Chapter XXXIX: Appendix: E (2)

Intricate pattern of river etchings, 158.

Intrusive rocks, 32, 462.

Islands, land-tied, 241;
steep rocky, due to submergence, 252.

Isobases, 347.

Isoclinal folds, 42.

Isothermal zone of atmosphere, 270.

Jagger, T. A., Jr., cited, 148.

Jamieson, T. F., cited, 221, 322, 339.

Jeannette exploring expedition, 287, 295.

Jensen, H. I., cited, 110, 113, 147.

Johnson, D. W., cited, 7, 148.

Johnson, W. D., cited, 77, 213, 219, 220, 222, 370, 381.

Johnston-Lavis, H. J., cited, 87, 131, 132, 134, 138, 147, 148.

Joint blocks, in Niagara limestone, 353.

Joint plane, seat of frost action, 370.

Joints, 56;
effect on surface features, 57;
closed during earthquakes, 76;
composite nature of, 58;
composite groups of, 57;
disorderly, 57;
displacements upon, 58;
master, 56;
space intervals of, 58;
sets of, 55;
system of, 55.

Joint series, combinations of, 56.

Joint systems, 66.

Jorullo, birth of, 96.

Judd, John W., cited, 116, 118, 139, 148.

Julien, A. A., 156.

Jura Mountains, 46.

Kame gravel, 310.

Kames, 311, 314.

Kammerbühl, 139.

_Karrenfelder_, 188.

Karst, characters of, 186-187;
once forested, 188.

Karst conditions, 195.

Karst lakes, 422.

_Katavothren_, 188.

Katzer, F., cited, 195.

Kearney, Th. H., cited, 222.

Kelvin, Lord, cited, 20, 29.

“Kettle moraines”, 311-314.

“Kettles” on moraines, 312.

Kikuchi, Y., cited, 148.

Kilauea, 101, 106;
draining of lava in crater of, 108;
eruption of 1840, 109, 111, 112;
lava movements in, 106, 107;
moving platform in crater, 107;
range in height of lava in, 107.

King, F. H., cited, 157, 195.

Knebel, W. von, cited, 185, 195, 258, 260.

“Knob and basin” topography, 314.

Knott, C. G., cited, 92.

Kopisch, August, cited, 258.

Kotô, B., cited, 92.

Krakatoa, dissected by eruption, 142.

Krakatoa, eruption of 1883, 141, 142.

_Kuppen_, 105.

Kurische Nehrung, wandering dunes of, 210.

Laboratory apparatus, for simulation of cinder eruptions, 122.

Laboratory models, for study of geological maps, 63.

Laccolites, 143, 441, 442, 447.

Lacroix, A., cited, 148.

Lacustrine deposits, 35.

Lake Agassiz, glacial, 325-328.

Lake Algonquin, 334, 342.

Lake Arkona, 332, 333.

Lake basins, study of, 401.

Lake Bonneville, 199.

Lake Chicago, 330, 332, 333.

Lake Eulalie, draining of, during earthquake, 83.

Lake Iroquois, 334, 335.

Lake Maumee, 330, 331, 332, 345.

Lake Ojibway, glacial, 338.

Lake stages, in St. Lawrence Valley, 336.

Lake Warren, 333, 334.

Lake Whittlesey, 332, 333.

Lakes, alluvial dam, 423;
as regulators of air temperature, 431;
as regulators of river flow, 431;
as settling basins, 426-428;
barrier, 420;
basin range, 402, 403;
become extinct through wave action, 428;
border, 399, 414;
classification of, 424;
colk, 408, 409;
continental glaciation, 424;
coulée, 406;
crater, 405, 406;
crescentic, 329, 330;
crescentic levee, 416, 417;
currents in, 431;
delta, 419, 420;
desert, 424;
drained by cutting down of outlet, 428;
dune, 421;
drained during earthquakes, explanation of, 83;
earthquake, 404;
ephemeral existence of, 426;
extinction by peat growth, 429-430;
extinction of, in desert regions, 430;
fresh water, 401;
glacier lobe, 411;
glint, 408, 409;
ground water, 424;
ice dam, 410, 411;
intramorainal, about continental glaciers, 279, 280;
karst, 422;
landslide, 414;
morainal, 315, 406, 407;
mountain glaciation, 424;
newland, 401, 402;
ox-bow, 165, 415;
pit, 315, 407, 408;
playa, 422;
raft, 417, 418;
rift-valley, 403, 404;
river, 424;
rock basin, 376, 377, 400, 412;
rock basin about continental glaciers, 279;
rôle of, in economy of nature, 430;
saline, 401;
salines, 423;
saucer, 415, 416;
seasonal, 189, 422;
side delta, 326, 327, 418, 419;
sink, 421;
strand, 424;
tectonic, 424;
valley moraine, 400, 413;
volcanic, 424;
“wall”, 432.

Laki, eruption in 1783, 99.

Laminated structure, of rocks, 31.

Lamplugh, G. W., cited, 225.

Land, growth of, from volcanic outflow, 113, 114;
sliced during earthquake, 80;
uptilt of, at close of ice age, 340.

Land areas, concentration of, in northern hemisphere, 11.

Land sculpture, by mountain glaciers, 367;
in relation to climatic conditions, 443;
referable to ice caps, 380.

Land shields, 15.

Landslide lakes, 414.

Land-tied islands, 241.

Lane, A. C., cited, 148.

Lankester, E. Ray, cited, 260.

La Noe, G. de, cited, 7.

_Lapilli_, 119, 122.

Laplacian hypothesis of the universe, 20.

Lateral moraines, 393.

Lateral movements, deep seated, during earthquakes, 81.

Lava, 32;
block, 113;
composition and properties of, 103;
discharging from tunnel, 111;
fluidity of basic, 103;
movements, in caldron of Kilauea, 107;
probable origin from shale, 144;
ropy, 113;
viscosity of siliceous, 103.

Lava domes, probable structure of walls of, 112;
slopes of, 103, 104, 105.

Lava projectiles, pear-shaped type, 121.

Lava reservoirs, formation of, 143.

Lava streams, appearance of, 133, 134.

Lava surface, 113, 124.

Law of the desert, 197.

Lawson, A. C., cited, 92, 260, 351.

Leads, in pack ice, 286.

Le Conte, Joseph, cited, 6.

Leffingwell crater, California, 104.

Levees, 166.

Leverett, Frank, cited, 6, 104, 166, 312, 318, 321, 330, 332, 333,
334, 337, 339, 344, 345.

Lewiston escarpment, at Niagara, shaping of, 360-362.

Libbey, W., cited, 274.

Life histories, of rivers, 158.

Light figure, from surface of crystal, 25.

Lightning, in connection with volcanic eruptions, 130.

Limbs of faults, 59;
of folds, 43.

Limestone, 464;
origin of, 36;
sinks, 182.

Limestone, caverns of, 182.

Limonite, 452.

Linck, G., cited, 122.

Lindenkohl, A., cited, 260.

Lineaments, 87, 226, 227.

Line of beauty, Hogarthian, in landscapes, 170, 171.

_Lithodomus_, borings of, in records of oscillation, 254.

Lithosphere, a complex of interlocking crystals, 25;
and its envelopes, 8.

Littoral deposits, 36.

Loess, 35, 207;
erosion of, 208.

Loessmännchen, 208.

Lubbock, Sir John, cited, 7.

Luray caverns, Virginia, 186.

Luster, of minerals, 450.

Lyell, Sir Charles, cited, 7, 96, 146, 199, 259, 260, 304.

_Maare_, 405.

McGee, W. J., cited, 157, 259.

Mackinac Island, records of uplift of, 341-344.

Madison, Wisconsin, 233, 237, 241, 317, 434.

Magellan, circumnavigation of globe, 9.

Magma, defined, 30.

Magnetism, of minerals, 451.

Magnetite, 452.

Malachite, 453.

_Mamelons_, 105.

Mammoth Cave, 182, 183.

Mantle, rock, 155.

Map, contour, nature of, 467;
of Armorican mountains, 438;
of barrier beaches, 242-243;
of bowlder train from Iron Hill, 306;
of cirques and niches, in Bighorn Mountains, 371;
of coast lines, 246;
geological, 54, 61;
geological, method of preparing, 46, 63;
of continental divide in Colorado, 377;
of continental glacier in Victoria Land, 282;
of Dalager’s nunataks, 277;
of expanded foot glaciers, 264;
of front of Green Bay lobe, 317;
of glacial features, Southern Finland, 315;
of glacial Lake Agassiz, 325, 326, 328;
of glaciated area, Europe, 299;
of glaciated area, North America, 298;
of ice ramparts on Lake Mendota, 434;
of inner Sandusky Bay, 350;
of Kilauea and neighboring slopes, 109;
of Lake Chicago and later Lake Maumee, 332;
of Lake Maumee, 330;
of Lakes Whittlesey and Saginaw, 333;
of lava outflows on Vesuvius, 1906, 131;
of lava streams on Mauna Loa, 126;
of marginal moraines, 312;
of mountain arcs of Eastern Asia, 438;
of mountain arc of Sewestan, 436;
of North Polar regions, 288;
of part of “fire girdle” of the Pacific, 98;
of Scottish glens, 322-324;
of Volcano, 118;
of volcano belts, 98;
of Warren River, 326, 327;
topographical, 61;
topographical, preparation of, 467, 468;
topographical, verification of, 469;
to show dispersion of diamonds in Lake region, 308;
to show dispersion of peculiar rocks, 305;
to show distribution of existing glaciers, 263;
to show formation of shore features, 238;
to show glaciated areas of Pleistocene period, 297;
to show reciprocal relation of land and sea, 11.

Marble, 466.

Margerie, Emm. de, cited, 7, 54.

Marginal moraines, 278-280, 311-314.

Marine clays, as marks of uplift, 253.

Marine deposits, 35.

Märjelen Lake, 329, 411.

Marks, of origin of rocks, 30;
of uplift, on coasts, 245.

Marr, John E., cited, 7, 445.

Martel, E. A., cited, 181, 187, 195.

Martin, Lawrence, cited, 77, 92, 260, 280, 351.

Martonne, E. de, cited, 7, 195, 222, 382.

Massive structure, of rocks, 31.

Master joints, 56.

Matavanu, eruption in 1906, 110, 113, 147.

Mat of vegetation, shield to lithosphere, 155.

Matthes, F. E., cited, 7, 371, 381.

Maturity, of upland, 170.

Mauna Loa, 106;
eruptions of, 109.

Meander scars, 165.

Meanders, entrenchment of, 172, 173, 179;
stream, 163;
stream, undermining by, 164.

Measurement of thickness, of formations, 48, 49.

Mechanical sediments, 34.

Medial moraines, 393;
from nunataks, 274.

Mediterranean seas, 14.

Melting, selective, on glacier surface, 394.

Melville, G. W., cited, 289.

Mercalli, G., cited, 89, 117, 119, 147.

Merrill, George P., cited, 156.

Mesa, 215, 216;
origin of, 112.

Metamorphic rocks, 30, 31, 465.

Meteorites, compared with earth, 22;
composition of, 21, 23.

Mica, 458.

Mica schist, 465.

Michailovitch, J., cited, 84.

Microscopical petrography, 27.

Migration, of divides, 175.

Mill, H. R., cited, 424.

Mills, glacier, 398.

Milne, John, cited, 75, 92, 93.

Mineral fragments, possibility of growth of, 24.

Minerals, alterations of, 27, 28;
common, properties of, 452-461;
of economic importance, 452-456;
important as rock makers, 456-461;
properties of, 26, 27;
quick determination of, 449.

Mississippi River, 167.

Mitchell, G. E., cited, 157.

Moats, about nunataks, 273, 274.

Models, laboratory, for study of geological maps, 63.

Mojsisovics von Mojsvár, E., cited, 228.

Mokuaweoweo, crater of, 106.

“Mole-hill” effect, after earthquakes, 73.

Molten rock, rise to earth’s surface, 94.

Monadnocks, 172.

Monte Nuovo, 96.

Monte Somma, _caldera_ of, 127.

Montessus de Ballore, de F., cited, 92, 93.

Monti Rossi, crystal rain from, 122;
parasitic cones of, 125.

Mont Pelé, post-eruption stage of, 135-138;
spine of, 136, 137, 138.

Moore, W. H., cited, 294.

Morainal lakes, 315, 406, 407.

Moraines, interlobate, 314;
lateral, 393;
marginal, 278-280;
medial, 393;
medial, from nunataks, 274;
of mountain glaciers, 393, 394;
recessional, 399;
surface, 277;
terminal, 311-314, 394;
water-laid, 330.

Moreno, F. P., cited, 235.

Moseley, E. L., cited, 350, 351.

Moselle River, with entrenched meanders, 173.

Motive power, of rivers, 158.

Moulins, 398.

Mountain arcs, festoons of, 435, 436;
theories of origin of, 436, 437.

Mountain glaciation lakes, 424.

Mountain glaciers, contrasted with continental glaciers, 266-268;
defined, 266-268;
dendritic, 383, 385, 386;
expanded-foot type, 264;
horseshoe, 383, 386, 387;
land sculpture by, 367;
marks of, 400;
piedmont, 383, 384;
profiles of, 267;
radiating, 383, 386;
studies of special districts, 294;
summary of types of, 389.

Mountain ramparts, about continental glaciers, 271.

Mountains, battlement type, 228, 445;
block type, 439;
carved from plateaux, 442;
of circumvallation, 442, 445;
defined, 435;
domed, of uplift, 441;
erosional, 445;
evidence for occupation by mountain glaciers, 400;
genetical, 445;
largely shaped by erosion, 435;
of outflow and upheap, 440;
origin and forms of, 435;
truncated at coast lines, 438.

Mt. Etna, 125, 126.

Mt. Vesuvius, 94;
appearance of, from Naples at night, 129;
ash curtain, during eruption, 132;
ash-fall over, 1906, 133;
“cauliflower” cloud over, 133;
changed appearance after eruption of 1906, 132;
eruption of 79 A.D., 97;
eruption of 1872, 124;
eruption of 1906, 127-137;
history of, 97;
lavas of, 32.

Mud cones, 84;
aligned upon a fissure, 84.

Mud-crack structure, 37.

Mud, flocculent calcareous, of Florida, 36.

Mud flows, which destroyed Herculaneum, 139.

Mud veneer, from eruption of Taal, 121.

Muir, John, cited, 7.

Munthe, H., cited, 313, 351, 410.

Murray, Sir John, cited, 39, 293.

“Mushroom rocks”, 205.

Nansen, F., cited, 17, 260, 271, 272, 287, 295.

Narrows, river, 174, 327.

Natural Bridge, near Lexington, Virginia, 184.

Natural bridges, 184.

Natural sand blast, 204.

Nature of materials in the lithosphere, 20.

Necks, volcanic, 140.

Nephelite, 459.

Neumayr, Melchior, cited, 7, 146, 195, 196, 222, 425.

Névé, 369.

Newborn glacier, 387.

Newland, 159, 247.

Newland lakes, 401, 402.

New Madrid earthquake, 83.

New River, of Cumberland plateau, 173.

Niagara Falls, 352-366;
episodes in history of, 362-365;
the clock of recent geological time, 364.

Niagara gorge, 352-366;
drilling of, 353, 355;
episodes in history of, in connection with glacial lakes, 364;
plan and section of, 355;
rate of recession of, 356.

Niches, 371;
beneath snowdrift sites, 368, 369.

Nickel, in meteorites, 23.

_Nieves penitentes_, 397.

Nipissing Great Lakes, 335, 342.

Nipissing outlet, 335, 336.

Nippur, sand mounds over, 218.

Nivation, 368.

Nivation glacier, 387.

Noble, F. H., cited, 147.

Nordenskiöld, Otto, cited, 154, 157, 295.

North Atlantis, 16.

North Bay outlet, 335.

Northwest Highlands of Scotland, thrusts of, 45.

Norway, repeating patterns of, 229.

Notched cliffs, 233;
elevated, 248.

Nourishment of continental glaciers, 295.

Nunataks, 272, 274, 277.

Nussbaum, F., cited, 161.

Oasis, 216.

Oblateness, of the earth, 10.

Observational geology _vs._ speculative philosophy, 5.

Obsidian, 463.

Obsidian Cliff, 33.

Ocean of Tethys, 16.

Oceanic platform, 19.

Oceans, arrangement of, 10.

Oldham, R. D., cited, 72, 76, 92.

Oldland, 159, 247.

Olivine, 461.

Omori, F., cited, 147.

Oölite, 464.

Oölitic limestone, 464.

Ooze, calcareous, 36;
composition of, 39.

Optical mineralogy, 27.

Order of deposition, during marine transgression, 37.

Order of superposition, of strata, 52.

Organic sediments, 34.

_Orgeln_, 182.

Orleans, Duc d’, cited, 286.

Orographic blocks, 58.

Osar, 311, 315, 316.

Oscillations of movement, on coasts, 253.

Outcrop blocks, for study of maps, 63.

Outcroppings, 46.

Outlets, from continental glaciers, 271;
of glacial lakes, 326, 327.

Outwash plains, 280, 281, 311, 313, 314, 399, 408.

Overthrust, 45.

Owens Valley, California, map of earthquake faults in, 78.

“Ox-bow”, of river, 165.

Ox-bow lakes, 165, 415.

Pack, drift of, 287;
the, 286.

Pack ice, 286.

Pagination, of the earth record, 38.

_Pahoehoe_ type of lava surface, 113.

Pan form of deserts, 197.

Panum crater, _caldera_ of, 126.

“Parallel roads”, of Scottish glens, 322-325, 328, 339.

Partially dissected upland, 160.

Passarge, S., cited, 221, 222.

“Paternoster lakes”, 376.

Pattern, of river etchings, 158.

Patterns, repeating, 223.

Pavement, bowlder, 237;
glacier, 276;
tessellated from soil flow, 154.

Pavlow, A. P., cited, 108.

Peale, A. C., cited, 195, 196.

Peary, R. E., cited, 17, 283, 289, 295, 296.

Peat, 465;
formation of, 429, 430.

Peat bogs, 429.

“Pelé’s Hair”, 107.

Pelé, spine of, 148.

Penck, A., cited, 294, 399, 414.

Peneplain, 171, 179.

“Penitents”, 397.

“Perched bowlders”, 306.

Peridotite, 462.

Periods, interpluvial, 198;
pluvial, 198.

Peripheral granulation, 31.

Perret, F. A., cited, 148.

Philippi, E., cited, 295.

Phillips, John, cited, 56.

Physiographic models, preparation, of, 470.

Piedmont glaciers, 383, 384.

_Pino_, 119, 130.

Pipes, volcanic, 140.

Piracy, river, 175, 176.

Pirsson, L. V., cited, 39, 447.

Pitch, 43.

Pitching folds, 43.

Pit lakes, 315, 407, 408.

Pitted plains, 314, 407, 408.

Pittier, H., cited, 405.

Plains, flood, 178;
coastal, 246;
outwash, 280, 281;
pitted, 314, 407, 408.

Platform, continental, 18, 19;
oceanic, 18, 19.

Playa lakes, 422.

Playfair, Sir John, cited, 178.

Plucking, beneath glaciers, 275.

Plugs, volcanic, 140.

Plunge and flow structure, 37.

Plunging folds, 43;
detection of, 49, 50.

Pluvial periods, 198.

Pocket rocks, in desert, 200, 201, 202.

Poles, wind, of the earth, 263;
earlier, 297.

_Poljen_, 189, 422.

Pompeii, destruction of, 97;
volcanic materials over, 122.

_Ponores_, 188.

Porphyritic texture, of certain igneous rocks, 32.

Portals, in mountain rampart, surrounding continental glaciers, 271.

Potato shape, of earth, 7.

_Pourquoi-Pas_ expedition, 289.

Powell, J. W., cited, 178, 439, 446.

Pratt, W. E., cited, 147.

Precipitation, in relation to glaciation, 261.

Pressure ridges, on pack ice, 286.

Prinz, cited, 14, 19, 54, 133, 148.

Processes by which rocks are formed, 30.

Profile, cut by waves on steep rocky shore, 236.

Profiles, character, 177, 318;
character, directly due to volcanic agencies, 145, 146;
character, coast, due to uplift or depression, 259;
character, of arid lands, 220;
character, of shore features, 243;
character, referable to mountain glaciers, 379;
of cinder cones, 123.

Projectiles, lava, “bread-crust” type, 119;
volcanic, 121.

Prying work of frost, 152.

“Pudding stone”, 463.

Pumiceous texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Pumpelly, Raphael, cited, 222.

Pumpelly, R. W., cited, 212.

_Puys_, 105.

_Puys_ of Auvergne, 124.

Pyrite, 452.

Pyrolusite, 456.

Pyroxenes, 458.

Quartz, 458.

Quartzite, 466.

_Quebradas_, 75.

Rabot, C., cited, 424.

Radiating glaciers, 383, 386.

Raft lakes, 417, 418.

Rafts, log, in Red River, 418.

Railway tracks, buckled, during earthquakes, 75.

Rain erosion, 214.

Rainfall, infrequent in deserts, 197.

Raised beaches, 326, 328.

Ramparts, ice, 431-434.

_Randspalte_, 370.

Rapids, in Rhine gorge, 169.

_Rapilli_, 122.

Rath, G. vom, cited, 147.

Reaction rims, about minerals, 28.

Receding hemicycle of glaciation, 264.

Recessional moraines, 399.

Reciprocal relation, of land and sea, map to show, 11.

Réclus, E., cited, 147.

Records, of rise or fall of land, 245.

Red clay, of the deep sea, 39.

Red color, of desert rocks, 202.

Reid, H. F., cited, 294, 296, 400.

Rejuvenated rivers, 173, 174.

Relief forms, carved by waves, 213.

Relief patterns, dividing lines of, 226.

Repeating patterns, in earth relief, 223;
composite, 227.

Reservoirs, of lava, local, 95.

Residual rocks, 30.

Resistant rocks, in relation to erosion, 174.

Rhine, gorge of, 169.

Rhyolite, 463.

Ribbon falls, 378.

Richter, E., cited, 294.

Richtofen, Freiherr von, cited, 207, 222.

“Ridge roads”, 328.

_Riegel_, 377.

Rifting, in eroded mountains, 444.

Rift-valley lakes, 403, 404.

Rift valleys, 440.

Rigidity of the earth, 20, 29.

Ripple markings, 36.

River, zone of the dwindling, 213.

River capture, 175.

River deltas, 179.

River etchings, intricate pattern of, 158.

River lakes, 424.

River narrows, 174, 327.

River networks, in relation to precipitation, 161;
in relation to rock architecture, 161;
meshes of, 161.

Rivers, braided, 280;
cross sections of, in successive stages, 172;
drowned, 251, 340;
early aspects of, 159;
life begun in uplift, 159;
life histories of, 158;
motive power of, 158;
rejuvenated, 173, 174;
submerged channels of, 252;
swollen during melting of continental glaciers, 320;
tributary, accordant, 377;
young, 159, 160.

River terraces, 165, 178.

River valley, longitudinal section of, 161.

_Roches moutonnées_, 276, 301, 367.

Rock bars, 377;
cut through by gorges, 378.

Rock basin lakes, 376, 377, 400, 412.

Rock cleavage, 44.

“Rock glaciers”, 153.

“Rocking stones”, 306.

Rock mantle, 155;
relation to topography, 156.

Rock pedestals, 381.

Rock terraces, 215.

Rocks, clastic, 30;
corrosion of, 156;
description of some common, 462-466;
extrusive, 32, 463;
igneous, 30;
igneous, textures of, 32;
igneous, massive structure of, 31;
intrusive, 32, 462, 463;
laminated structure of, 31;
marks of origin of, 30;
metamorphic, 30, 31, 465;
residual, 30;
sedimentary, 30;
sedimentary, of chemical precipitation, 464;
sedimentary, of mechanical origin, 463;
sedimentary, of organic origin, 464;
sedimentary, rounded grains of, 31;
volcanic, 32.

Ross Barrier, 282.

Rudolph, E., cited, 92.

Rudski, M. P., cited, 19.

Russell, I. C., cited, 126, 147, 148, 175, 178, 222, 293, 294, 296,
381, 384, 414, 424, 425.

St. Anthony Falls, recession of, 327, 354.

St. David’s gorge, near Niagara, 352, 359, 360, 363.

St. Goars, on Rhine, 169.

Saint Martin, cited, 436.

St. Paul’s rocks, a dissected volcano, 141.

Salients, of newly incised upland, 169.

Salines, 423.

Salisbury, R. D., cited, 156, 160, 205, 222, 293, 295, 298, 300, 305,
313, 318, 319, 339, 424.

Salton sink, 420.

Sand, beach, 206;
eolian, 206;
volcanic, 122.

Sand blast, natural, 204.

Sand cones, 84.

“Sand devils”, 209.

Sandstone, 464.

Sand storms, 209.

Santa Catalina, 239, 257.

Sapper, K., cited, 111, 147, 148.

Sarasin, P. and F., cited, 248.

Sardeson, F. W., cited, 327, 339.

Saucer lakes, 415, 416.

Sawa Lake, of Persian desert, 199.

Scaling, 151.

Scape colks, 277.

Scars, from dissection of volcanoes, 142;
meander, 165.

Schist, chlorite, 465;
mica, 465;
sericite, 465;
talc, 465.

Schistosity, 31.

Schrader, cited, 436.

_Schratten_, 188.

Scidmore, E. R., cited, 70.

Scoriaceous texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Scott, I. D., cited, 411, 470.

Scott, R. F., cited, 282, 295.

Scott, W. B., cited, 6, 60, 72, 259, 274, 375.

“Scree”, 152.

Scrope, P., cited, 96, 124, 146.

Sea caves, 234;
elevated, 248.

Sea coves, 233.

Sea ice, 286, 292.

Seaquakes, 69;
distribution of, 70;
downward movement of sea floor during, 81;
number and magnitude of, 81.

Seasonal lakes, 189, 422.

Section, geological, 46, 47;
across mountain wall about desert, 212.

Sederholm, J. J., cited, 315.

Sedimentary rocks, 30;
of chemical precipitation, 464;
of mechanical origin, 463;
of organic origin, 464.

Seismic sea wave, 69;
Japan, 1896, 70.

Seismotectonic lines, 87.

Sekiya, S., cited, 141, 148.

Séracs, 391.

Serapeum, at Pozzuoli, 254.

Sericite schist, 465.

Series, conformable, 51;
unconformable, 51.

Serpentine, 460.

Shackleton, Sir Ernest, cited, 17, 282, 283, 292, 295.

Shadow erosion, 206.

Shadow weathering, 203.

Shale, 464.

Shaler, N. S., cited, 7, 157, 244, 306, 317, 319.

Shapes of rock folds, 43.

Shaw, E. W., cited, 425.

Shearing, in folds, 45.

“Sheep backs”, 276.

Shelf, continental, 18, 19.

Shelf ice, 281, 282, 283;
Antarctic, 289, 290;
of ice age, 317.

Sherzer, W. H., cited, 294.

Shields, of lithosphere, 436.

Shingle, 239.

Shoal water deposits, 36.

Shore current, work of, 237, 238.

Shore lines, elevated, 340;
migration of landward with uplift, 251.

Side delta lakes, 418, 419.

Siderite, 456.

Sieberg, A., cited, 92.

Sieger, R., cited, 259.

Siliceous lava, viscous, 103.

Siliceous sinter, 194.

Sills, 142.

Sinclair, W. J., cited, 152.

Sink lakes, 421.

Sinks, in limestone, 182.

Sinter, calcareous, 184;
siliceous, 194.

Sinter columns, formation of, 185.

Sinter deposits, 184.

Sjögren, Otto, cited, 225.

Skaptár fissure in Iceland, 99.

Skyline, straight, of mature upland, 170.

Slate, clay, 466.

Slichter, C. S., cited, 195.

Slickensides, on fault, 60.

Smith, George Otis, cited, 173.

Smithsonite, 456.

“Smoke” of volcanoes, nature of, 128.

Smyth, C. H., Jr., cited, 157.

Snake river, Idaho, lava plains of, 102.

Snickers Gap, 177.

Snow, B. W., cited, 193.

Snowbergs, 292, 293.

Snowdrift sites, 368.

Snow line, 261.

Soil flow, 153, 157.

Soil striping, 154.

Solfatara condition of volcanoes, 97.

Solger, F., cited, 222.

Solifluxion, 153, 157.

Sonklar, cited, 386.

Spallanzani, cited, 115.

Spatter cones, 104.

Speculative philosophy _vs._ observational geology, 5.

Spencer, J. W., cited, 260, 344, 350, 353, 366.

Spethmann, H., cited, 267.

Sphalerite, 453.

Spherulites, 33.

Spherulitic texture, of igneous rocks, 33.

Sphinx, erosion by natural sand blast, 205.

Spits, 240.

Spitzbergen, 154.

Springs, fissure, 190, 195;
surface, 181;
thermal, 190.

Stability, not the order of nature, 4.

Stacks, 233;
elevated, 249, 343.

Stage of adolescence, 169, 170.

Stairway, cascade, 376.

Stalactites, growth of, 184.

Stalagmites, formation of, 185.

Staurolite, 460.

Steppes, 215.

Still river, of Connecticut, history of, 338.

Stone, G. H., cited, 253, 260, 315, 319.

“Stone ginger”, 208.

“Stone lattice”, 205, 206.

“Stone rivers”, 153.

Strahan, A., cited, 318.

Strand lakes, 424.

Strata, conformable, 51;
contortions of, 40.

Straths, 428.

Streak, of minerals, 451.

Stream capture, 179.

Stream, meandering, cross section of, 163;
braided, 280;
intermittent, 180.

Stream velocity, determined by gradient, 158.

Strike, 46.

Striped ground, 154.

_Strokr_, 193.

Strombolian eruptions, 117.

Stromboli, cinder cone of, 115;
excentric crater of, 115;
explanation of eruptions in, 116, 117.

Structure, cross-bedded, 37.

Submerged channels, of rivers, 252.

Submergence of land, during earthquakes, 80.

Suess, E., cited, 19, 142, 259, 277, 425, 436, 437, 438, 446.

_Suffioni_, arrangement on faults, 87.

Supan, A., 420, 424.

Surface moraines, 277.

Surface springs, 181.

“Swallow holes”, 182, 422.

Swamp lands, drained during earthquakes, 83.

Sweinfurth, G., cited, 222.

Syenite, 462.

Symbols, T., to express strike and dip, 48.

Synclinal folds, 42.

Synclines, 42.

System of fractures, 55.

Taal volcano, double explosive eruption of 1911, 120, 121.

Table mountains, origin of, 112.

_Takyr_, 216.

Talc, 460.

Talc schist, 465.

Talmage, J. E., cited, 221.

Talus, 152, 153, 215.

Tangier-Smith, W. S., cited, 260.

Tarr, R. S., cited, 77, 92, 233, 260, 295, 301.

Taylor, F. B., cited, 259, 330, 339, 342, 343, 346, 350, 355, 366.

Tectonic lakes, 424.

Temperature, diurnal changes of, in deserts, 202.

Temple of Jupiter Serapis, oscillations of level of, 254, 255.

Terminal moraine, of Pleistocene glaciations, 298, 299.

Terminal moraines, of mountain glaciers, 394.

Terraced valleys, 320, 321.

Terraces, built, 235;
coast, 80, 235, 341;
river, 165, 178, 320, 321;
rock, 215.

Terra Rossa, of Karst region, 188.

Tessellated pavement, from soil flow, 154.

Tethys, ocean of, 16.

Tetrahedron, reciprocal relations of antipodal parts, 13;
truncated, toward which earth is tending, 12.

Tetrahedrons, twin, 16.

Thaw water, soil flow in presence of, 153.

Theory, evolved from working hypothesis, 6;
mixture with observation, on maps, 63.

Thermal springs, 190.

Thickness of formations, 65.

Thompson, Bertha, cited, 155.

Thomson and Tait, cited, 29.

Thomson, Wyville, cited, 296.

Thoroddsen, Th., cited, 103, 123, 147, 267.

Throw, on faults, 59.

Thrusts, 45.

“Tidal waves”, 70.

Tides, effect on a fluid earth, 20.

Tidewater glaciers, 290, 386.

Till, 31, 310.

Tillite, 31.

Till plains, 311.

Tinds, 380, 381.

Tivoli, travertine of, 184.

Tombolas, 241.

Tongues, ice, on margin of continental glaciers, 272.

Topographic maps, 61;
preparation of, 467.

Topography, built up, 301;
constructional, 309;
destructional, 309;
fault, 65;
fold, 65;
incised, 301;
knob and basin, 314.

Top-set beds, 167.

Tourmaline, 460.

Tower, W. S., cited, 178.

Trachyte, 463.

Transgression, of the sea, 37.

Transparency, of minerals, 451.

Travertine, 184, 464.

Trees, how affected by advancing lava, 133;
undermined on stream meanders, 164.

“Trellis drainage”, 175.

Troughline, of a syncline, 42.

Trunk channels of descending water, 181.

Tsunamis, 70.

T symbols, to express strike and dip, 48.

Tufa, calcareous, 464.

Tunnels, lava, 111, 112, 125.

Twin tetrahedrons, 16.

Tyndall, John, cited, 192, 196.

Udden, J. A., cited, 222.

Unconformable series, 51.

Unconformity, 65;
episodes in history of, 52;
meaning of, 51.

Underfolding, of earth’s shell, 437.

Underground water, 180.

Undertow, 236.

Unstable erosion remnants, in “driftless area”, 300.

Upham, Warren, cited, 325, 327, 339, 344, 350.

Upland, fretted, 372, 373;
grooved, 372, 373;
maturely dissected, 170;
mature, unfavorable to commercial development, 171;
newly incised, 169;
partially dissected, 160;
progressive investment of, by cirques, 374.

Uplift, marks of, on coasts, 245;
sudden, of coasts, 247.

Upraised cliffs, 249.

Uptilt, in basin of Lake Agassiz, 350;
of glaciated area, evidence that it continues, 348-350;
of glaciated area, supposed nature of, 344-347.

U-shaped valleys, 374.

Usu-san (New Mountain), birth of, 96.

Valley moraine lakes, 400, 413.

Valleys, hanging, 378;
of V-form, 172;
U-shaped, 374.

Valley trains, 311, 399.

Van Hise, C. R., cited, 54.

Varnish, desert, 201.

Veatch, A. C., cited, 418, 425.

Verbeek, R. D. M., cited, 100, 142, 147, 148.

Vesicular texture, of extrusive rocks, 32.

Victoria Falls, 225.

Vincentius of Beauvais, cited, 9.

Volcanic ash, 122.

“Volcanic bombs”, 121.

Volcanic dust, 122.

Volcanic eruptions, during changes in earth’s figure, 15.

Volcanic lakes, 424.

Volcanic mountains, of ejected materials, 115;
of exudation, 94.

Volcanic necks, 140.

Volcanic pipes, 140.

Volcanic plugs, 139, 140.

Volcanic projectiles, 121.

Volcanic rocks, 32.

Volcanic sand, 122.

Volcano belts, of the earth, 98.

Volcano, definition of, 95.

Volcano, eruption in 1888, 118, 120, 147;
history of, 118, 119.

Volcanoes, active, 97;
arrangement over fissures, 99;
birth of, 96;
cone-producing period of, 127;
convulsive eruptions of, 105;
crater-producing period of, 128;
dissection of, 139, 148;
dormant, 97;
early views concerning, 95;
“elevation-crater” theory of, 95;
explosive eruptions of, 105;
extinct, 97;
fissure eruptions of, 101;
location at fissure intersections, 100;
map of, in Java, 100;
migration of vent along fissure, 101, 124;
misconceptions concerning, 94;
mud flows after eruptions, 138;
of Gulf of Guinea, 101;
regarded as retaining walls, 124, 125;
relation to mountain ranges, 144;
sequence of events within chimney of, during eruption, 134, 135;
solfataric activity of, 97;
three types of, 105.

V-shaped valley, 172.

Vulcanello, 119.

Vulcanian eruptions, 117, 125.

Waltershausen, S. von, cited, 148.

Walther, Johannes, cited, 201, 202, 203, 204, 205, 206, 211, 215, 221.

Wandering dunes, 209.

Warren river, 416.

“Washes”, 213.

Water, derangement of flow during earthquakes, 83;
ground, 180;
percolating, rôle of, 149;
running, earth features shaped by, 169;
shot up in sheets during earthquake, 83;
thaw, soil flow in presence of, 153.

Water gaps, 176.

Water pipes, buckled in ground, during earthquakes, 75.

Water table, 180;
extreme depth of, 201, 203.

Water wave, effect of breaking on shore, 233;
free, 232;
motion of, 231.

Watson, T. L., cited, 259.

Wave, water, the motion of, 231.

Wave base, 232.

Wave length, 231.

Weathering, carbonization, 151;
chemical, 149;
chemical agents of, 149;
dry, 201;
exfoliation, 151;
frost action, 152;
hydration, 151;
in relation to climate, 150;
internal, in deserts, 201;
mechanical, 149;
of lithosphere surface, 29;
shadow, 203;
spheroidal, 150, 151;
two contrasted processes of, 149.

_Wed_ (_Wadi_), 212, 213, 214.

Weed, W. H., cited, 196, 441, 447.

West Indies, seismotectonic lines of, 88.

Wheeler, W. H., cited, 244.

Whirlpool basin, at Niagara, 359;
excavation of, 360.

Whitbeck, R. H., cited, 319.

White, David, cited, 318.

Willis, Bailey, cited, 45, 54, 157, 260, 318.

Winchell, N. H., cited, 354.

Wind, in relation to location of glaciers, 377;
in relation to mountain glaciers, 367.

Wind distribution of snow, 367.

Wind gaps, 176.

_Windkanten_, 205.

Wind poles, of the earth, 263;
of earth, earlier, 297.

Wintergreen Flats, site of captured fall, 358.

Wisconsin diamonds, 307, 308.

Woodworth, J. B., cited, 74, 351.

Worcester, Dean C., cited, 96.

Working hypothesis, 6.

Workman, Fanny Bullock, cited, 294.

Workman, W. H., cited, 294.

Wright, F. E., cited, 351.

Yellowstone National Park, 33, 191, 193, 194.

Yosemite Valley, 59, 152.

Young rivers, 159, 160.

Zahn, G. W. von, cited, 244.

Zigzag ranges, due to plunging folds, 51.

Zittel, K. v., cited, 19.

Zone of diverse displacement, 439.

Zone of flow, 40, 143.

Zone of fracture, 40, 46.

Zones, of deposition, surrounding desert, 216, 217;
upper and lower cloud, 268, 269.

Printed in the United States of America.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Italian for mouth; plural _bocchi_.

[2] These models and the contouring apparatus are now manufactured for the use of schools and colleges by Eberbach and Son, Ann Arbor, Mich.

[3] This clay is manufactured by the A. H. Abbott Company, art dealers, Wabash Avenue, Chicago.

[4] Numbers in parenthesis refer to pages in this book, where further information is to be found.

* * * * * *

Transcriber’s note:

—Obvious typographical errors have been silently corrected. All other variations in spelling punctuation and accents have been left unchanged.

—A border has been added to plates.