Chapter M: Macalo (Italian Wars) (2)

This city, the chief stronghold of the Carthaginians in Sicily, was besieged by Dionysius of Syracuse, with 83,000 men, B.C. 398. Having built a mole to connect the mainland and the island on which Motya stood, he erected thereon his new engines of war, the catapults, used for the first time in this siege. He also built large moving towers to enable him to cope with the lofty defences of the place, and by these devices succeeded in effecting an entrance. Every house, however, was in itself a small fortress, and after days of street fighting, which cost the assailants a heavy price, the city was still unsubdued. At last by a night surprise he mastered the quarter which still held out, and the inhabitants were massacred or sold as slaves.

Mount Gaurus (First Samnite War).

Fought B.C. 342, between the Romans, under Valerius Corvus, and the Samnites. The Romans won a signal victory.

Mount Lactarius (Second Gothic War).

Fought March 553, between the troops of the Emperor Justinian, under Narses, and the Goths, under Teias, the last Gothic king of Italy. The Romans gained a signal victory, and Teias was slain, the Goths thereupon accepting the rule of Justinian.

Mount Panium.

Fought B.C. 198, between the Syrians, under Antiochus the Great, and the Greeks and Egyptians, under Scopas. Scopas was routed, and Antiochus took possession of all the territory held by Egypt in Asia, up to the frontier of Egypt proper.

Mount Seleucus (Revolt of Magnentius).

Fought August 10, 353, between the rebels, under Magnentius, and the Imperial legions, under Constantius. Constantius forced the passage of the Cottian Alps, and defeated Magnentius in a sanguinary battle, which dispersed his army and finally broke his power, Gaul and Italy being thus again brought under the Imperial sway.

Mount Tabor (French Invasion of Egypt).

Fought April 15, 1799, when Napoleon defeated and dispersed the Syrian army raised to create a diversion in favour of the beleaguered garrison of Acre. Kléber’s division bore the brunt of the fighting.

Mount Taurus (Moslem Invasion of Asia Minor).

Fought 804, between the Moslems, under Harroun-al-Raschid, and the Greeks, under the Emperor Nicephorus I. The Greeks were totally defeated, with a loss of 40,000 men, and Nicephorus, wounded in three places, with difficulty escaped from the field.

Mount Tifata (Civil War of Marius and Sulla).

Fought B.C. 83, when the legions of Sulla defeated the army of the Consul, Norbanus, with heavy loss, and drove them to take refuge in Capua.

Mouscron (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought 1794, between the French, under Moreau and Souham, and the Austrians, under General Clarifait. The French were victorious.

Mühlberg (Wars of Charles V).

Fought April 24, 1547, between the German Protestants, 9,000 strong, under the Elector Frederick of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse, and the Imperial army, together with 3,500 Papal troops, 13,000 in all, under Charles V. The Protestants were totally defeated, and their two leaders taken prisoners. The Imperialists lost 50 only.

Mühldorf.

Fought 1322, between the Imperial troops, under the Emperor Louis the Bavarian, and the German malcontents, under Frederick, Duke of Austria. Louis won a signal victory, and put an end to the resistance to his rule.

Mühlhausen (Gallic War).

Fought B.C. 58, between the Romans, 36,000 strong, under Julius Cæsar, and the Sequani, under Ariovistus. The Romans occupied two camps, one of which was held successfully by two legions against a determined attack of the Gauls. The attack having been repulsed, Cæsar united his forces, and led them against the Sequani, whom he totally routed with enormous loss.

Mukwanpur (Gurkha War).

Fought February 27, 1816, when a village, forming part of Sir David Ochterlony’s position, was attacked by 2,000 Gurkhas. The village was defended by three companies of Sepoys and 40 men of the 87th Regiment, and the defenders were hard pressed, but the arrival of reinforcements enabled them after severe fighting to beat off the assailants with very heavy loss.

Multan (Second Sikh War).

This fortress, defended by the Sikhs, under Mulraj, was besieged by Lieutenant Edwardes with about 1,200 men in July, 1848. After an ineffectual bombardment, the siege was raised September 22, but was renewed December 27 by General Whish, with 17,000 men and 64 guns. After a heavy bombardment the place was stormed January 2, 1849, and on the 22nd of the same month Mulraj surrendered the citadel. The British loss during the siege was 210 killed and 910 wounded.

Münchengrätz (Seven Weeks’ War).

Fought June 28, 1866, between the advance-guard of Prince Frederick Charles’ army, and the Austrians, under Count Clam-Gallas. The Austrians were defeated with a loss of about 300 killed and wounded, and 1,000 prisoners. The Prussian losses were very small.

Munda (Civil War of Cæsar and Pompey).

Fought March 17, B.C. 45, between the Pompeians, under Cnæus Pompeius, and the Cæsareans, under Julius Cæsar. The Pompeians were totally defeated, losing 30,000 men, including Labienus and Varro, while the Cæsareans lost 1,000 only. Cnæus Pompey was wounded. This defeat put an end to the resistance of the Pompeian faction in Spain, and the action is further notable as being Cæsar’s last battle.

Muret (Albigensian Crusade).

Fought 1213, between the Catholics, under Simon de Montfort, and the Albigenses, under the Count of Thoulouse, aided by Pedro II of Aragon. The Albigenses were routed, and this defeat put an end to their organized resistance. Pedro fell in the battle.

Murfreesboro (American Civil War).

Fought December 31, 1862, between 35,000 Confederates, under General Bragg, and 40,000 Federals, under General Rosecrans. Bragg attacked and drove back the Federal right, but the centre and left held their ground, and prevented the defeat degenerating into a rout. Both sides lost heavily, but the Confederates captured a large number of prisoners and over 20 guns. On the following day the Federal right retook the ground it had lost on the 31st, and at the end of the day both armies occupied their original positions. Early on January 2, however, Bragg retired in good order. Each side lost about 8,000, killed, wounded and missing, in the two days’ fighting.

Mursa (Revolt of Magnentius).

Fought September 28, 351, between the usurper Magnentius, with 100,000 troops, and the Emperor Constantius, with 80,000. The battle was severely contested, but finally the legions of Magnentius were driven from the field with a loss of 24,000; that of the victors amounting to 30,000.

Musa Bagh (Indian Mutiny).

Fought March 19, 1858, when a British force, under Sir James Outram, totally routed a body of mutineers, 7,000 strong, under Huzrat Mahal, Begum of Oude, which was holding the Musa Bagh, a fortified palace in the outskirts of Lucknow.

Muta (Moslem Invasion of Syria).

Fought 629, between the Moslems, under Zaid, and the troops of the Emperor Heraclius. Zaid was slain, and so successively were Jaafar and Abdallah, who followed him in the command, but the banner of the prophet was then raised by Khaled, who succeeded in repulsing the onslaught of the Imperial troops, and on the following day led the Moslems undefeated from the field. This is the first battle between the Mohammedan Arabs and a foreign enemy.

Muthal, The (Jugurthine War).

Fought B.C. 108, between the Numidians, under Jugurtha, and the Romans, under Metellus Numidicus. The Numidians were strongly posted on the heights above the river, but were driven out by the legionaries with heavy loss. Jugurtha did not again face the Romans in the field, contenting himself with a guerilla warfare.

Mutina (Mark Antony’s First Rebellion).

Fought April 16, 43 B.C., between the adherents of Antony, and three Consular armies, under Hirtius, Octavius, and Vibius Pansa. Antony, who was besieging Mutina, was attacked simultaneously by the three armies. That of Pansa was routed, and Pansa slain but Octavius and Hirtius gained some small success. Antony, however, was undefeated, and continued the siege. On the 27th Octavius and Hirtius made a combined attack on his lines, and succeeded in forcing their way through into the town, though Hirtius fell in the action.

Mycale (Third Persian Invasion).

Fought August, 479 B.C., between the Greeks, under Leotychides the Spartan, and a large Persian army. The Greeks effected a landing near Cape Mycale, and drove the Persians back upon their entrenchments, which they then carried by storm, whereupon the Persian auxiliaries fled. The fugitives were slaughtered in detail by the revolted Ionians, and the whole army destroyed.

Mylæ (First Punic War).

Fought B.C. 260, when the Roman fleet, under Caius Duilius, defeated the Carthaginians, under Hannibal, with loss of 50 ships, 3,000 killed and 7,000 prisoners. Duilius had introduced the boarding bridge, which was lowered on to the deck of the opposing galley, and this gave full scope to the superior powers of the Romans in hand-to-hand fighting.

Mylex (Civil War of Cæsar and Pompey).

Fought B.C. 36, between the Pompeian fleet, under Sextus Pompeius, and the fleet of the Triumvirs, under Agrippa. The Pompeians were defeated.

Myonnesus (War with Antiochus the Great).

Fought B.C. 190, between the Roman fleet, under Caius Livius, and the fleet of Antiochus, under Polyxenides, who had an advantage of nine ships. He was, however, defeated by the superior seamanship of the Romans, with a loss of 42 vessels.

Mytilene (Peloponnesian War).

This city, which had revolted against Athens, was invested in the autumn of 428 B.C. by the Athenians, under Paches, with 1,000 hoplites and a fleet of triremes. A feeble attempt at relief by a Peloponnesian squadron, under Alcidas, was unsuccessful, and in May, 427, the city surrendered, and all the male inhabitants were condemned to death. In the end, however, only the leaders of the revolt were executed.

Mytilene (Peloponnesian War).

A naval action fought B.C. 406, between 140 Peloponnesian vessels, under Callicratidas, and 70 Athenian triremes, under Conon. Conon was defeated, with the loss of 30 ships, the rest of his fleet being driven into Mytilene, where it was blockaded.

N

Nachod (Seven Weeks’ War).

Fought June 27, 1866, between the 5th Prussian Corps, under General Steinmetz, and the Austrians, under General Ramming. The Austrian cavalry, which was considerably superior in number, was defeated by the Prussian Uhlans, and the action resulted in the retreat of the Austrians, with a considerable loss in killed and wounded. The Prussians, who lost 900, captured 2,000 prisoners and 5 guns.

Næfels (War of Kiburg).

Fought April 9, 1388, between 6,000 Austrians, under Tockenburg, and 500 men of Glarus with a few Schwyzers. The Swiss were driven from their first position behind the “Letzi” at the entrance to the valley, but, retiring to the heights of the Rauhberg, disordered the advancing columns by rolling boulders upon them, and, then attacking, utterly routed them. The Austrians lost 80 knights and 2,000 soldiers.

Nagy-Sarló (Hungarian Rising).

Fought April 19, 1849, between the Hungarians, 25,000 strong, under Görgey, and the Austrians, who endeavoured to prevent Görgey constructing bridges over the Gran. The Austrians were signally defeated, and the river successfully bridged.

Naissus (Gothic Invasion of the East).

Fought 269 between the Imperial troops, under the Emperor Claudius Gothicus, and the invading Goths. The Romans were hard pressed, when the Gothic lines were attacked in the rear by a force of 5,000 men, which Claudius had concealed for this purpose in the neighbouring mountains, and being thrown into confusion, were totally routed. Fifty thousand men are said to have fallen in the battle.

Najara.

_See_ Navarrete.

Nanshan (Russo-Japanese War).

Fought May 26, 1904, between three Japanese divisions, under General Oku, and a Russian division, with a large force of artillery, under General Stoessel. The Russians occupied a very strongly entrenched position on the heights of Nanshan. After an artillery preparation, the Japanese attempted to storm the heights, eight successive attacks failing before the concentrated fire of the Russian guns, though the last survivors of the assailants got within 30 yards of the trenches. The infantry were then retired, and after a further bombardment, aided by the Japanese fleet in Kiuchau Bay, the whole force attacked simultaneously, and, penetrating the defences on the Russian left, drove them from their positions with heavy loss, the defenders leaving 500 dead on the field. The Japanese lost 4,304 killed, wounded and missing. Seventy-eight guns were taken, and the Russians penned up in Port Arthur.

Narva (Russo-Swedish War).

Fought November 30, 1700, between 8,000 Swedes, under Charles XII, and 80,000 Russians, under General Dolgorouky. The Russians were besieging Narva, and after driving in two large bodies who occupied advanced positions, Charles boldly attacked their entrenched camp. After a brief cannonade, the Swedes stormed the trenches, and though the Russian artillerymen stood to their guns, after three hours’ hard fighting, the defenders were driven out in disorder having lost 18,000 in the trenches, while many more fell in the fight. The Swedes lost 600 only.

Naseby (Civil War).

Fought June 14, 1645, between 14,000 Parliamentarians, under Fairfax, and 7,500 Royalists, under Charles I, with Prince Rupert in actual command. Rupert’s first charge broke the Parliamentary left wing, but, as usual, the pursuit was carried too far, and before the cavalry returned, Cromwell on the right had turned the scale, and the battle was over. The Royalist infantry, overwhelmed by superior numbers, was almost annihilated, 5,000 prisoners, and all the artillery and munitions of war being captured.

Nashville (American Civil War).

Fought December 15 and 16, 1863, between 50,000 Federals, under General Thomas, and 40,000 Confederates, under General Hood. Thomas attacked the left of Hood’s lines before Nashville, and after hard fighting, in which Hood lost 1,200 prisoners and 16 guns, the Confederates withdrew during the night to a position a few miles in the rear. Here they were again attacked on the 16th, and, though at first holding their ground, were in the end driven from the field in confusion, with heavy loss in killed and wounded, besides 4,460 prisoners and 54 guns.

Naulachus (Civil War of Cæsar and Pompey).

Fought September 3, B.C. 36, between the Pompeian fleet of 300 ships, under Sextus Pompeius, and the fleet of the Triumvirs, of equal strength, under Agrippa. The action was severely contested, but in the end Agrippa was victorious, and Pompeius fled with 17 vessels only.

Naupactus (Peloponnesian War).

Fought 429 B.C. between 20 Athenian ships, under Phormio, and 77 Peloponnesian ships, under Cnemas. The Athenians were entrapped by Cnemas at the entrance to the Bay of Naupactus, and 9 of his vessels driven ashore. The remaining 11 fled towards Naupactus, closely pursued by the Peloponnesians, when the rearmost of the flying Athenians suddenly turned, and rammed the leading ship of Cnemas’ squadron. The pursuers hesitated, and the rest of the Athenians then returned, and gained a complete victory, taking 6 ships, and recovering 8 of the 9 which had run ashore.

Navarino (Greek War of Independence).

Fought October 20, 1827, when the allied fleets of Great Britain, France and Russia under Codrington, de Rigny, and Heiden respectively, and numbering in all 24 ships, annihilated the Turkish and Egyptian fleets, 60 vessels being entirely destroyed, and the remainder driven ashore. The allies lost 272 in killed and wounded; the Turks over 4,000. This battle is noteworthy as being the last general action fought under the old conditions between wooden sailing ships.

Navarrete (Hundred Years’ War).

Fought April 3, 1367, between 24,000 English, under Edward the Black Prince, and 60,000 French and Spaniards, under Bertrand du Guesclin and Henry de Trastamare. The English, mainly owing to the skill of their archers, completely defeated their opponents, with heavy loss, du Guesclin being made prisoner. This battle is also known as the Battle of Najara.

Naxos.

Fought September, 376 B.C., between 80 Athenian triremes, under Chabrias, and 60 Spartan ships, under Pollio, who was endeavouring to waylay the Athenian grain ships from the Euxine. Pollio was totally defeated, with a loss of 49 triremes.

Nechtan’s Mere.

Fought May 20, 685, between the Picts, under Brude, and the Northumbrians, under Ecgfrith. The latter was defeated, and the Picts by their victory freed themselves from the Northumbrian domination.

Neerwinde (War of the Revolution).

Fought July 19, 1693, between the English, under William III, and the French in superior force, under Marshal Luxemberg. The French attacked the English entrenchments, and were at first repulsed, but after eight hours’ hard fighting, they succeeded in driving them back all along the line, though owing largely to the personal bravery of the King, the retirement was in good order. This victory which cost the French 10,000 men, was a barren one, for William’s retreat was unmolested, and he was almost at once in a condition to renew the conflict. This is also called the Battle of Landen.

Neerwinde (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought March 18, 1793, between the French, under Dumouriez, and the Austrians, under the Prince of Coburg. The Austrians won a signal victory, and in consequence of his defeat Dumouriez was compelled to evacuate Belgium.

Negapatam.

Fought 1746, off the Coromandel coast between a British squadron of 6 ships, under Captain Peyton, and 9 French ships, under Labourdonnais. The fight was conducted almost entirely at long range, and was indecisive, but after the action Peyton sheered off and made for Trincomalee, thus practically admitting defeat, though the French had in fact suffered the heavier loss.

Negapatam.

Siege was laid to this place October 21, 1781, by a British force, 4,000 strong, under Colonel Braithwaite. The garrison, partly Dutch and partly Mysore troops, though 8,000 in number, did not wait for a bombardment, but surrendered November 3.

Negapatam.

A naval action was fought off this place in 1782 between a British squadron, under Sir Edward Hughes, and a French squadron, under Suffren. The opposing forces were of about equal strength, and the action was indecisive, but the French designs on Negapatam were frustrated, and Suffren drew off to the southward.

Nehavend (Moslem Invasion of Persia).

Fought A.D. 637 between the Moslems, under Said, the lieutenant of the Caliph Omar, and a Persian army, 150,000 strong. The Persians were utterly routed, this being the last stand made against the conquering Moslems.

Neon (Sacred War).

Fought B.C. 354, between the Phocians and certain mercenary troops, 10,000 in all, under Philomelus, and the Thebans and Locrians. The Phocians were totally defeated, and Philomelus, driven fighting and covered with wounds to the edge of a precipice, preferred death to surrender, and sprang over the cliff.

Neuwied (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought April 18, 1797, between the French, 80,000 strong, under Hoche, and the Austrians, under Werneck. Hoche won a signal victory, driving the Austrians beyond the Lahn, with a loss of 8,000 men and 80 guns.

Neville’s Cross (Scottish Wars).

Fought October 17, 1346, between the Scottish invading army, under David II, and the northern levies, under Henry Percy and Ralph Neville. The Scots were completely routed, with a loss of 15,000 men, and David and many of his nobles captured.

Newburn (Scottish Wars).

Fought August 28, 1640, between 4,500 English, under Lord Conway, and the Scottish army, 22,500 strong, under Leslie. Conway endeavoured to hold the ford of Newburn, near Newcastle, but his raw levies, after a cannonade of three hours, fled in confusion. Conway was consequently obliged to evacuate Newcastle, which was occupied by the Scots. The losses on both sides were small.

Newbury (Civil War).

Fought September 20, 1643, between the Royalists, under Charles I, and the Parliamentarians, under Essex. The object of Charles was to stop Essex’s march on London, and though his troops held their ground throughout the day, he could not be said to have gained a victory, as during the night he felt himself obliged to abandon his position.

A second indecisive battle was fought at Newbury, October 27, 1644, when the Royalists, under Charles I, again sustained throughout the day, without giving ground, the attacks of the Parliamentary army, under Waller, Manchester, and others, but, as on the previous occasion, retired during the night.

Newmarket (American Civil War).

Fought May 13, 1864, between 15,000 Federals, under Sigel, and 3,500 Confederates, under Breckenridge. The Confederates, by a rapid flank movement, fell upon Sigel’s force while on the march, and drove them to seek shelter in a wood behind their artillery. The guns were then most gallantly attacked and taken by 250 boys, pupils of the Lexington Military School, who lost 80 of their number in the charge. Sigel retired, having lost very heavily in men, and leaving 6 guns in the enemy’s hands.

New Orleans (Second American War).

This city, held by a garrison of 12,000 Americans, under General Jackson, was attacked December, 1814, by a British force of 6,000 men, under General Keane, aided by the fleet. On the 13th the American warships, lying in the Mississippi, were captured by a boat attack, and by the 21st the whole of the troops were disembarked. After a few skirmishes, Sir Edward Pakenham, arrived and took command on the 25th, and on January 1, 1815, a determined attack was made upon the American position. This failed, and owing to difficulties as to supplies, the British retired. On the 7th a final assault took place, but the assailants were again repulsed, with a loss of 1,500, including Pakenham, and the expedition then withdrew. At the time of the action peace had already been concluded, though of course neither party was aware of the fact.

New Orleans (American Civil War).

On April 16, 1862, the Federal fleet of 30 armed steamers and 21 mortar vessels, under Commodore Farragut, began the attack on this city by the bombardment of Fort Jackson. After this fort and Fort Mary had been shelled with little intermission until the 25th, Farragut forced the passage, and anchoring off the Levée of New Orleans, the city at once surrendered. The forts, however, still held out, but a mutiny broke out in Fort Jackson, and on the 28th they surrendered to Commodore Porter.

New Ross (Irish Rebellion).

Fought June 5, 1799, between 30,000 rebels, under Father Roche and Bagenal Harvey, and about 1,400 regulars, under General Johnstone. The rebels attacked the troops posted in New Ross, and penetrated into the centre of the town, but were then driven back with the bayonet, and totally routed, with a loss of 2,600 killed.

Newtown Butler (War of the Revolution).

Fought August 2, 1689, between 5,000 Catholics, under Maccarthy, and 3,000 Protestants, under Colonel Wolseley, in defence of Enniskillen. The Catholics were totally routed, and fled in disorder, losing 1,500 in the action, and 500 drowned in Lough Erne.

Niagara (Seven Years’ War).

This fort was besieged in June, 1759, by 2,500 British, with 900 Indians, under General Prideaux, the garrison consisting of 600 French, under Captain Pouchot. Prideaux was killed by the premature explosion of a shell, and Sir William Johnson succeeded to the command. On July 24, when the garrison were almost _in extremis_, an attempt to relieve the fort was made by 1,300 French and Indians, under Ligneris, but he was repulsed by Johnson with considerable loss, at La Belle Famille, and Pouchot at once surrendered.

Nicæa (First Crusade).

This city was besieged by the Crusaders, under Godefroi de Bouillon, May 14, 1097. The Saracens were greatly aided in the defence by the possession of Lake Ascanius, but with great labour the crusaders transported boats from the sea to the lake, and thus completed the investment of the place. Two determined attempts to relieve it were made by the Sultan Soliman, but both were repulsed, and Nicæa surrendered June 20.

Nicholson’s Nek.

_See_ Farquhar’s Farm.

Nicopolis (Third Mithridatic War).

Fought B.C. 66, between the Romans, under Pompey, and the army of Mithridates. The Romans had occupied the heights in front of the retreating Asiatics, and Mithridates encamped under their position. In the night the Romans attacked him in his camp, and utterly routed him. This was the last battle fought by Mithridates against the legions of Rome.

Nicopolis.

Fought B.C. 47, when Domitius Calvinus, with one Roman legion and a contingent of Pontic and other Asiatic troops, encountered the Bosporans, under Pharnaces. Calvinus’ Asiatic troops fled at the first onset, and he was completely defeated, only the steadiness of the Romans saving him from disaster.

Nicopolis (Ottoman Wars).

Fought September 28, 1395, between 10,000 French and 50,000 Hungarians, under the Duc de Nevers and Sigismund of Hungary, and the Turkish army of Bajazet I. The French charged the Turkish lines, without waiting for the Hungarians, and penetrated the two first lines, killing 1,500 Turks, but they were then overpowered by the Janissaries in the third line and 3,000 killed, while all the survivors were captured. Bajazet then turned upon the Hungarians, who fled without striking a blow. Bajazet massacred all his prisoners, excepting 25 nobles.

Nicopolis (Russo-Turkish War).

This place was captured July 16, 1877, by the 9th Russian Army Corps, under General Krudener, after two days’ bombardment, when the garrison of 7,000 Turks surrendered. The Russians lost 1,300 killed and wounded.

Nieuport (Netherlands War of Independence).

Fought July 2, 1600, between the Dutch, under Maurice of Orange, and the Spaniards, under the Archduke Albert of Austria. Prince Maurice was surprised by the Archduke in a very critical position, but succeeded in holding his own, and after a long and evenly-contested engagement, ultimately defeated the Spaniards with heavy loss.

Nikko (Japanese Revolution).

Fought 1868, between the adherents of the Shogun, under Otori Keisuke, and the Imperial army, under Saigo Takamori. The rebels were defeated, and fled to the castle of Wakamatsu.

Nile (French Invasion of Egypt).

Fought August 1, 1798. Admiral Brueys, with 13 ships of the line and 4 frigates, was anchored in Aboukir Bay. Nelson, with 13 line-of-battleships and one 50-gun ship, penetrated with half his squadron between the French line and the shore, while his remaining ships engaged them on the outside. Thus caught between two fires, the French were utterly routed, only two of their vessels escaping capture or destruction. Admiral Brueys was killed, and his ship L’Orient blown up. This battle is also known as the Battle of Aboukir.

Nineveh (Persian Wars).

Fought December 1, 627, between the Imperial troops, under the Emperor Heraclius, and the Persians, under Rhazates, the general of Chosroes II. The Persians stood their ground manfully throughout the day and far into the night, and were almost annihilated before the surviving remnant retreated in good order to their camp. The Romans also lost heavily, but the victory opened the way to the royal city of Destigerd, which fell into the hands of Heraclius, and peace was made the following year.

Niquitas (South American War of Independence).

Fought 1813, when the Colombian Patriots, under Bolivar, completely defeated the Spanish Royalists.

Nisib (Mehemet Ali’s Second Rebellion).

Fought June 23, 1839, between 30,000 Turks, under Hafiz Pasha, and Mehemet Ali’s Syro-Egyptian army, under his son Ibrahim. Ibrahim was far the stronger in artillery, and his fire so shattered the Turks, that when he finally advanced his infantry, they made no stand, but turned and fled. Von Moltke, as a captain in the Turkish service, was under fire in this action for the first time.

Nisibis (Persian Wars).

This fortress, known as the Bulwark of the East, was thrice besieged in 338, 346 and 350 by Sapor II, King of Persia. In the two former years he was compelled to retire after a siege of 60 and 80 days respectively. In 350 the city was defended by a garrison under Lucilianus, and Sapor, finding the ordinary methods unavailing, diverted the course of the Mygdonius, and by building dams formed a large lake, upon which he placed a fleet of armed vessels, and attacked the city almost from the level of the ramparts. Under pressure of the water a portion of the wall gave way, and the Persians at once delivered an assault, but were repulsed; and by the following day the garrison had rebuilt the wall. At the end of about three months, Sapor, having lost 20,000 men, raised the siege.

Nissa.

A naval action, fought at the mouth of the Nissa in 1064, between the Danish fleet, under Sweyn II, and the Norwegians under Harold Hardrada. Sweyn was totally defeated, and his fleet destroyed, he himself escaping with difficulty to Zealand.

Nissa.

_See_ Morawa.

Nive (Peninsular War).

Fought December 13, 1813, between 35,000 French, under Soult, and 14,000 British and Portuguese, under Wellington. Having crossed the Nive on the 10th, Wellington took up a strong position on the heights near the village of St. Pierre. Here he was attacked by Soult, but repulsed him, and occupied the French position in front of the Adour. The French losses in this battle and the combats which preceded it, amounted to 10,000 men. The British lost 5,019 killed and wounded.

Nivelle (Peninsular War).

Fought November 10, 1813, when the French, under Soult, were driven from a very strong position by the British, under Wellington, and forced to retire behind the Nivelle. The French lost 4,265, including about 1,200 prisoners, 51 guns, and all their field magazines. The British lost 2,694 killed and wounded.

Nordlingen (Thirty Years’ War).

Fought September 6, 1634, between 40,000 Imperialists, under Ferdinand of Hungary, and a numerically inferior force of Germans and Swedes, under the Duke of Weimar and Count Horn. The action was fought to relieve Nordlingen, which Ferdinand was besieging, and resulted in the total defeat of the allies, who lost 12,000 killed, 6,000 prisoners, including Horn, and 80 guns.

Nordlingen (Wars of Louis XIV).

Fought August 3, 1645, between 17,000 French under Condé, and 14,000 Imperialists, under Mercy. The French attacked the village of Allersheim, where the Imperialists were strongly entrenched, and after very severe fighting, the left under Turenne succeeded in expelling them, with a loss of 6,000 killed, wounded and prisoners, and almost all their guns. General Mercy was killed. The French loss amounted to about 4,000.

Noisseville (Franco-German War).

A sortie of the French, under Bazaine, from Metz, August 31, 1870, in the endeavour to break through the investing line of the Germans, under Prince Frederick Charles. The French had some slight success at first, and maintained the ground they had won during the day, but on September 1, their further efforts to advance were fruitless, and they were driven back into Metz with a loss of 145 officers and 3,379 men. The Germans lost 126 officers and 2,850 men.

Northallerton.

_See_ Standard.

Northampton (Wars of the Roses).

Fought July 10, 1460, between the Lancastrians, under Henry VI, and the Yorkists, under the Earl of Warwick. The king’s entrenchments were betrayed by Lord Grey de Ruthyn, and the Lancastrians were defeated with a loss of 300 killed, including Buckingham, Shrewsbury, Egremont, and other prominent men. The King was made prisoner.

North Foreland (Dutch Wars).

Fought July 25, 1666, between the English fleet, under the Duke of Albemarle and Prince Rupert, and the Dutch, under Van Tromp and de Ruyter. The English gained a complete victory, capturing or burning 20 ships. The Dutch had 4,000 men killed or drowned.

Notion (Peloponnesian War).

Fought B.C. 407 between the Peloponnesian fleet, under Lysander, and the Athenian fleet of Alcibiades, which was lying at Notion. Alcibiades was not present during the action, which was the result of a surprise, and the Athenians were defeated with a loss of 15 ships.

Nova Carthago (Second Punic War).

This city, defended by a small Carthaginian garrison, under Mago, was stormed by 27,500 Romans, under Scipio, B.C. 209.

Novara (Italian Wars).

Fought June 6, 1515, between 10,000 French, under La Tremouille, and 13,000 Swiss. The French camp was surprised by the Swiss, who, after hard fighting, totally routed the French with a loss of 6,000 men. The Swiss losses were also heavy.

Novara (Italian Rising).

Fought March 23, 1849, between 50,000 Piedmontese, under Chrzanowski, and three Austrian army corps, under Radetsky. After hard fighting the Piedmontese were completely defeated and driven from the field in disorder.

Novi (Wars of the French Revolution).

Fought August 15, 1799, between the French, under Joubert, and the Russians and Austrians, under Suwaroff. Early in the action Joubert fell, Moreau succeeding to the command. The result was disastrous to the French, who were defeated with a loss of 7,000 killed and wounded, 3,000 prisoners, and 37 guns. The allies lost 6,000 killed and wounded and 1,200 prisoners.

Nujufghur (Indian Mutiny).

Fought August 24, 1857, between 6,000 rebels, under Mohammed Bukht Khan, and a small British force, under John Nicholson. The rebels were defeated, at small cost, with a loss of over 800 men and all their guns.

Numantia (Lusitanian War).

This city, defended by the inhabitants under Megaravicus, was besieged B.C. 142 by a Roman consular army. In the course of 141 the Romans were twice defeated under the walls, and though negotiations for a surrender were entered into in the following year, they were not concluded, and in 139 the new Roman commander, Popilius Lænas, refused to ratify the terms. Shortly afterwards he was again defeated by the Numantians, as was his successor Mancius in 137. It was not till the arrival of Scipio Æmilianus in 134 that the lengthy resistance of the inhabitants was at last overcome, and fifteen months after he took command the city fell, in the autumn of 133 B.C.

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Oberstein.

Fought 1533, between the Poles, under Tarnowski, and the Wallachians, under Bogdan. The Wallachians were signally defeated, with heavy loss.

Obligado (Uruguayan War of Independence).

Fought November, 1845, between the Argentine fleet, under Oribe, and the combined French and British squadrons. The allies were victorious, and Oribe was forced to raise the siege of Montevideo, while the waters of the Parana were opened to the shipping of all nations.

Ocaña (Peninsular War).

In this action, at which Joseph Buonaparte was present, Soult, with 30,000 French, defeated 53,000 Spaniards, under Areizaga, with a loss of 5,000 killed and wounded, 26,000 prisoners, including 3 generals, 45 guns, and all their baggage and transport. The French only lost 1,700 men.

Ocean Pond (American Civil War).

Fought February 20, 1864, between 5,000 Confederates, under General Finnegan, and 6,000 Federals, under General Seymour. The Confederates occupied a strong position, protected by swamps and forests, near Lake City, where they were attacked by Seymour, whom they defeated with a loss of 1,200 men and 5 guns. The Confederates loss amounted to 700.

Ockley (Danish Invasion).

Fought 851, between the Danes, and the West Saxons, under Ethelwulf. The Danes were completely defeated.

Oczakov (Ottoman Wars).

This fortress, defended by 10,000 Turks and Bosnians, was besieged 1737, by the Russians, under Count Münnich, and after the magazine had been blown up was stormed by the besiegers, and the garrison cut to pieces. In 1788 the place was again besieged by the Russians, under Potemkin, and after a strenuous resistance of six months, was taken by storm, December 17. In the massacre which followed, 40,000 of the garrison and inhabitants were put to the sword.

Odawara (Hojo Rebellion).

The castle of Odawara, the last stronghold of the Hojo family, was besieged by the Japanese Imperial troops, under Hideyoshi. The castle held out for over three months, but at last finding that they could hope for no support from without, the garrison surrendered, and the power of the Hojo family came to an end.

Œnophyta

Fought B.C. 457, between the Athenians, under Myronides, and the Thebans and other Bœotian states. The Bœotians were totally defeated, and were in consequence compelled to acknowledge the headship of Athens, and to contribute men to her armies.

Ofen (Hungarian Rising).

This fortress, held by an Austrian garrison, under General Hentzi, was besieged by the Hungarians, under Görgey, May 4, 1849. After an unsuccessful assault, a siege in due form was commenced, and several further assaults having also failed, the place was finally taken by storm on the 21st. General Hentzi was mortally wounded.

Ohud (Mohammed’s War with the Koreish).

Fought 623, between 950 Moslems, under Mohammed, and 3,000 Koreish of Mecca, under Abu Sophian. The latter were victorious, 70 Moslems being slain, and the Prophet himself wounded, but Abu Sophian did not feel himself strong enough to follow up his victory by an attack upon Medina.

Olmedo.

Fought 1467, between the Spanish adherents of the Infante Alfonso, a claimant to the throne, under the Archbishop of Toledo, and the Royal troops, under Henry of Castile. After an action which began late in the afternoon, and lasted for three hours, without any very decisive result, the Archbishop, who was considerably inferior in numbers, withdrew his troops, leaving Henry in possession of the field.

Olmütz (Seven Years’ War).

This place was besieged by Frederick the Great, May, 1758. Having insufficient troops to completely invest the place, Frederick’s task was a difficult one, and Marshal Daun was able to keep communications open, and supply the town with provisions. After a siege of seven weeks, the Austrians captured a convoy of 4,000 waggons, under the escort of Landon, destined for the Prussian army, and Frederick was forced by this loss to raise the siege, and retire.

Olpæ (Peloponnesian War).

Fought 426 B.C., between a small Athenian force, under Demosthenes, and a force of Ambraciots, with 3,000 Spartan hoplites, under Eurylochus. Demosthenes gained a complete victory, by means of an ambuscade, and Eurylochus was slain.

Oltenitza (Crimean War).

Fought 1853, when a Turkish army, superior in numbers, under Omar Pasha, totally defeated the Russian army which had invaded the Danubian Principalities.

Omdurman (Soudan Campaigns).

Fought September 2, 1898, between the British and Egyptians, 23,000 strong, under Sir Herbert Kitchener, and 50,000 Dervishes, under the Khalifa. The Dervishes attacked the British zareba, and were repulsed with heavy loss. Kitchener then advanced, to drive the enemy before him into Omdurman, and capture the place. In the course of the operation, however, the Egyptian Brigade on the British right, under General Macdonald, became isolated, and was attacked in front by the centre of the Dervish army, while his flank and rear were threatened by the Dervish left, which had not previously been engaged. The position was critical, but through the extreme steadiness of the Soudanese, who changed front under heavy fire, the attack was repulsed. The British and Egyptian losses were 500 killed and wounded. The Dervishes lost about 15,000.

Onao (Indian Mutiny).

Fought July 28, 1857, between Havelock’s relieving force, 1,500 strong, and the rebels, who occupied a strong position near Onao, so protected on the flanks that a frontal attack was necessary. This was successful, and after the town had been passed, a further attack by the mutineers was repulsed, with a loss of 300 men and 15 guns.

Onessant.

Fought July 27, 1778, between 30 British ships of the line, under Admiral Keppel, and a French squadron of equal force, under the Comte d’Estaing. After a fight which lasted throughout the day, the two fleets drew off to repair damages, neither side having lost a ship.

Oondwa Nullah.

Fought September, 1763, when 3,000 British and native troops, under Major Adams, carried by storm the entrenchments and the fort held by Mir Cossim’s army of 60,000 men with 100 guns. Mir Cossim fled and his army was entirely dispersed.

Ooscata.

Fought August 23, 1768, when the camp of the Mahratta contingent, under Morari Rao, forming a part of Colonel Donald Campbell’s column, was attacked by a detachment of Hyder Ali’s army. The Mahrattas repulsed the Mysore cavalry with a loss of about 300, at a cost to themselves of 18 only.

Opequan (American Civil War).

Fought September 19, 1864, between 13,000 Confederates, under General Early, and 45,000 Federals, under General Sheridan. Success at first inclined to the side of the Southerners, but their left wing was broken by a charge of 7,000 cavalry, under Custer, and the Confederates were completely routed and fled in confusion.

Oporto (Peninsular War).

Fought March 28, 1809, when the French, under Soult, completely defeated the Portuguese under Lima and Pareiras, outside the city of Oporto. Soult followed up his success by storming Oporto, with horrible slaughter, it being computed that 10,000 of the inhabitants perished. The French lost 500 only.

Oran (Ximenes’ Expedition to Morocco).

Fought May 17, 1509, between the Moors and the Spaniards, under Navarro. The Spaniards, late in the evening, attacked and drove off the Moors from a strong position on the heights above the city. They then stormed the city itself, escalading the walls by placing their pikes in the crevices of the stones. The Moors lost in the battle and the storm 4,000 killed and about 8,000 prisoners, while the losses of the victors were very small.

Orchomenus (First Mithridatic War).

Fought B.C. 85, between the Pontic army, under Archelaus, and the Romans, under Sulla. The Asiatic cavalry attacked and drove back the Roman line, but Sulla himself rallied his troops, and led them in a charge which totally routed the enemy with heavy loss.

Ordovici, The.

Fought A.D. 50, between the Romans, under Ostorius Scapula, and the Britons, under Caractacus. The Britons occupied the slope of a hill, where they were attacked by the Romans and totally routed. Caractacus fled to the Brigantes, by whom he was surrendered, and sent a captive to Rome.

Orleans (Hundred Years’ War).

This city was besieged by the English, under the Regent, the Duke of Bedford, in October, 1428. In April, 1429, a French force, 7,000 strong, under Dunois and Joan of Arc, succeeded in entering, it having been found impossible to invest the place completely. After various successful attacks on the batteries erected by the besiegers, Joan, on the 6th and 7th of May, led the garrison to victory against the English lines, and on the 8th Bedford was compelled to raise the siege.

Orthez (Peninsular War).

Fought February 27, 1814, between the British under Wellington, and the French, under Soult. The French were driven out of Orthez and across the Luy de Béarn, with a loss of 4,000 killed and wounded, and 6 guns.

Oruro.

Fought 1862, between the Bolivian Government troops, under the President, General Acha, and the rebels, under General Perez, who had proclaimed himself President. Perez was utterly routed.

Ostend (Netherlands War of Independence).

This place was besieged, July 5, 1601, by the Spaniards, under the Archduke Albert. The town made a most remarkable defence, holding out for more than three years, but Spinola having taken command of the besiegers, it was finally captured, September 14, 1604, by which time scarcely a house in the town was left standing. The Spaniards lost 70,000 men in the course of the siege.

Ostia (Italian Wars).

This place, held by a French garrison, under Menaldo Guerri, was besieged in 1500 by the Spaniards, under Gonsalvo de Cordova. After five days’ bombardment, an attack was made upon the town on the opposite side by a small party of Spaniards resident in Rome, under Garcilasso de la Vega. Thus between two fires, Guerri surrendered.

Ostrolenka (Crimean War).

Fought 1853, between the Turks, under Omar Pasha, and the Russian army which had invaded the Danubian Principalities. The Turks, who were considerably superior in numbers, gained a complete victory.

Ostrowno (Campaign of Moscow).

Fought July 25 and 26, 1812, between the French corps of Ney and Prince Eugène, with Murat’s cavalry, and the Russian corps of Count Osterman and General Konownitzyn. The Russians were defeated and driven back on both days, with a loss of 3,000 killed and wounded, 800 prisoners and 8 guns. The French loss was about the same.

Oswego (Seven Years’ War).

This place, held by a garrison of 1,400 Provincial troops, under Colonel Mercer, was besieged by the French, under Montcalm, August 11, 1756. After a bombardment of 3 days, in the course of which Mercer was killed, the place surrendered. The losses on both sides were very small.

Otrar (Tartar Invasion of Kharismia).

This city was besieged, 1219, by 200,000 Mongols, under Oktai and Zagatai, sons of Genghiz Khan, and defended by a garrison of 60,000, under Gazer Khan. The place was entered after a four months’ siege, by which time the garrison was reduced to 20,000 men, but with this remnant Gazer Khan held out in the citadel for another month.

Otterburn (Scottish Wars).

Fought August 19, 1388, between 9,000 English, under Henry Percy (Hotspur) and a greatly inferior force of Scots, under Earls Douglas and Murray. Hotspur attacked the Scottish entrenchments, and was totally defeated, with a loss of about 2,000. The battle is celebrated in the old ballad of “Chevy Chace.”

Otumba (Conquest of Mexico).

Fought July 8, 1520, between 200 Spaniards, with some thousands of Tlascalan auxiliaries, under Cortes, and a force of about 200,000 Aztecs. The Spaniards, wearied by a long march on their retreat from Mexico, were intercepted by the Aztecs, and after many hours’ fighting, were on the verge of defeat, when a charge of a few cavaliers, headed by Cortes, into the very heart of the Aztec army, so discouraged them that they fled in disorder. It is said that 20,000 Aztecs fell.

Oudenarde (War of the Spanish Succession).

Fought July 11, 1708, between 80,000 British and Imperialists, under Marlborough and Prince Eugene, and 100,000 French, under the Duke of Burgundy and Marshal Vendôme. The French, who were besieging Oudenarde, raised the siege on the advance of the allies, and marched to meet them, but were totally defeated with a loss of 3,000 killed, 7,000 prisoners, and 10 guns. The allies lost 2,000.

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Paardeberg (Second Boer War).

Fought February 18, 1900, between 5,000 Boers, under Cronje, and the British, numbering 4 Infantry Brigades, with 4 batteries, under Lord Kitchener. Cronje had taken refuge in the bed of the Tugela river, and an attempt was made to dislodge him. The absence of cover for the attacking force, however, rendered this impossible, but he was surrounded, and on the arrival of Lord Roberts, subjected to a sustained artillery fire, which lasted until he surrendered on the 27th. The British losses during the operations amounted to 98 officers and 1,437 men, of whom 1,100 fell in the battle of the 18th. The prisoners taken numbered 3,000 Transvaalers and 1,100 Free Staters, with 6 guns.

Pabon.

Fought September 17, 1861, between the troops of Buenos Ayres, under Mitre, aided by an Italian legion, under Piloni, and the army of the Argentine Confederation, under Urquiza. The latter were defeated.

Pagahar (First Burmah War).

The only occasion during the war when the Burmans met the British in the open. In 1825 Sir Archibald Campbell, with 1,300 men, encountered 15,000 Burmans, under Zay-ya-Thayan but the battle was almost a bloodless one, for the Burmans failed to make any stand, their general being the first to flee.

Pagasæan Gulf (Sacred War).

Fought B.C. 352, between the Phocians, under Onomarchus, and the Macedonians, under Philip. Philip’s infantry was about equal in numbers to that of the Phocians, but he was far superior in cavalry, and in the end the Phocians were completely defeated, with the loss of a third of their number. Onomarchus was slain.

Palais Gallien (War of the Fronde).

Fought September 5, 1649, between the Royal troops, 8,000 strong, under the Marshal de la Meilleraic, and 7,000 Bordelais, under the Ducs de Bouillon and de la Rochefoucauld. The Bordelais successfully repulsed four or five assaults, but by nightfall were driven from their entrenchments into the city, with a loss of about 120. The assailants lost over 1,000 killed and wounded.

Palermo (Italian Rising).

Fought May 26 and 27, 1848, when Garibaldi, with 750 of his “Thousand Volunteers,” and about 3,000 Sicilian “Picciotti,” succeeded in surprising one of the gates of Palermo, which was garrisoned by 18,000 Neapolitans, under General Lanza. The “Picciotti” fled at the first shot, but Garibaldi penetrated into the city, where, being joined by the citizens, he erected barricades, and after some severe fighting, in which the Neapolitans suffered heavily, General Lanza surrendered. The last of the Neapolitan troops were withdrawn on June 20.

Palestrina (Italian Rising).

Fought May 9, 1849, between 4,000 Italian Patriots, under Garibaldi, and 7,000 Neapolitans, under King Ferdinand. After three hours’ fighting, the Neapolitans were totally routed. Garibaldi was wounded in the action.

Palestro (Unification of Italy).

Fought May 30, 1859, between the Sardinians, under General Cialdini, and the Austrians, under General Stadion. The Austrians attacked the Sardinians while they were crossing the Sesia, but were repulsed, and Cialdini effected the passage successfully and drove the Austrians out of Palestro with considerable loss.

Palmyra (Expedition to Palmyra).

This city was besieged by the Romans, under Aurelian, after the defeat of Zenobia at Emesa in 272. An obstinate defence was made by the Queen, but Aurelian being reinforced by Probus early in 273, Zenobia fled from the city and the place was captured. Zenobia failed to escape, and was brought into Aurelian’s camp. During his return march, Aurelian learnt that the citizens had risen, and massacred the Governor and the garrison he had left in the place. He thereupon retraced his steps, and destroyed the city, sparing neither young nor old.

Palo Alto (Americo-Mexican War).

Fought May 8, 1846, between the Americans, under General Taylor, and the Mexicans, under Arista. The Mexicans were completely routed, at very small cost to the victors.

Panama (Raids of the Buccaneers).

On December 16, 1670, Morgan the Buccaneer sailed from Hispaniola with 37 ships and about 2,000 men to plunder this town. Having captured the castle of San Lorenzo, at the mouth of the Chagre, an exploit which cost the assailants 170 out of 400 men engaged, while two-thirds of the garrison were killed, Morgan started to cross the Isthmus, at the head of 1,200 men, January 18, 1671. The garrison of Panama, 2,400 strong, met him outside the city, and were defeated with heavy loss, the Buccaneers losing 600 men. Morgan then sacked the place, and on February 24, withdrew with 175 mule loads of plunder, and 600 prisoners.

Panama (Raids of the Buccaneers).

Fought April 23, 1680, between the Buccaneers, with three ships, under John Coxon, and three Spanish vessels. The Spaniards were defeated, after a hard fight in which two Spanish vessels were captured by boarding. The Spanish commander was killed. The Buccaneers then entered the Bay, and captured six vessels lying in the roads.

Pandosia.

Fought 331 B.C., between the Italian Greeks, under Alexander of Epirus, and the Lucanians. During the battle Alexander was stabbed by a Lucanian exile serving in the Greek army, and the Greeks were in the end defeated.

Pandu Naddi (Indian Mutiny).

Fought July 15, 1857, between a British relieving force, under Havelock, and the mutineers who were opposing his advance to Cawnpore. By a forced march in the heat of the day, Havelock succeeded in seizing the bridge over the Pandu Naddi, which the mutineers were engaged in mining, thus securing an open road to Cawnpore. The rebels were driven off after a short engagement.

Pandu Naddi (Indian Mutiny).

Fought November 26, 1857, between 1,400 British, under General Windham, and the advance guard of the mutineers and the Gwalior contingent, under the Nana Sahib. The rebels were posted beyond the river, and the British crossing the dry bed, drove them from their entrenchments, capturing 3 guns. Windham, then finding himself close to the main body of mutineers, retired towards Cawnpore.

Panipat (Third Mongol Invasion).

Fought April 20, 1526, between the Delhi Mohammedans, 10,000 strong, with 100 elephants, under Ibrahim, and the Mongols, about 2,000 picked men, under Baber, the first of the Great Moguls. Ibrahim was totally defeated, being himself among the slain. The battle marked the end of the Afghan dynasty of Delhi, and the commencement of the Mogul Empire.

Panipat.

Fought November 5, 1536, between Akbar, the Great Mogul, with about 20,000 troops, and the forces of the revolted Hindu Rajahs, 100,000 strong, under Hemu. The Hindus attacked, and the onslaught of the elephants being repulsed, their ranks were thrown into disorder, and the Moguls gained a complete victory. Hemu was wounded and captured. By this victory Akbar recovered Delhi, which had fallen into the hands of the rebels.

Panipat.

Fought 1759, between the Mahrattas, 85,000 strong, under Sedashao Rao Bhao, cousin of the Peshwa, and the Duranis, numbering, with Hindu allies, about 90,000. The Bhao attacked, and dispersed Ahmed’s Indian troops, but on the Duranis coming into action, the Mahrattas were broken and utterly routed, with enormous loss. The Bhao, and the son of the Peshwa were among the slain.

Panormus (First Punic War).

Fought B.C. 250, between 25,000 Romans, under L. Cæcilius Metellus, and the Carthaginian army in Sicily, under Hasdrubal. Hasdrubal offered battle in front of Panormus, and Metellus sent out his light troops to engage him. They ran back into the town before a charge of the elephants, which, following closely, were driven into the ditch surrounding the place, where many were killed. Meanwhile Metellus sallied out with his legionaries, and taking Hasdrubal in flank completely routed him. The whole of the Carthaginian elephants in Sicily were killed or captured in this battle.

Parætakene Mountains (Wars of Alexander’s Successors).

Fought 316 B.C., between the Macedonians, 30,000 strong, under Antigonus, and an equal force of Asiatics, under Eumenes. Eumenes attacked the Macedonian camp, and after a severe engagement, in which the Asiatics held the advantage, Antigonus, by successful manœuvring, withdrew his army without serious loss, leaving Eumenes a barren victory.

Parana (Paraguayan War).

Fought 1866, between the Paraguayans, under Lopez, and the Brazilians, under Porto Alegre. Lopez was victorious.

Paris (Allied Invasion of France).

On March 30, 1814, Paris, which was defended only by 20,000 regulars and National Guard, under Marmont, was attacked by the Grand Army of the allies, under Schwartzemberg. Three columns assaulted the French positions at Vincennes, Belleville and Montmartre, while a fourth attacked the extreme left of the French line in order to turn the heights of Montmartre. The two first positions were carried, and Montmartre turned, whereupon Joseph having fled, Marmont surrendered. The French lost over 4,000 men; the allies about 8,000.

Paris (Franco-German War).