Chapter V: The Horse (1)

In nearly all ages and countries, the horse has been the devoted servant, and the object of the pride and affection of man. Among the semi-civilized Tartars of Middle and Northern Asia; the aborigines of our remote Western prairies, reaching even beyond the Rocky Mountains, and many other rude nations, his flesh is used for food. Most of the tribes among the former use the milk for domestic purposes, and especially when fermented and changed to an unpleasantly sour and intoxicating beverage. But throughout the civilized world, with some slight exceptions, the horse is useful only for his labor. For this purpose he is pre-eminently fitted by his compact, closely-knit frame; his sinewy, muscular limbs; his easy, rapid stride; his general form, and entire structure and habits.

He is found in his wild condition in Central Asia, Siberia, and the interior of Africa; and for 300 years he has been turned loose to follow his native instincts on the illimitable pampas of South America, and the wide-spread prairies of Mexico and California. In all these regions he closely resembles the medium varieties of the domesticated horse; but as the natural result of his freedom, he possesses more fire and spirit than any other, except the blood-horse.

Arabia is generally claimed as the original native locality of the horse, and as the only source from which he is to be derived in the requisite perfection for the highest improvement of the race. But Strabo, who wrote more than 1,800 years ago, asserts that the horse did not then flourish in Arabia, and it was not till some centuries later that he attained any decided superiority there. Great attention, however, has been paid in that country, since the era of Mahomet, to breeding a light, agile, and enduring frame; intelligence and tractability of character; and the perpetuation of these qualities by the most scrupulous regard for the purity of blood.

This is equally true of the Barb or pure-bred horse of Morocco, and those of the northern coast of Africa, in Egypt, among the Turks, and indeed wherever the followers of the Prophet are to be found. It is unquestionable, that the influence of the Eastern blood among the choicest animals of modern Europe, has been followed by great improvements in racing stock. Yet it is equally certain, that the race-horse, both of England and the United States, has accomplished what has never been demonstrated as within the ability of their progenitors; and on repeated trials with the Eastern horses, he has shown himself confessedly their superior in speed, strength, and endurance.

In 1825, two English horses ran against the two fleetest Cossacks which could be found throughout the entire region of their best blood, and in a continued race of 47 miles, the European took the stakes; Sharper, the most successful, performing the distance in 2 hours and 48 minutes. About the same time, Recruit, an English horse of moderate reputation, easily beat Pyramus, the best Arabian on the Bengal side of India.

The Leeds, the Darley, and the Godolphin Arabian; the Lister and D'Arcey's White Turk, and other noted Eastern horses, would not compare in performance with many of their descendants. But these, with some other choice Arabians, on the best mares, and with every advantage for obtaining celebrity, have succeeded in establishing a fame as just as it has been enduring. Yet it must at the same time be remembered, that of the innumerable other pure-bred horses which have been tried in Europe, a few only have rescued their names from oblivion.

The experience of Eastern blood in this country, in comparison with the best English, is decidedly in favor of the latter. We have had one horse of unsurpassed excellence, which a fortunate accident threw upon our shores a short time previous to 1770. This was the white Barb _Ranger_, which was presented by the Emperor of Morocco, as the choice of his stud, to an English naval officer for some distinguished service. On his route homeward, the animal was set on shore for exercise at an intermediate port, where in his gambols he broke three of his legs, and thinking him worthless, his owner gave him to the commander of a New England merchantman, then present. He was readily accepted, and placed in slings on board of his vessel, and recovered.

This animal stood for many years, in the eastern part of Connecticut; and on their good mares, produced a numerous progeny of unrivalled cavalry horses, which rendered invaluable services in the troop commanded by that consummate partisan, Captain (afterwards General) Lee, of the Revolution. It is said the favorite white field-horse of General Washington was of the same stock. He was afterwards sold to Captain Lindsey, as a special favor, and taken, to Virginia, where he produced some good racers.

Bussorah, a small sorrel horse, brought into this country in 1819, from the head of the Persian Gulf, got many choice roadsters, though no racers of celebrity.

The Narraganset pacers, a race belonging to our Northern states, but for many years almost extinct, possessed for a long time an unrivalled reputation for spirit, endurance, and easy rapid motion under the saddle. They are said to have originated from a Spanish horse, many of which are pure descendants of the Barb.

As an offset to these isolated examples of success in this country, we have numerous instances of the importation of the best Orientals, which have been extensively used on some of our superior mares, without any marked effect. We shall refer to three prominent importations only.

The first consisted of two choice Arabians, or Barbs, selected in Tunis by General Eaton, and sent to his estate in Massachusetts. The second was a present of four choice Barbs, from the Emperor of Morocco to our government, in 1830; and the third consisted of two Arabians, sent by the Imaum of Muscat, near the Persian Gulf, to our government in 1840. These were all claimed to be, and no doubt were, of the pure Kochlani, the unadulterated line royal; yet none have earned any distinguished reputation, either by their own performances or those of their descendants.

It is to England we are mainly indebted for the great improvement in our blood, road, and farm horses. A numerous race of fine horses was reared on that island, long previous to its authentic history; for, in his first invasion Julius Caesar took many of them to Rome, where they immediately became great favorites, although she had already plundered every region of some of their best breeds.

What might have been the particular merit of the English horse at the time of the Norman invasion, is not known, but it is certain that the Saxon cavalry under Harold were speedily overpowered by William, at the battle of Hastings, which at once secured the throne to the Conqueror. History first informs us of the improvement of British horses, by importations from abroad during this reign, which consisted of a number of Spanish stallions. These were supposed to be strongly imbued with the Arabian blood, which had been brought over to that country by the Moors, who had founded the Saracenic empire in the Peninsula, three centuries before. More than a century later, John made some importations from Flanders, to give weight and substance to their draught and cavalry horses. The improvement of their various breeds was afterwards pursued, with more or less judgment and zeal, by other British monarchs, till they reached their highest excellence during the middle of the last century.

Flying Childers, Eclipse, Highflyer, and others on the course, have probably exceeded in speed anything ever before accomplished; while the draught-horse, the roadster, the hackney, the cavalry-horse, and the hunter, attained a merit at that time which some judicious authorities claim has not been since increased. It is even asserted, that some of the more serviceable breeds have been seriously injured by too great an infusion of the blood; while the almost universal absence of long heats on the turf has tended to the improvement of speed rather than bottom in the race-horse.

The improvement of the horse in this country has not been a matter of record or history, till within a comparatively recent period. But it has silently, and with no little rapidity, been going forward for more than a century, till we have obtained a race of animals, throughout the Eastern and Middle states at least, which probably equal those of any other country for adaptedness to draught, the road, and the saddle. This improvement has been mainly brought about by the importation of some of the _best and stoutest of the English blood_. In breeding from these for purposes of utility, particular reference has been paid to strength, enduringness, and speed. No horses surpass our best four-mile bloods; none equal our trotters; and though much inequality exists in those bred for various other uses, yet for profitable service, it is believed, no equal number of animals elsewhere can exceed those in the region above indicated.

It would be a superfluous task to attempt enumerating all the imported horses that have contributed to this improvement. Each good animal has done something. But among the earlier horses which may be named with distinction, as having effected much for our useful beasts, are Lath, Wildair, Slender, Sourkrout, Tallyho, Figure, Bay Richmond, Expedition, Baronet, and a host of others.

Pre-eminent among these, was imported Messenger. He was foaled in 1780, imported in 1788, and died in 1808. He stood in different places in New Jersey, and in Dutchess, Westchester, and Queens counties in New York; and upon the mares derived from the foregoing and other good horses, he got a numerous progeny of illustrious descendants. Of these we may name those capital stallions, Potomac, Hamlintonian, Bay Figure, Engineer, Mambrino, Tippoo Saib, Columbus, Gunn's, and Bushe's Messenger, and many others, which were extensively disseminated over the Northern and Middle states; and he has the credit of imparting a large share of his merits to that nonpareil of horses, his grandson, American Eclipse. His posterity were so numerous and widely spread, that it may be safely asserted, that of the best horses bred in the above states, scarcely one can now be found which does not trace one or more crosses to this distinguished sire. His success in producing roadsters, besides his blood qualities of speed and endurance, consisted in his great strength, and the peculiar formation of his limbs, large forehand and deep quarters, in which he excelled any other of the imported bloods.

As an illustration of what may be accomplished by judicious breeding with the present materials in our hands, we mention one family of the American roadster, which is strongly tinctured with blood, and which has attained an enviable notoriety among the choicest of the Northern horses. They are derived from the _Morgan horse_ of Vermont, that was foaled in Springfield, Mass., in 1793. He was got by True Britton, supposed to have been bred by Gen. Delancey of New York, and got by imported Wildair, (or one of his sons,) a horse of such distinguished excellence, as to have been re-exported to England, for the benefit of his stock.

The Morgan horse stood in Vermont from 1795 till his death, at an advanced age. From him and the choice mares of Vermont, descended many excellent colts; and his merits were inherited in an eminent degree by three of his sons, which stood in the same state and continued the career of improvement commenced by the sire. The result has been the production of a family of roadsters, of much similarity of appearance[3] and uniformity of character, unsurpassed by any others for serviceable qualities.

[3] Many of the Morgan horses have the steep rump and heavy breast and neck, which indicate a Norman cross on the side of their dams. These have been largely imparted through the French horse in the adjoining Canadian settlements, but none of these are said to have characterized the founder of the race.

They are of medium size, from 131/2 to 15 hands high; with a well-formed head and neck; high withers; deep chest; round body; short back; long quarters; broad flat legs; moderately small feet; long wavy mane and tail; presenting altogether the beau ideal of the road horse. They are spirited, docile, hardy, and easily kept. They have an easy, rapid trot, and glide along with a good load, without clatter or apparent effort, at the rate of ten or twelve miles an hour.

This family of horses has not of course been bred long enough within themselves, to have attained to the eminence of a distinct breed. They are mentioned, merely as a type of what the serviceable roadster ought to be, and what he may become by the use of the proper instruments for breeding. And if the materials already in our hands are intelligently and perseveringly used, we can produce all we require of horse-flesh.

Besides our unsurpassed blood-horses, we have others derived from various sources, and especially from the different English breeds, all of which are variously compounded, with the first and with each other. On our northeastern frontier, the _Canadian_ prevails, a bastard but not degenerate race, made up of the French Norman and the English or American. At the extreme South and West, we have the _horse of Spanish origin_, obtained in his domestic state in Florida and Louisiana; and from another branch of the Spanish, are descended the wild horses of Mexico and the more northern prairies. These are diversified in character, and generally possess medium size and merit.

The _Conestoga_, a heavy roadster, is principally reared in Pennsylvania, and is used for the team and truck. He is an amalgamation of several breeds, but probably owes a share of his character to the Flemish horse, for which there was a decided partiality among the numerous German emigrants of that state.

Several varieties of _ponies_ are to be found in different sections, but principally among the French, the half-breed, and the Indians upon the frontiers, who have bred a stunted race from the Canadian or wild-horse, and such others as could survive the hard usage and scanty winter food afforded by nature and their rude husbandry. Many of these have considerable beauty and symmetry, and are fleet, hardy, and spirited.

Norman Horse.]

The _modern Norman_, or mixture of the old French Norman draught-horse, (heavy-framed, big-limbed, but stout and hardy,) and the Andalusian, a descendant of the Moorish barbs, has been introduced within a few years, and will unquestionably become a very popular horse for many purposes. He exhibits the qualities of both ancestry in the proper proportions for farm service. He has a thick head; lively, prick ears; short, heavy neck; large breast and shoulders; strong limbs; well-knit back; large quarters, with much wavy mane, tail, and fetlock. Like his French progenitor, he frequently stands low in the withers, which enables him to throw great weight into the collar; and the diminished, flattened leg, the wind and game derived from his Moorish blood, give him much of the capacity and endurance of the thorough-bred.

The _English cart-horse_ has for a long time made up some of the best, heavy dray-horses in the country, and late importations have refreshed the breed with additional choice specimens. The _Cleveland bay_ has been introduced of late, and promises good carriage-horses from our well-spread, sizeable mares. The _Norfolk trotter Belfounder_ was imported many years since, and with our high-bred mares, has produced many choice roadsters and trotters.

The remainder of our horse-flesh deserving of any notice, is chiefly composed of such as are superior in point of blood. The improvement in the American horse, from this source, is conspicuous and decided. Judicious breeders still look for qualities in the descendants, which they sought for in their imported sires, and the infusion of some of the stoutest of the blood is rapidly gaining an ascendency in the general stock. Our intelligent agriculturists should look to this subject closely, and not permit this system to proceed to an extent that may be prejudicial to their value as draught-horses, as has been done in some portions of England and our Southern states.

There is no danger from excess of blood, if it be of the right kind; but it is seldom found combining that fulness and stoutness, and that docility and tractableness of disposition, which are essential to the gig-horse or the horse of all work. Yorke says truly, that "the road-horse may possess different degrees of blood, according to the nature of the country and the work required of him. [He might have added with propriety, _and according to the character of the blood_.] His legs will be too slender; his feet too small; his stride too long, and he will rarely be able to trot. Three parts, or half, and for the horse of all work, even less than that, will make a good and useful animal." For the saddle only, the high-bred, if not disposed to be vicious, is never objectionable to an enterprising and accomplished rider. His long elastic pasterns, giving easy, flexible motions; his quick and almost electrical obedience when under thorough discipline; his habitual canter and high spirit, always commend him for this purpose.

Points of a Horse.

1. Muzzle.--2. Race.--3. Forehead.--4. Poll.--5. Crest.--6. Withers.--7. Back.--8. Loins.--9. Hip.--10. Croup.--11. Dock.--12. Quarter.--13. Thigh, or Gaskin.--14. Ham-string.--15. Point of the Hock.--16. Cannon.--17. Fetlock.--18. Large Pastern.--19. Small Pastern.--20. Hoof.--21. Coronet.--22. Ham, or Hock.--23. Sheath.--24. Flank.--25. Girth.--26. Elbow.--27. Heel.--28. Hoof.--29. Small Pastern.--30. Large Pastern.--31. Fetlock.--32. Cannon.--33. Knee.--34. Arm.--35. Breast, or Bosom.--36. Point of the Shoulder.--37. Windpipe.--38. Gullet.--39. Jowl.]

Some of the prominent external points of a fine Saddle or Gig Horse,

Are, a moderately small head, free from fleshiness; fine muzzle and expansive nostrils; broad at the throat and wide between the eyes, which denotes intelligence and courage; a dished face indicates high breeding, and sometimes viciousness; a convex or Roman nose frequently betokens the reverse; the ears rather long, yet so finely formed as to appear small, and playing quickly like those of a deer; the eyes clear, full, and confident, with a steady forward look. Glancing them backward or askance with a sinister expression, and with none or only a slight movement of the head, is indicative of a mischievous temper.

The neck should be handsomely arched, and fine at the junction with the head, while the lower extremity must be full and muscular, and well expanded at the breast and shoulders. The latter ought to be high and run well back; the withers strong, firmly knit, and smooth; the breast neither too prominent nor retreating, too wide nor too narrow, and supported by a pair of straight fore-legs, standing well apart. The chest should be deep, and the girth large; the body full, and not drawn up too much in the flank; the back short, and the hips gathered well towards the withers; the loins wide and rising above the spine; the ribs springing nearly at right angles from the back, giving roundness to the body. The hips ought to be long to the root of the tail, and the latter may approach to near the line of the back, which is a mark of good breeding.

Both the thigh and hock should be large and muscular; and between the hock or knee and pastern, the legs should be broad, flat, and short; the hind legs properly bent, and all well placed under the body; the pasterns of moderate length, and standing slightly oblique; the hoof hard, smooth, round before, and wide at the heel; the frog large and sound; and the sole firm and concave. A white hoof is generally tender, easy to fracture and to lame, and difficult to hold a shoe.

The _draught-horse_ ought to differ from the foregoing, in possessing a heavier and shorter neck; a wider and stouter breast, and low withers, so as to throw the utmost weight into the collar; a heavier body and quarters; larger legs and feet; and more upright shoulders and pasterns.

Considerations which affect the Value of the Horse.

The color is not material, provided it be not pied or mealy. No better color for horses can be found than the dark bay or brown, with black mane, tail, and legs. But most of the other colors are frequently found with the best horses.

Hard-mouthed horses, when accompanied with great spirit, are objectionable, as they require peculiar bitting and the utmost vigilance.

The paces and action of a horse are important, for if good they give a much greater capacity for performance. Some of these depend on form and structure, and are unchangeable; others are the result of breaking. All horses should be taught to walk fast, as it is their easiest and most economical pace, and it will help them over a great deal of ground in a day, even with a heavy load, and with comparatively little effort. A horse that steps short and digs his toes into the ground, is worthless as a traveller, and suited only to a ferry-boat or bark-mill.

It is important that a horse be good-tempered. If inclined to viciousness, he should be gently yet firmly managed when it is first apparent. A resort to great severity will be justified, if necessary to conquer him; for if once allowed to become a habit, it will be difficult to cure him. Grooms and mischievous stable-boys, frequently do much injury by their idle tricks with horses; and when detected, they should be discharged at once.

Some horses are nervous, easily excited, and start at every unusual noise or object. Others are restive and fretful, and ever anxious to be on the move. Kindness, and firm, yet mild treatment, by which their motions and will are at all times controlled, and their confidence secured, are the only remedies.

Others are inclined to sluggishness. These should have stimulating food, and never be overloaded or overworked, and then kept well to their paces. Whatever they are capable of performing, can be got from them in this way only. Habit has great influence with animals, as with man; and when within the compass of his ability, he may be habituated to any reasonable physical exertion.

Breeding.

Agreeably to the general principles before enumerated, such animals should be selected, as most eminently possess those points which it is desired to propagate, and these, they should not only exhibit in themselves, but should inherit as far as possible, from a long line of ancestry. For the perpetuation of particular points in progeny, it would be safer to rely on the latter quality than the former.

The selection of a mare, relatively larger than the horse, is an important rule in breeding, and it is believed that much of the success of Arabian and other Eastern horses as stock-getters, has resulted from the application of this principle. They possess valuable traits, but condensed within too small a compass. When such an animal is put to a well-bred, larger mare, the f[oe]tus has abundance of room and nourishment to develop and perfect the circumscribed outlines of the male parent, and acquire for itself increased volume and character.

The horse ought not to be less than four or five, and the mare one year older, before being put to breeding. It would be still better to defer it for two or three years, or till the frame is fully matured.

The Gestation of the Mare

Sometimes varies from 44 to 56 weeks, but she usually goes with young from 47 to 50; and it is advisable she should take the horse at a time which will ensure the foaling when the weather is settled, and there is a fresh growth of grass. She will be the better for light working till near the time of foaling, if well, but not too abundantly fed. In a few days after this, she may resume moderate labor; and if not in the way or troublesome, the foal may run with her; but if she is exposed to heating, it should be confined till she cools, as suckling then is decidedly injurious to it.

The mare is in danger of slinking her foal from blows and over-exertion, the use of smutty grain, foul hay, or offensive objects or smell; and when this has once occurred, which happens usually in the fourth or fifth month, she should afterwards be generously fed at that period, and only moderately worked, to prevent a recurrence of the casualty. When liable to slinking, the mare should be removed from others in foal, lest a peculiar sympathy should excite an epidemic.

The Mare comes in Heat

From nine to eleven days after foaling, when she should be put to the horse, if it be desirable to have a colt the following season. She comes round at intervals of about nine days.

Management of the Colt.

The colt may be weaned when five to seven months old; and preparatory to this, while with the mare, may be taught to feed on fine hay, meal, or oats. When taken away, he should be confined beyond a hearing distance of the dam, and plentifully supplied with rowen or aftermath hay, crushed oats, or wheat shorts. It is economy to provide a warm shelter through the inclement season for all animals, and especially for colts, which, with all other young, should have an abundance of nutritious food. They will thus grow evenly and rapidly, and attain a size and stamina at two years old, they would not otherwise have acquired at three.

Castrating.

The colt should be altered at about one year, but if thin in the neck and light before, the operation may be deferred to such time as the requisite development is secured. Few of the French diligence and farm horses, and scarcely any of the Oriental, are ever castrated. They are thought to be more hardy and enduring; but the slight advantage they may possibly possess in this respect, would hardly compensate for the trouble and inconvenience too frequently arising from their management.

The operation should be performed late in the spring or early in autumn, while the weather is mild. If in high condition, the animal must first be bled and physicked. If large and fractious, he must be cast. Some back him into the angle of a worm fence, where he is firmly held by the head with a bridle, and the operator accomplishes the object without any trouble or material restiveness from the animal while standing. The scrotum should be opened on both sides, and the testicles cut, or rather the cord scraped off, which prevents much bleeding. The wound may be dressed with a little lard; then turn him loose in a pasture which has a shelter from sun, wind, or rain. Another method of castrating is by _torsion_, or twisting.

Docking

Is practised by many, but merely to gratify an absurd and cruel caprice, without a single advantage, and the animal is better in every respect with the tail unmutilated. If done at all, it should be when young, and with a single stroke of the knife, or chisel and mallet; and if the weather be favorable, no further attention is necessary.

Nicking.

This inhuman custom is now getting unfashionable, and we omit any description of it.

Breaking.

While feeding in the stable, the colt should be gently treated, and accustomed to the halter and bit, which prepares him for breaking. If permitted to run with the others while at work, he becomes familiarized to it, and when harnessed by the side of some of his well-trained mates, he seems to consider his discipline rather a privilege than a task. The colt may be taken in hand for breaking at three years of age, and thoroughly broken to light work at four, but should not be put to hard service till six or eight. A due regard to humanity and sound judgment, in thus limiting the burden in his early years, would save much disease and suffering to the animal, and profit to the owner, by his unimpaired strength and prolonged life. The annual loss from neglecting this precaution is enormous, which might be entirely avoided by less eagerness to grasp the substance, while as yet the shadow only is within reach. Many animals are thus broken down at twelve, and are in their dotage at fifteen, while others of good constitution, if well treated, perform hard service till thirty.

Longevity of the Horse.

Mr. Percival mentions one that died at 62. Mr. Mauran, of New York, has a fine gig and saddle horse, now in his 45th year, sound, spirited, and playful as a kitten. He is of a dark brown, with a tanned nose. We never yet saw a horse with a buff or bear muzzle, that had not great endurance.

American Eclipse was successfully covering mares in Kentucky at the age of 32, the result of late and light service till his sinews became fully matured. We have frequently seen a large, compact, flea-bitten horse at work, dragging a heavy load in a single cart, which was formerly used as one of Governor Maitland's coach-horses, and though upwards of 30, he was apparently as sound and vigorous as an overtasked colt of seven or eight.

Feeding.

The vigor and duration of the horse depend much on proper feeding. Like the cow and sheep, he may be made to subsist on animal food, fish, and almost every species of nutritious vegetable. But his natural and proper aliment is the grasses, grain, and roots. In the middle and northern sections of this country, his dry forage is almost invariably good meadow-hay, generally timothy, which is the richest of the cultivated grasses. At the South, this is often supplied by the blades of Indian corn. But in all the states, a great variety of the grasses and clover are used.

When put to hard labor, grain ought always to accompany hay in some form. Of the different kinds of grain, oats are peculiarly the horse's food, and they are always safe, digestible, and nutritive. Barley is the best substitute for it. Wheat and Indian corn are sometimes given, but both are unsuitable; the first is too concentrated, and the last too heating. They ought to be sparingly used, and only when ground and mixed with chaff. The offal of wheat is never objectionable.

Grain is always more advantageously fed when ground or crushed, and wet some time previous to eating; and it is still better when cooked. On both sides of the Mediterranean, in the Barbary States, in Spain, France, and Italy, much of the food is given in small baked cakes, and the saving in this way is much greater than the expense of preparing it.

When confined to dry food, roots or apples fed once a day are always beneficial. They keep the bowels open, the appetite and general health good, and contribute largely to the nutriment of the animal. Carrots are the best of the roots, as besides giving muscle and working power, they, more than any other, improve the wind and prevent all tendency to heaves. They have even been found effectual in removing an obstinate cough. By many of the keepers of livery stables, they are always used, for which purpose they command the same price as oats. Potatoes, parsnips, beets, and Swedes turnips, in the order mentioned, are next to be preferred. Potatoes are improved by cooking.

Mixtures of food are best, as of cut hay, meal, and roots. Old horses, or such as are put to hard labor, will do much better if their food be given in the form easiest of digestion. No inconsiderable part of the vital power is exhausted by the digestion of dry, raw food.

Horses ought to be fed, and if possible, exercised or worked regularly, but never on a full stomach. This is a frequent cause of disease, and especially of broken wind. If their food is given at the proper time, and the horse be allowed to finish it at once, without expecting more, he will lie down quietly and digest it. This will be much more refreshing to him, than to stand at the rack or trough, nibbling continually at his hay or oats. What remains after he has done feeding, should be at once withdrawn.

They should have water in summer three times, and in winter twice a day. Soft or running water is much the best. While working, and they are not too warm, they may have it as often as they desire. Neither should they be fed when heated, as the stomach is then fatigued and slightly inflamed, and is not prepared for digestion till the animal is again cool. Salt should always be within reach, and we have found an occasional handful of clean wood-ashes, a preventive of disease and an assistance to the bowels and appetite.

Skeleton of a Horse.

A The Head.--_a_ The posterior maxillary or under jaw.--_b_ The superior maxillary or upper jaw. A little lower down than the letter is a foramen, through which pass the nerves and blood-vessels which chiefly supply the lower part of the face.--_c_ The orbit, or cavity containing the eye.--_d_ The nasal bones, or bones of the nose.--_e_ The suture dividing the parietal bones below from the occipital bones above.--_f_ The inferior maxillary bone, containing the upper incisor teeth.--B The Seven Cervical Vertebrae, or bones of the neck.--C The Eighteen Dorsal Vertebrae, or bones of the back.--D The Six Lumbar Vertebrae, or bones of the loins.--E The Five Sacral Vertebrae, or bones of the haunch.--F The Caudal Vertebrae, or bones of the tail, generally about fifteen.--G The Scapula, or shoulder-blade.--H The Sternum, or fore-part of the chest.--I The Costae or ribs, seven or eight articulating with the sternum, and called the _true ribs_; and ten or eleven united together by cartilage, called the _false ribs_.--J The Humerus, or upper bone of the arm.--K The Radius, or upper bone of the arm.--L The Ulna, or elbow. The point of the elbow is called the Olecranon.--M The Carpus, or knee, consisting of seven bones.--N The metacarpal bones. The larger metacarpal or cannon or shank in front, and the smaller metacarpal or splint bone behind.--_g_ The fore pastern and foot, consisting of the Os Suffraginis, or the upper and larger pastern bone, with the sesamoid bones behind, articulating with the cannon and greater pastern; the Os Coronae, or lesser pastern; the Os Pedis, or coffin-bone; and the Os Naviculare, or navicular, or shuttle-bone, not seen, and articulating with the smaller pastern and coffin-bones.--_h_ The corresponding bones of the hind-feet.--O The Haunch, consisting of three portions: the Ilium, the Ischium, and the Pubis.--P The Femur, or thigh.--Q The stifle joint with the Patella.--R The Tibia, or proper leg bone; behind is a small bone called the fibula--S The Tarsus, or hock, composed of six bones. The prominent part is the Os Calcis, or point of the Hock.--T The Metatarsals of the hind leg.]

DISEASES.

The list is long and fearful, and even the brief one subjoined, will be found sufficiently great to inculcate the utmost caution in their management. The horse in his natural condition is subject to few ailments. It is only in his intensely artificial state, and when made the slave of man, that he becomes a prey to disease in almost every shape. A careful and judicious attention to his diet, water, exercise, stable, and general management, will prevent many of those to which he is subject.

Glanders.

This is one of the most alarming. The first and most marked symptom is a discharge from the nostrils of a peculiar character. The disease produces inflammation there and in the windpipe, and in aggravated cases passes down to the lungs, which are soon destroyed.

_It is propagated_ by contagion, by exposure in humid stables, and is induced by hereditary indisposition and great exhaustion. Youatt says, there is not a disease which may not lay the foundation for glanders. The poison resides in the nasal discharge, not in the breath. When exposed to it, the mangers should be thoroughly scraped, washed with soap and water, and afterwards with chloride of lime. All the clothing and harness, which may have received any of the contagious matter, must be thoroughly cleansed and baked.

_The best preventives_ are dry, clean, and well-ventilated stables, proper exercise, green food in summer, and roots in winter.

_The disease may be arrested_ in its early stages, by turning the animal on a dry pasture, but it is liable to return on subsequent confinement. Iodine has lately been announced as a remedy, but of the certainty of its effects, we are not aware.

It is generally considered incurable, and when thoroughly seated, it may be deemed an act both of humanity and economy to terminate the existence of its victim at once. This course becomes a duty, from the fact that many grooms, by their attendance on glandered horses, have been affected, and though the disease is, in their case, more manageable, yet it is frequently fatal.

Farcy.

This is intimately connected with glanders, and the diseases frequently run into each other.

Lampas.

This consists in the swelling of the bars of the mouth to a level or even above the teeth. It may occur from inflammation of the gums; shedding of the teeth; a febrile tendency, and from over-feeding or want of exercise. It will generally subside by low dieting and proper exercise; or it may be at once relieved by lancing the bars with a sharp penknife.

Poll-evil.

This arises from some contusion or injury to the head, which produces a swelling that eventually suppurates. The inflammation may be abated, in its earliest stages, by a blister; and in its later, by bleeding, physic, and cold lotions applied to the part. If these are ineffectual, and the swelling continues, it should be hastened by poultices, and warm, stimulating lotions; and when fully formed, the tumor must be opened, so as to permit all the matter to run out. Repeated applications of salt will sometimes cure it.

Heaves.

All those affections, distinguished in the English veterinary works as _pneumonia or inflammation of the lungs_, _chronic cough_, _thick and broken wind_, _consumption_, _&c._, are popularly designated as _heaves_. To some or all of these the horse may have an hereditary or constitutional tendency. Their incipient stages are also induced by a sudden transition from heat to cold, and sometimes from cold to close and hot stables; and by a chilly wind or damp stables, especially after severe exercise. Feeding on musty, dry hay, or on straw, will produce an irritation which may lead to heaves.

_Inflammation of the lungs_ is frequently dangerous, and requires the immediate and full use of the lancet. After the inflammation is decidedly allayed, by copious bleeding, small doses of aloes may be given, and frequent injections of warm soap and water, which should be omitted the moment the feces become soft and approaching to the fluid state. Blistering the sides and brisket, to be often repeated if otherwise ineffectual, must be resorted to. Convalescence should be followed with sedative medicines, and during all the severe stages of the disease, withhold all food, except light gruels after protracted abstinence. As health returns, put the animal out to grass.

Inflammation of the lungs is sometimes succeeded by a _chronic cough_, and the other maladies enumerated. When firmly seated, it is incapable of removal. Its effects can be alleviated, and with suitable food and treatment, the horse may be made to do much moderate labor for many years, but he can never become sound or sustain great exertion. Equal and proper temperature, moist, stimulating food, and especially carrots or potatoes, and moderate exercise, (but never on a full stomach,) and dry, clean stables, are all the remedies that can be prescribed.

Catarrh or Horse Distemper.

This sometimes attacks the horse in the spring or fall, and is shown by soreness and swelling in the glands of the throat, a cough; difficulty of swallowing; discharging at the nose; and general prostration. It is seldom fatal, if properly managed. Give light bran-mashes, purge thoroughly, and keep warm. If he is violently attacked, he may be bled while fever exists; and blisters or setons may be applied, to reduce the swelling, if extreme. The disease is contagious, and the animal should be at once placed where he cannot communicate it.

Spasmodic Colic.

_Symptoms._--The attack of colic is usually very sudden. There is often not the slightest warning. The horse begins to shift his posture, look round at his flanks, paw violently, strike his belly with his feet, and crouch in a peculiar manner, advancing his hind limbs under him; he will then suddenly lie, or rather fall down, and balance himself upon his back, with his feet resting on his belly. The pain now seems to cease for a little while, and he gets up and shakes himself, and begins to feed; the respite, however, is but short--the spasm returns more violently--every indication of pain is increased--he heaves at the flanks, breaks out into a profuse perspiration, and throws himself more recklessly about. In the space of an hour or two, either the spasms begin to relax, and the remissions are of longer duration, or the torture is augmented at every paroxysm; the intervals of ease are fewer and less marked, and inflammation and death supervene. The pulse is but little affected at the commencement, but it soon becomes frequent and contracted, and at length is scarcely tangible.

Among the _causes_ of colic are, the drinking of cold water when the horse is heated. There is not a surer origin of violent spasm than this. Hard water is very apt to produce this effect. Colic will sometimes follow the exposure of a horse to the cold air or a cold wind after strong exercise. Green food, although, generally speaking, most beneficial to the horse, yet, given in too large a quantity, or when he is hot, will frequently produce gripes. Doses of aloes, both large and small, are not unfrequent causes of colic.

In some horses there seems to be a constitutional predisposition to colic. They cannot be hardly worked, or exposed to unusual cold, without a fit of it. In many cases, when these horses have died, calculi have been found in some part of the alimentary canal. Habitual costiveness and the presence of calculi, are frequent causes of spasmodic colic. The seat of colic is occasionally the duodenum, but oftener the ileum or the jejunum; sometimes, however, both the caecum and colon are affected. Fortunately, we are acquainted with several medicines that allay these spasms; and the disease often ceases as suddenly as it appeared.

_Remedies._--Turpentine is one of the most powerful remedies, especially in union with opium, and in good warm ale. A solution of aloes will be advantageously added to the turpentine and opium. If relief is not obtained in half an hour, it will be prudent to bleed, for the continuance of violent spasm may produce inflammation. Some practitioners bleed at first, and it is far from bad practice; for although the majority of cases will yield to turpentine, opium, and aloes, an early bleeding may occasionally prevent the recurrence of inflammation, or at least mitigate it. If it is clearly a case of colic, half of the first dose may be repeated, with aloes dissolved in warm water. The stimulus produced on the inner surface of the bowels by the purgative, may counteract the irritation that caused the spasm.

The belly should be well rubbed with a brush or warm cloth, but not bruised and injured by the broom-handle rubbed over it, with all their strength, by two great fellows. The horse should be walked about or trotted moderately. The motion thus produced in the bowels, and the friction of one intestine over the other, may relax the spasm, but the hasty gallop might speedily cause inflammation to succeed to colic.

Clysters of warm water, or containing a solution of aloes, should be injected. The patent syringe will here be exceedingly useful. A clyster of tobacco-smoke may be thrown up as a last resort.

When relief has been obtained, the clothing of the horse, saturated with perspiration, should be removed, and fresh and dry clothes substituted. He should be well littered down in a warm stable or box, and have bran mashes and lukewarm water for the two or three next days. Some persons give gin, or gin and pepper, or even spirit of pimento, in cases of gripes. This course of proceeding is, however, exceedingly objectionable. It may be useful, or even sufficient, in ordinary cases of colic; but if there should be any inflammation, or tendency to inflammation, it cannot fail to be highly injurious.

Flatulent Colic.

This is altogether a different disease from the former. It is not spasm of the bowels, but inflation of them, from the presence of gas emitted by undigested food. Whether collected in the stomach, or small or large intestines, all kinds of vegetable matter are liable to ferment. In consequence of this fermentation gas is evolved to a greater or less extent--perhaps to twenty or thirty times the bulk of the food. This may take place in the stomach; and if so, the life of the horse is in immediate danger, for the animal has no power to expel this dangerous flatus by eructation.

_The symptoms_, according to Professor Stewart, are, "The horse suddenly slackening his pace, preparing to lie down, or falling down, as if he were shot. In the stable he paws the ground with his fore-feet, lies down, rolls, starts up all at once, and throws himself down again with great violence, looking wistfully at his flanks, and making many fruitless attempts to void his urine."

_The treatment_ is considerably different from that of spasmodic colic. The spirit of pimento would be here allowed, or the turpentine and opium drink; but if the pain, and especially the swelling, do not abate, the gas, which is the cause of it, must be got rid of, or the animal is inevitably lost. This is usually, or almost invariably, a combination of hydrogen with some other gas. It has a strong affinity for chlorine. Then if some compound of chlorine--the chloride of lime--dissolved in water, is administered in the form of a drink, the chlorine separates from the lime as soon as it comes in contact with the hydrogen, and muriatic gas is formed. This gas, having a strong affinity for water, is absorbed by any fluid that may be present, and, quitting its gaseous form, either disappears, or does not retain a thousandth part of its former bulk. All this may be very rapidly accomplished, for the fluid is quickly conveyed from the mouth to every part of the intestinal canal.

Where these two medicines are not at hand, and the danger is imminent, the _trochar_ may be used, in order to open a way for the escape of the gas. The trochar should be small, but longer than that which is used for the cow, and the puncture should be made in the middle of the right flank, for there the large intestines are most easily reached. It is only when the practitioner despairs of otherwise saving the life of the animal, that this operation should be attempted. Much of the danger would be avoided by using a very small trochar, and by withdrawing it as soon as the gas has escaped. The wound in the intestines will then probably close, from the innate elasticity of the parts.

Inflammation of the Bowels.

There are two varieties of this malady. The first is inflammation of the external coats of the intestines, accompanied by considerable fever, and usually costiveness. The second is that of the internal or mucous coat, and almost invariably connected with purging. The muscular coat is that which is oftenest affected. Inflammation of the external coats of the stomach, whether the peritoneal or muscular, or both, is a very frequent and fatal disease. It speedily runs its course, and it is of great consequence that its early symptoms should be known.

_Symptoms._--If the horse has been carefully observed, restlessness and fever will have been seen to precede the attack. In many cases a direct shivering fit will occur; the mouth will be hot, and the nose red. The animal will soon express the most dreadful pain by pawing, striking at his belly, looking wildly at his flanks, groaning, and rolling. The pulse will be quickened and small; the ears and legs cold; the belly tender, and sometimes hot; the breathing quickened; the bowels costive; and the animal becoming rapidly and fearfully weak.

_The causes_ of this disease are, first of all and most frequently, sudden exposure to cold. If a horse that has been highly fed, carefully groomed, and kept in a warm stable, is heated with exercise, and has been during some hours without food, and in this state of exhaustion is suffered to drink freely of cold water, or is drenched with rain, or have his legs and belly washed with cold water, an attack of inflammation of the bowels will often follow. An overfed horse, subjected to severe and long-continued exertion, if his lungs were previously weak, will probably be attacked by inflammation of them; but if the lungs were sound, the bowels will on the following day be the seat of disease. Stones in the intestines are an occasional cause of inflammation, and colic neglected or wrongly treated will terminate in it.

_Remedies._--The treatment of inflammation of the bowels, like that of the lungs, should be prompt and energetic. The first and most powerful means of cure will be bleeding. From six to eight or ten quarts of blood, in fact as much as the horse can bear, should be abstracted as soon as possible; and the bleeding repeated to the extent of four or five quarts more, if the pain is not relieved and the pulse has not become rounder and fuller. The speedy weakness that accompanies this disease, should not deter from bleeding largely. That weakness is the consequence of violent inflammation of these parts; and if that inflammation is subdued by the loss of blood, the weakness will disappear. The bleeding should be effected on the first appearance of the disease, for there is no malady that more quickly runs its course.

A strong solution of aloes should immediately follow the bleeding, but, considering the irritable state of the intestines at this period, guarded by opium. This should be quickly followed by back-raking, and injections consisting of warm water, or very thin gruel, in which Epsom salts or aloes have been dissolved; and too much fluid can scarcely be thrown up.

The horse should likewise be encouraged to drink plentifully of warm water or thin gruel; and draughts, each containing a couple of drachms of dissolved aloes, with a little opium, should be given every six hours, until the bowels are freely opened. It will now be prudent to endeavor to excite considerable external inflammation, as near as possible to the seat of internal disease, and therefore the whole of the belly should be blistered.

In a well-marked case of this disease, no time should be lost in applying fomentations, but the blister at once resorted to. The tincture of Spanish flies, whether made with spirits of wine or turpentine, should be thoroughly rubbed in. The legs should be well bandaged, in order to restore the circulation in them, and thus lessen the flow of blood to the inflamed part; and, for the same reason, the horse should be warmly clothed, but the air of the stable or box should be cool.

No grain or hay should be allowed during the disease, but bran mashes, and green food if it can be procured. The latter will be the best, and may be given without the slightest apprehension of danger. When the horse begins to recover, a handful of grain may be given two or three times in the day; and, if the weather is warm, he may be turned into a paddock for a few hours in the middle of the day. Clysters of gruel should be continued for three or four days after the inflammation is beginning to subside, and good hand-rubbing applied to the legs.

The second variety of Inflammation of the Bowels

Affects the internal or mucous coat, and is generally the consequence of physic in too great quantity, or of an improper kind. The purging is more violent and continues longer than was intended; the animal shows that he is suffering great pain; he frequently looks round at his flanks; his breathing is laborious, and the pulse is quick and small, and the mouth is hot and the legs and ears are warm.

_Remedies._--Unless the purging is excessive, and the pain and distress great, the surgeon should hesitate at giving any astringent medicine at first; but he should plentifully administer gruel or thin starch, or arrow-root, by the mouth and by clyster, removing all hay and grain, and particularly green food. He should thus endeavor to soothe the irritated surface of the bowels, while he permits all remains of the purgative to be carried off. If, however, twelve hours have passed, and the purging and the pain remain undiminished, he should continue the gruel, adding to it chalk, catechu, and opium, repeated every six hours. As soon as the purging begins to subside, the astringent medicine should be lessened in quantity, and gradually discontinued.