passenger service is in Cheyenne. Airport--Rapid City Airport is served by a few commercial airlines. Cars may be rented.

Visitor Center

For a general introduction to Devils Tower, the visitor center has exhibits, an audio/visual program, trail guides and plant and animal checklists, a publications sales outlet, and an information counter with a ranger on duty to answer questions. This is also the place where climbers must register to climb Devils Tower. The visitor center is open from about May 1 to October 31. In winter information requests are answered in the headquarters administration building.

Camping

The park has one campground for which a campsite fee is charged from about May 20 through September 10. Opening and closing dates depend on weather conditions. It has about 50 camping sites which will accommodate both tent and trailer camping equipment. A water tap, restrooms, fire grills, and picnic tables are provided, but there are no utility hook-ups for trailers. Campsites are taken on a first-come, first-served basis. After September 10, or later at the first sign of freezing, the water is shut off and the road is not snowplowed. Winter camping is allowed, however.

Scheduled Activities

The featured program at Devils Tower is presented every evening during the visitor season in the campground amphitheater. The story of the nation's first national monument is told with projected slide photographs by a park ranger who embellishes the story with colorful anecdotes about rangering experiences.

Hiking

Even if you have only time for a half-day visit to Devils Tower, it's time enough for a hike around the tower. Tower Trail is only 2 kilometers (1.25 miles) long and traverses fairly level ground. It stays in forest shade while it skirts the jumbled mass of boulders lying at the base of the Tower. It is the only trail in the park with formal wayside markers and benches where you can stop and look at the Tower from close up.

The park has three other designated hiking trails, all of them longer than Tower Trail and generally uncrowded. Devils Tower is never out of sight for long though, so it's not easy to get lost. The longer trails offer a chance to see different plant and animal environments; open meadows, prairie dog towns, bluffs overlooking the Belle Fourche River, the riverside habitat itself, as well as the pine forest, all of which are described in Part 2 of this handbook.

Other accommodations

Motels, trailer courts, camping supply stores, and service stations are in the nearby town of Hulett. Just outside the park boundary is a post office, general store, and commercial campground with a few extra recreational offerings.

Establishment of park

Proclaimed September 24, 1906. Boundary changes, August 9, 1955.

Mailing address

Devils Tower, Wyoming 82714.

Park Regulations

Natural Features

It is unlawful to disturb, injure, destroy, or remove any vegetation or rocks. This basic rule is made not only to protect the natural resources but out of consideration for others who will be here in the future.

Wildlife

Do not feed the prairie dogs or let them get close to you; they carry fleas and they can bite you. Do not chase, harass, attempt to catch, or feed any park animals. Rattlesnakes usually don't strike unless provoked or mistreated. Watch out for them! Hunting is not permitted in the park. If firearms and other weapons are carried, they must be unloaded and cased so as to prevent their use.

Pets

All pets must be kept in vehicles, or caged or leashed when in the park. They are not permitted in public buildings.

Traffic

Drive carefully to protect yourself, others, and wildlife. Do not obstruct traffic by stopping on the road; pull over and let other vehicles pass. Driving off roadways is prohibited. Park on road shoulders or at parking areas only.

Sanitation

Camp only at the campground. Dump wastes and wash water in special sinks at the restrooms, not on the ground. Littering is both irresponsible and unlawful. Trash cans are provided at convenient places throughout the park; please use them.

Fire Prevention

Fires are permitted only in the fireplaces found in the campground and must not be left unattended. Thoroughly drown all campfires with water after use.

Climbing the Tower

All climbers must register by name, address, and telephone number with a park ranger before going up.

And you must check out when you return. This is the only safety precaution on climbing required by the U.S. Code of Federal Regulations. Depending on your mountain climbing experience here and elsewhere, however, you might want to ask the rangers for safety hints, different climbing routes, and conditions on the face of the Tower at the time of your climb.

More than 80 separate routes to the top have been taken and described in the literature. No one has been killed climbing the Tower, a remarkable record. The most difficult pitches come first while there is still plenty of time to turn back or take an easier route. Also, compared to other mountains, Devils Tower can be conquered in a short time, less than an hour for the most skilled if they use an easy route. This means less chance of exhaustion from exposure. In sudden bad weather, one can easily rappel off in 40 to 60 minutes.

Records of climbs have been kept at the park since 1937. In 1963 the one thousandth climber checked in and in 1970 the two thousandth. Since 1977 more than 1,000 make the climb every year. The Tower has been climbed with the direct aid of ropes and pitons and with a technique known as "free climbing" without the use of ropes except as backup to catch a fall. It has been climbed from all sides and in all seasons, even on Christmas Day and on New Year's Day. Some people, of course, prefer to climb the Tower in snow and ice. One might conclude that all the "firsts" have been taken at Devils Tower, but, as long as the personal challenge of the sport continues to attract newcomers, there are certain to be more new records.

August has been the most active climbing month in recent years. The heat on the south-facing side of the Tower presents serious problems though. Climbers usually try to start as early as possible before the sun has a chance to heat the rock blazing hot.

Climbers rightfully take interest in the geology of the Tower. Worming their fingers into cracks and fissures, depending for their lives on the ringing-hard igneous mass that supports them, rock climbers develop a familiarity with various origins and kinds of rock. They, of course, contribute to the ongoing process of erosion which, over eons of time, has left Devils Tower in its present form. The amount of loose rock that breaks off under their feet, however, is far less than the amount lost every season from frost-heave, the effect of water seeping behind the surface rock and expanding into ice. The boulder field at the base of the Tower tells the rest of the erosion story. By studying lichen growing on the last slab to fall off the side, it has been estimated that this event occurred more than 10,000 years ago.

Nearby National Parks

Mount Rushmore National Memorial

is 40 kilometers (25 miles) southwest of Rapid City, South Dakota. Patriotic ideals representing the birth of the Nation through its entry into 20th Century world affairs are symbolized in massive stone carvings of George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Theodore Roosevelt. The scale and difficulty of sculptor Gutzon Borglum's achievement perhaps can only be appreciated in person. From June 1 to Labor Day the faces are illuminated at night and evening programs are presented in the amphitheater. Mailing address: Keystone, South Dakota 57751.

Wind Cave National Park

is located on U.S. 385, 16 kilometers (10 miles) north of Hot Springs, South Dakota. Wind whistling from the entrance attracted attention to the cave, hence its name. Jesse McDonald developed the cave as a tourist attraction in 1890. His son, Alvin, explored its passageways and named many of the fancy formations. Above ground the park preserves a natural prairie environment and a remnant bison herd, as poignant a scene as you will find anywhere in the West. Tours of the cave are conducted by park rangers throughout the year except on December 25 and January 1. A campground is open from mid-May through mid-September on a first-come, first-served basis. Mailing address: Hot Springs, South Dakota 57747.

Jewel Cave National Monument

is located on U.S. 16, 24 kilometers (15 miles) west of Custer, South Dakota. Glittering arrays of mineral formations--jewel-like calcite crystals, calcite "popcorn," crystalline gypsum "flowers"--give this park its name. On the four levels seemingly endless passageways wind on and on, and the end is still not in sight. On the surface in the ponderosa pine forest, you can tell from the dark bark of the young trees why, as one approaches, the Black Hills appear black. Cave tours are conducted daily from mid-May through September. The park does not have overnight accommodations or campgrounds. Mailing address: Custer, South Dakota 57730.

Badlands National Park

is 97 kilometers (60 miles) southeast of Rapid City, South Dakota. Badlands generally describes any deeply eroded and weather-beaten landscape. The play of light and shadow over endless naturally sculpted shapes and the colors of naked rock give these badlands their special beauty. In 1976 a major portion of Badlands National Park was designated wilderness and a new south unit extended the boundaries into the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. The park has paleontology exhibits, a program on the history of the Oglala Sioux, a variety of nature trails, and a long road system with wayside exhibits at many scenic overlooks. The park has a herd of about 300 bison and some prairie dog towns. It is open all year. Mailing address: Interior, South Dakota 57750.

Not So Nearby National Parks

A considerable distance from Devils Tower, yet related by geography and even history, is a band of national parks not to be overlooked. Yellowstone and Grand Teton in northwestern Wyoming, may, in fact, be your ultimate destination. The snow-capped peaks of the Bighorn Mountains in Wyoming, where Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area is located, can be seen from several places along the approach road to Devils Tower. Custer Battlefield, adjoining the Crow Indian Reservation, is on the northern route to Yellowstone through Billings, Montana. Theodore Roosevelt National Park celebrates the man and the ideals of the American conservation movement which he accelerated by proclaiming Devils Tower the first national monument.

Yellowstone National Park

is on U.S. 89, 90 kilometers (56 miles) south of Livingston, Montana. This first and reigning queen of all national parks, established more than a century ago, draws travelers as if it were a place of pilgrimage. Indeed, there is spiritual enchantment beyond measuring in the lively animation of Yellowstone--its exploding geysers, steaming hot pools, and dashing waters draining both sides of the continent. Between October 31 and May 1, park roads and entrances, except the North Entrance, are ordinarily closed by snow. Winter activities include snowmobiling and cross-country skiing. Campgrounds usually open about June. A host of park-sponsored and concessioner services are offered. Mailing address: Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming 82190.

Grand Teton National Park

is located just north of Jackson, Wyoming, on U.S. 187, and 90 kilometers (56 miles) south of Yellowstone via the John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Memorial Parkway. The Tetons, among the noblest creations in the American West, are a congregation of blue-gray pyramids soaring above the sagebrush flats and morainal lakes in Jackson Hole. The valley, a hunting ground of prehistoric Indians for centuries, became a fur trade crossroads in the early 19th Century. Geology, wildlife, plains Indian culture, all share leading roles in the story of this park. Visitor facilities are open all year, though curtailed somewhat in winter. Mailing address: Moose, Wyoming 83021.

Custer Battlefield National Monument

is on Interstate 90, 24 kilometers (15 miles) south of Hardin, Montana. On Sunday, June 25, 1876, Lt. Col. George Armstrong Custer and five companies of the 7th Calvary under his immediate command were surrounded and killed by Indians. The defeat shocked the nation and still reverberates with questions about what exactly happened in this clash of cultures. Memorials spread across the hills soberly tell what little is known. The park, open all year, has exhibits but no campgrounds. Mailing address: Crow Agency, Montana 59022.

Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area

straddles the Montana-Wyoming boundary, 67 kilometers (42 miles) from Hardin, Montana, on the north: and at Lovell, Wyoming, on the south. Access to boat launching ramps and campgrounds is from either end of the long narrow reservoir backed up behind Yellowtail Dam on the Bighorn River, which here flows north. Boating and fishing enthusiasts enjoy a long season from mid-April to late October. Tours of the dam and powerhouse are given daily from Memorial Day to Labor Day, and the visitor centers are open all year. Mailing address: P.O. Box 458, Fort Smith, Montana 59035.

Theodore Roosevelt National Park

is on Interstate 94, at Medora, North Dakota. A north unit is 90 kilometers (56 miles) north on US. 85. TR's Maltese Cross Cabin is in the south unit, but the park celebrates more than the 26th President's energetic protection of public lands. Magnificently colored and worn badlands lie on both sides of the Little Missouri River interspersed with grassy ranges where adventurous men, Roosevelt among them, enterprised in the open-range cattle business. Populations of bighorn sheep, bison, and antelope, among the large game animals once hunted to extinction, have been restored. The visiting season is May through October. The park has campgrounds in both north and south units. Mailing address: Medora, North Dakota 58645.

Armchair Explorations

Books:

Allen, Durward L. _The Life of Prairies and Plains._ Our Living World of Nature series. McGraw-Hill, 1967.

Everhart, William C. _The National Park Service._ Praeger Publishers, 1972.

Lamb, Russell, photos by. _Wyoming._ Graphic Arts Center Publishing Co., 1978.

Larson, T. A. _Wyoming--A Bicentennial History._ Norton, 1977.

Robbins, Royal. _Basic Rockcraft._ La Siesta Press, 1971.

Robbins, Royal. _Advanced Rockcraft._ La Siesta Press, 1973.

Tilden, Freeman. _The National Parks._ Alfred A. Knopf, 1978.

Tilden, Freeman. _Interpreting Our Heritage._ University of North Carolina Press, 1977.

Wetmore, Clifford M. _Lichens of the Black Hills._ Vol. 3, No. 4. Michigan State University, 1968.

_Wind Cave._ National Park Handbook series, 104. National Park Service, 1979.

Booklets:

Cunningham, Robert. _It's a Dog's Life._ Theodore Roosevelt Nature and History Association, n.d.

Horning, Dennis, and Marriott, Hollis. _Free Climbs of Devils Tower._ 1980.

Mattison, Ray H. _Devils Tower National Monument--A History._ Devils Tower Natural History Association, 1981.

Robinson, Charles S. _Geology of Devils Tower National Monument, Wyoming._ Devils Tower Natural History Association, n.d.

Van Bruggen, Theodore. _Wildflowers of the Northern Plains and Black Hills._ Badlands Natural History Association, 1976.

Index

Numbers in italics refer to photographs, illustrations, or maps.

A
Animal life 24, 29, 35, 47, 58, 69, 71;
photos _31_, _37_, _60_-61.
_See also_ Birds; Deer; Prairie Dogs
Antiquities Act of 1906 17

B
Badlands National Park 52, _75_
Badger _61_
Belle Fourche River 9, 11, 17, _22_-23, 24, 27, 42
Bighorn Canyon National Recreation Area 76-77
Birds 24, 32, 34, 35, 36, 42-43, 46;
photos _31_, _44_, _45_, _60_, _61_
Black Hills 9, 10-11, 29
Bluebird, mountain _45_
Bullsnake _61_

C
Climbers 12, _14_-15, 16, _30_, 31, _72_, _73_
Conn, Herb 15
Conn, Jan _15_
Coyote _61_
Custer, George Armstrong 9, 10, 76
Custer Battlefield National Monument 76

D
Deer, whitetail 35, 37, _38_-39
Devils Tower National Monument 29, 69;
climbers 12, _14_-15, 16, _30_, 31, _72_, _73_;
established 12, 17, 71;
geological origins 11, _25_-27, 35;
Indian names 10-11, 26;
photos _6_-7, _17_, _18_;
size 27, 69;
tourism 19, 34, 69-71
Dodge, Richard I. 10-11
Doves, rock _31_
Durrance, Jack 15, 16

E
Eagle, golden _60_, _61_

F
Falcon, prairie 34, _61_
Ferrett, black-footed _51_, _61_
Fox _37_

G
Geology 11, 25-_27_, 35
Gopher, pocket _37_
Grand Teton National Park 76, _77_
Grasslands 29, _31_, 35, 46, _64_-65

H
Hanson, Dennis 31
Hopkins, George _15_, 16

I
Indians 10, 26
Insects 32-33, 46

J
Jackson, William H. 12
Jewel Cave National Monument 74-_75_
Joyner, Newell F. _15_

M
Magpie, black-billed _45_
Map _51_, _68_
Mateo Tepee 10, 11
Matous, Steve _72_
Missouri Buttes 26, _27_
Mondell, Frank W. 17
Moran, Thomas 12
Mount Rushmore National Memorial _74_

N
National parks _74_-77
Nighthawk _45_
Nuthatch, white-breasted _44_, 45

O
Owl, screech _13_;
burrowing, 55, 61

P
Porcupine _37_
Prairie dogs 28, 29, 50-65 _passim_, 71;
photos _12_, _48_-49, _54_, _55_, _56_, _57_

R
Raccoon _37_
Ripley, Willard 12, 14, 16
Rogers, William 12, _14_, 16
Roosevelt, Theodore 17
Roosevelt National Park, Theodore 52, 77
Rowell, Galen _30_, 31

S
Showacre, Joan _15_
Squirrel, ground _37_

T
Trees _9_, 29, 36, 40, 41

W
Warren, Francis E. 12
Weasel, longtail _37_
Wiessner, Fritz 15
Willig, George 16, _72_
Wind Cave National Park 52, _74_
Woodpecker, red-headed _45_
Wyoming 9-10, 11-12

Y
Yellowstone National Park 76, _77_

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC 20402.

Stock Number 024-005-00810-1.

*GPO: 1981--341-611/2

National Park Service

The National Park Service expresses its appreciation to all those persons who made the preparation and production of this handbook possible. The Service also gratefully acknowledges the financial support given this handbook project by the Devils Tower Natural History Association a nonprofit group that assists interpretive efforts at Devils Tower National Monument.

Texts

Greg Beaumont, who wrote Part 2, is a wildlife photographer and naturalist who lives in Muscatine, Iowa.

Map

R.R. Donnelley & Sons Co. 68.

Illustrations

The prairie dog burrow diagram on page 57 is from the August 1979 issue of "National Geographic" and is used with the permission of the National Geographic Society.

Russell Lamb cover, 6-7, and 22-23.

Greg Beaumont 8, 9, 12, 13, 17, 31 top of Tower, 37-39 except raccoon, 44-45, 54-57, 60, and 61 golden eaglets, coyote, bullsnake, prairie falcon, burrowing owl.

Jaime Quintero 27.

Galen Rowell, Visualeyes Photographic Agency 18, 30, and 31 wood rat, cactus, doves.

Tom Bean 48-49, and 61 badger.

All other illustrations come from the files of Devils Tower National Monument and the National Park Service.

U.S. Department of the Interior

As the Nation's principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally owned public lands and natural resources. This includes fostering the wisest use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of these through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources to assure that their development is in the best interest of all our people. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in island territories under U.S. administration.

Transcriber's Notes

--Retained publication information from the printed edition: this eBook
is public-domain in the country of publication.

--Relocated all image captions to be immediately under the corresponding
images, removing references like "preceding page".

--Silently corrected a few palpable typos.

--In the text versions only, text in italic font is delimited by
_underscores_.