Chapter II: Part I (1)

The general name “electric railway” is applied to all railways employing _electric motors_ to supply power for the propulsion of cars. On all electric railways in commercial use to-day, the electric motor is used to furnish power to the driving wheels of the car or locomotive, the electric motor being the most efficient known means of transforming electrical into mechanical energy.

Electric railways are usually classified according to the methods by which current is supplied to the moving car. Thus, where an overhead trolley wire is used, as on the great majority of electric railways, the term _trolley road_ is applied. Where an insulated steel rail is laid alongside the track rail for supplying current, as on the “elevated” roads in America and on a few interurban roads, the term _third-rail road_ is used. Where, as on the street railways of a few large cities, the conductors are placed in a conduit underneath the surface of the street, and current is taken by means of a plow or shoe running in the conduit, the name _electric-conduit railway_ is most commonly applied. There are also a few systems using conductors buried beneath the pavement, and having contact buttons or sections of conductor rail on the street surface, which sections are supplied with current by automatic electromagnetic switching apparatus as the car passes, but which are normally dead and harmless. The overhead trolley and the third-rail systems are by far the most common.

A further general classification of electric railways has recently been made because of the introduction of alternating-current railway motors. The great majority of electric railways employ direct-current motors. Where alternating-current motors are used, the road is spoken of as one using single-phase alternating-current motors or three-phase alternating-current motors, as the case may be.

All electric railway systems in commercial use are operated on an approximately constant potential or voltage, and the various electric motor cars operating on the system are connected across the lines in parallel. The most common practice is to utilize the rails and ground as one side of the circuit, and the overhead trolley wire or “third rail” as the other side, as in Fig. 1. The trolley wire or third rail is, of course, thoroughly insulated from the ground. The positive poles of the generators at the power house are usually connected to the trolley wire, and the negative poles to the rails and ground. The various electric motor cars, being connected in parallel or multiple between the trolley wire and the ground, draw whatever current is necessary for their operation. Where the conduit system is used, both sides of the circuit are insulated from the ground, and the contact shoe or plow collects current from two conducting rails in the conduit, one of these conducting rails being positive and the other negative. A double-trolley system is also in use to a limited extent. In this system, both the positive and the negative sides of the circuit are insulated from the ground, one trolley wire being positive and the other negative.

Further discussion of the matters just outlined will be taken up in the succeeding pages.

CAR EQUIPMENT.

MOTORS.

The voltage most commonly employed by electric railways is 500 to 600; and the motors are 500-volt direct-current series-wound motors, designed especially for railway service. The electric railway motor must be dustproof and waterproof because of the position it occupies under the car. For this reason electric railway motors are made in the form of a steel case (Fig. 2), which entirely surrounds the field-magnet poles and takes the place of the yokes or frames that support the fields on stationary motors. Cast steel is the material now usually employed for railway motor cases and fields, on account of its mechanical strength and its high magnetic permeability. The four poles project inwardly from the case, as seen in the open motor case, Fig. 3, which is that of a Westinghouse No. 69 motor.

Railway motors have usually four poles because this permits of a symmetrical and economical arrangement of material around the armature, and hence permits the motor to be placed in the small space available on the car truck. Two-pole motors have been used in the past, but they were not as compact as the four-pole type.

=Characteristics of Railway Motors.= The curve sheet, Fig. 4, for the Westinghouse No. 69 motor represents in general the characteristics of all direct-current railway motors.

The figures for each curve are found with names corresponding to the curve to which they apply, at each side represented by vertical distance on the sheet. The amperes, represented by the horizontal distance, are marked at the bottom, and apply in common to all the curves.

The tractive effort at different current consumption is represented by a line curving upwards somewhat. This shows that the tractive effort increases, in a proportion greater than directly, as the current increases.

The torque required in starting may be many times greater than that necessary to maintain the car at full speed. The series-wound motor, therefore, furnishes this great starting torque more economically than a shunt-wound motor the torque of which is proportioned to the current. This feature of the series-wound motor makes it especially adapted to street railway work.

WESTINGHOUSE
No. 69 RAILWAY MOTOR
500 VOLTS

GEAR RATIO, 14 TO 68. WHEELS, 33″

CONTINUOUS CAPACITY, 25 AMPERES AT 300 VOLTS,
OR 23 AMPERES AT 400 VOLTS.

Fig. 4. Characteristic Curves of Railway Motor.]

The efficiency curve shows the motor to have an efficiency of about 83 per cent with gears. Much other information may be obtained by a proper study of the curves. The fields are worked near the point of magnetic saturation. This economizes metal and space and is also an advantage because of the fact that when so worked the armature reactions have very little effect on the fields. The neutral points between fields are consequently shifted very little and it is therefore not necessary to shift the brushes when the motor is reversed.

General Data on Street
Railway Motors.

=Armature Winding.= The armature winding is what is commonly known as the series or wave winding, shown developed in the paper on Direct-Current Dynamos. This winding is shown in Fig. 5, which is an end view of an armature and commutator. In the figure, however, the armature is shown with a much smaller number of slots than a railway armature should have in practice. One reason for the employment of the wave or series winding on railway motor armatures, is that with this winding no cross-connections are necessary when only two brushes are used, and these two brushes may be placed 90° apart in a convenient and accessible position. Another reason is that the current, in flowing from one brush on the commutator to another, must always pass through the magnetic field of all four of the motor poles. This makes it impossible for any unbalancing of the magnetic circuit to cause more current to flow through one portion of the armature than is flowing through another portion. In a railway motor it has been found quite possible to have one pole or pair of poles exerting a greater magnetic attraction on the armature than another pair, owing to differences in the iron and differences in the clearance between the armature and pole pieces, which differences cause more magnetic lines of force to flow from some pole pieces than from others. With the lap-armature or the ring-armature winding, since the various portions of the armature under different poles are in parallel with one another, any difference in the magnetic flux between different poles will cause a different amount of current to flow in the various paths through the armature.

========+======+=====+=====+======+======+======+======+========+=========+=======+==========+=========+=====+=======
Type of |Horse |Amp- |Speed|Total |Slots.|Cond- |Commu-| Weight |Armature | Gears |Commutator| Pinion |Dia- |Length.
Motor. |Power.|eres.|Full |Field | |uctors|tator |complete|Complete.| and | Bearing. |Bearing. |meter|
| | |Load.|Turns.| | per |Bars. | with | |Casing.| | |Arma-|
| | | | | | slot | | Gears. | | | Inches. | Inches. |ture.|
--------+------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+--------+---------+-------+-----+----+----+----+-----+-------
General | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Electric| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
51 | 82 | | 640 | 56 | 37 | 12 | 111 | 3875 | 953 | 338 | 3 | 5¾ | 3¼ | 8¼ | 16 | 10½
52 | 27 | | 640 | 155.5| 29 | 24 | 87 | 1725 | 357 | 265 | 2½ | 6⅜ | 2¾ | 7¾ | 11 | 9
57 | 52 | | 470 | 110 | 33 | 18 | 99 | 2972 | 704 | 340 | 2⅝ | 6⅜ | 3¼ | 8¾ | 14 | 12
55 | 160 | | | | 47 | 6 | 141 | 5415 | 1550 | 490 | 3¼ | 7½ | 3¾ |11 | |
67 | 40 | | | 110 | 37 | 18 | 111 | 2385 | 595 | 385 | 2⅝ | 6⅛ | 3 | 8 | |
54 | 25 | | | | | | 115 | 1831 | 395 | 285 | 2½ | 6 | 2¾ | 7¾ | |
74 | 65 | 113 | | 70.5| | | | 3534 | 845 | 415 | 3⅛ | 6¾ | 3⅝ | 8¾ | |
--------+------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+--------+---------+-------+-----+----+----+----+-----+-------

--------+------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+--------+---------+-------+-----+----+----+----+-----+-------
Westing-| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
house | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
68 | 40 | | | | 55 | 12 | 109 | 2280 | 505 | 330 | 2¾ | 6¾ | 3 | 7¾ | 14 | 8
69 | 30 | | | | 35 | | 105 | 1950 | 385 | 330 | 2¾ | 6 | 2¾ | 7 | 13 | 6¾
76 | 75 | | | | 39 | | 117 | 3840 | 505 | 860 | 3¼ | 8 | 3½ | 9 | 16½ |
56 | 55 | | | | 39 | | 117 | 3000 | 315 | 720 | 3 | 7½ | 3¼ | 8½ | 14 | 12
50c| 150 | | | 144 | 55 | 6 | 115 | 5550 | 1500 | | | | | | |
49 | 35 | | | 114 | 59 | | 117 | 1925 | 438 | 327 | 2¾ | 6 | 2¾ | 7½ | 13⅝ | 6½
--------+------+-----+-----+------+------+------+------+--------+---------+-------+-----+----+----+----+-----+-------

By reference to the winding diagram given in Fig. 5, it may be noted that a complete circuit through two coils ends at the segment adjacent to the one from which the start was made. It may also be noted in the table of motor data that all of the armatures have an odd number of segments and an odd number of slots. It is absolutely necessary in a wave winding to have an odd number of segments. Otherwise the winding could not be made symmetrical and the circuit through two coils be made to return to a segment adjacent to that from which the start was made. With equal spacing between the top and bottom leads of the two coils, an even number of segments would make the circuit return either on the segment from which the start was made or two segments from it.

The first drum-wound street railway motor armatures had as many slots in the armature as there were coils and segments. The great number of slots necessarily made the teeth very thin and consequently weak. This is very objectionable as sometimes the armature bearings wear away, allowing the face of the armature to drag on the pole pieces and thin teeth are bent out of shape.

Armatures are now almost entirely constructed with either two or three coils to a slot. When two coils are used in each slot with an odd number of slots an even number of coils results. If these were all connected to the commutator an even number of segments would be necessary. As this is not possible with a wave winding, one of the coils is “cut out.” The ends are cut short and taped and it is termed a “dead” coil. This makes the winding somewhat unsymmetrical, all the coils not bearing the same angular relation to the commutator segments to which they are connected. This difference is, however, not great enough to affect the operation of the machine.

The Westinghouse 49 motor is an example of an armature with a dead coil. By reference to the table of motor data it will be seen that this armature has 59 slots. Two coils in each slot would make 118 coils. One of these, however, is cut out, giving 117 segments.

Cutting out a coil can be avoided by putting three coils in each slot.

An odd number of coils results then no matter what the number of slots may be. In the majority of examples given in the table there are three times as many segments as slots. The sides of the slots of modern street railway armatures are straight. The coils are prevented from flying out by bands of wire extending over the tops of the coils around the armature. Steel or silicon bronze wire of about No. 14 gauge is used. Recesses are made in the armature teeth for the reception of these bands so that the wire when wound will come flush with the face of the armature. The bands are usually ¾ to 1½ inches wide. The wires are well soldered together to secure them in place. One trouble experienced with armatures is the slipping off of these bands. The heated armature expands and stretches them. When the armature cools the bands are loose and then often slip off. When they do so the coils fly out by centrifugal force, strike the pole pieces and ground the motor.

=Armature Coils.= Railway motor armatures are to-day universally constructed with form-wound coils, which are wound on a form of proper shape and carefully insulated before being placed in the armature.

The coils of the smaller motors (those up to 40 or 50 horsepower) are usually wound with round wire. The cotton covering of the wire is depended upon for insulation. To strengthen this, however, the coils after being wound are immersed in an insulating compound and then baked in an oven. The whole coil is usually wrapped with insulating tape (See Fig. 6). The armatures of larger motors have coils made of copper bars. Mica is often placed between and around the bars for insulation, though oiled linen cloth tape cut bias is also employed, especially in repair work.

=Field Coils.= Field coils are so constructed that they may be readily removed should they become grounded or short-circuited. Some makers wind them on a brass shell or form which is slipped over the pole piece. In some motors the field coils are composed of copper ribbon, wound bare, with ribbons of insulating material between the turns. Field coils of wire for the smaller motors, if not wound on shells, are wound on forms and before completion are taped in such a manner that they will hold their shape without being enclosed in a spool. The terminals are brought out where they will be of easy access when the field is in place (See Fig. 7).

=Armature Leads.= In Fig. 3 is seen a completed armature in the motor casing of a Westinghouse No. 69 motor. Since the motors are four-pole, the two sides of any one coil occupy slots 90° apart in the armature coil, as indicated in Fig. 5. The ends of the coils are connected to commutator bars 180° apart. The relative position of the commutator connections of any armature coil can, of course, be varied so as to bring the brushes in the most convenient position in the motor casing. Brushes are always of carbon, and are placed where they can be easily reached from the opening in the motor casing over the commutator.

=Motor Leads.= The reversing of the current through the armature, independent of the field current, to secure reversal of direction of rotation of the armature, makes it necessary that four wires enter the motor. The portions of these wires connected permanently to the motor are termed the motor leads because they “lead out” the current. Sometimes an ordinary two-way connector is used in connecting these leads to the wires of the cable, but often a jack-knife connector is employed to facilitate connecting and disconnecting. Considerable difficulty has been experienced by the wearing away of the insulation of the leads where they rest on the motor shell. To avoid this there has recently come into use a lead protected by a spiral metal covering. =Brushes.= That the motor may operate in either direction equally well, the carbon brushes are placed radially or nearly so. No provision is made for shifting their position relative to the fields. They usually occupy a position equidistant between pole tips. The common types are either ½ or ⅝-inch thick and from 2¼ to 4 inches wide.

=Brush Holders.= Two methods of securing the brush holders are employed. In Fig. 3, the brush holders may be seen to be secured in position by being bolted through the end of the motor shell. Fig. 8 shows the brushes mounted on a yoke which is secured to the motor shell. The yoke is of wood and provides the necessary insulation. Where the holders are fastened directly to the shell a block and washers of vulcabeston or other insulating material intervene to furnish the insulation between the shell and the holder. In practice the greatest difficulty experienced with brush holders is preventing them from becoming grounded by dirt and carbon dust which collects on the insulation.

=Opening Cases for Inspection.= Accessibility for inspection and repairs is essential in all railway motors. A lid is always provided directly over the commutator to facilitate inspection of the commutator and brushes. To open up the motor casing for more extensive inspection or repairs, three general schemes are employed. One is to have the lower half of the casing swing downward on a hinge as in Fig. 9, which illustrates the Westinghouse No. 38 B motor. The armature may be placed either in the lower half, as shown in Fig. 9, or in the upper half. When a motor of this type is to be opened the car is run over a pit, and the repair men work entirely from below.

Often the hinge pins are removed and the lower shell containing the armature is dropped down by means of a jack placed underneath.

Two handholes are usually provided in the bottom shell for observing the clearance between the armature and the pole pieces and also for removing dirt that may collect in the bottom of the shell. Another scheme is to have motors open from the top, either by hinging the upper part of the motor casing, as in Fig. 3, or by having the top part of the casing lift off. Where this form of motor is used, the car body is hoisted clear of the truck, and the trucks are run out from under the car body before work is done on the motors. In this case, all the work can be done from above without the use of pits.

A third design is the box-frame motor casing, from which the armature can be removed endwise only. Such an arrangement is shown in Fig. 10, which is a view of a No. 66 motor of the General Electric Company. In this motor a sufficiently large opening is provided in the ends of the motor casing to permit of the armature being removed endwise. A plate or head, which accurately fits into this opening, carries the armature bearing. In removing armatures from motors of this kind, the usual method is to take the motor out of the trucks and stand it on end with the pinion up. The bolts being removed from the end plate, the armature can then be hoisted out of the case by means of a special hook attached to the pinion. Another plan that has been used in removing armatures from such motors, is to place the motor in an apparatus where the armature shaft can be held between centers, as in a large lathe. The motor casing is then moved along in a direction parallel to the armature shaft, until the armature is exposed.

This latter box-frame type of motor is very compact; a stronger casing can be made for a given weight and space than if it were divided horizontally. Moreover, the magnetic circuit cannot be disturbed by imperfect contact between two parts of the casing. Where this type of motor is used, the bearings project inward under the commutator and armature, thus getting long bearings with a short motor, which is important where the room is limited, as, for example, in the case of a large motor mounted on a standard-gauge truck.

=Gearing.= In most cases, spur gearing is used to transmit power from the armature shaft to the car axle, although a few motors with armatures mounted directly on the car axle are in use. Various gearings other than the simple spur gear have been tried, such as worm gears, chain and bevel gears. Practically all have been abandoned in favor of the single-reduction spur gearing, which is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of wear and efficiency. This gearing is shown in Figs. 3 and 9. The gearing is covered with a gear case (Fig. 9), which is usually of steel, though gear cases of thin sheet metal and wood are sometimes used. A solid gear is shown in Fig. 11, and a split gear in Fig. 12. The gear ratios in common use vary from 5 to 1 to 2 to 1, the larger ratio being common on the smaller motors. A ratio often used on motors of 30 to 50 horsepower is 4.78 to 1, the gear having 67 teeth, the pinion 14 teeth.

Street car wheels are usually 33 inches in diameter. This makes necessary 612 revolutions per mile. With a gear ratio of 4.78 the armature revolves 2,925 times per mile. At 15 miles per hour, this gives 731 r.p.m.

=Lubrication.= The lubrication of railway motors was for a number of years carried on almost exclusively with grease, which it was customary to place in the gear casing and in grease boxes over the armature and car-axle bearings. Grease becomes most efficient as a lubricant only when the bearing is heated sufficiently to make the grease run like oil. Oil is now being used to a considerable extent, especially for larger motors. It is fed to the bearings by various devices that allow a very slow feed, such as wicks and lubricators adjusted to pass a small amount of oil per hour.

=Bearings.= Railway motor bearings are usually of Babbitt metal, which metal is cast into a steel shell. This shell fits into receptacles in the motor casing, which can be seen in Figs. 3 and 9. A steel shell is used so that the worn-out bearings can be easily renewed and the shells taken to a Babbitt melting furnace to have new Babbitt poured into them.

The motor has two sets of bearings, those for the armature and those for the axle upon which the motor is mounted. The axle bearings are always split diametrically to avoid removing a wheel when a bearing is replaced. On the later designs of motors these are of brass, no Babbitt metal being used. The armature bearings are distinguished by the terms “gear end” and “commutator end” bearings. The gear end bearing is usually of larger diameter and of greater length because of the thrust of the gears it must take in addition to the weight of the armature. This bearing is split so that it may be removed and replaced without the removal of the gear. The commutator end bearing is in one piece. Armature bearings are shown in Fig. 13.

=Motor Suspension.= Two methods of suspending motors flexibly on trucks are in common use. That end of the motor which has bearings on the car axle cannot, of course, be flexibly suspended with regard to the axle; but the other end of the motor can be placed on springs, or rest on a bar supported on springs, as shown in Fig. 14. This suspension is commonly called _nose suspension_. Instead of having a special bar and special springs for the nose of the motor, the nose may rest upon some part of the truck that is carried upon springs. Thus, on the M. C. B. type of swivel truck, the nose usually rests on the truck bolster, and thus gets the benefit both of the bolster springs and of the equalizer springs of the truck. Another general plan of suspension is that known in one form as _cradle suspension_, and in another form as _side-bar suspension_. A side-bar suspension is shown in Fig. 15. Here a larger percentage of the weight of the motor is evidently taken by the springs than in the case of nose suspension. It is desirable to relieve the car axle of as much dead weight as possible. By dead weight is meant weight resting upon it without the intervention of springs.

=Motors of the New York Central Electric Locomotive.= These motors are a radical departure from the usual type of railway motors. The locomotive on which they are mounted has four driving axles, upon each of which is mounted an armature, direct, no gears being used, Figs. 16 and 17. The motors are remarkable for three special features: The method of mounting the armature, the shape of the pole pieces, and the path of the magnetic flux.

The mounting of the armature upon the driving axle and the motor fields on the truck frame makes it necessary to have flat pole pieces in order that the armature may play up and down as the journal box and axle slide in the guides of the truck frame. The shape of the pole pieces may be observed in the drawing Fig. 16. When in the central position there is a ¾-inch air gap between the armature and pole pieces. The magnetic flux is continuous through the fields of all four of the motors. It returns through the cast steel side frames of the truck and two bars placed in the path.

The brush holders are so mounted that the brushes occupy a fixed position relative to the armature. The armature is removed by lowering it with the wheels and axle upon which it is mounted. This can be done without disturbing the fields of the motor.

CONTROLLERS.

In an ordinary electric car, current is taken from the wire through the trolley wheel and pole, and is first led from the trolley base through overhead switches or a circuit breaker, and then to the controller, from which it passes through the motors and thence through the motor frames, car truck, and wheels to the rails and ground. If the car is designed to be operated from either end, an overhead switch or circuit breaker is placed over each platform of the car so that current can instantly be cut off entirely from the controllers by throwing the switch or circuit breaker at either end of the car.

The lighting circuit is run from the trolley base independently of the motor circuit, and has its own switch and fuse box. Current for the lights is taken from the trolley circuit before it reaches the main switches or circuit breakers. Current for electric heaters, if such are used, is likewise taken from a separate circuit. On a 500-volt system five 100-volt lamps are usually connected in series for car lighting. As many multiples of five can be employed as are necessary to light the car.

=Rheostat Control.= The simplest form of controller is that employed where only one motor is used on a car. A rheostat is placed in series with the motor when started, just as on a stationary motor; and the function of the controller is to short-circuit this resistance gradually until it is entirely cut out and the motor operates with the full voltage. The controller also has a reversing switch by means of which the relative connections of the armature and fields are reversed, which, of course, changes the direction of rotation of the motor armature. Such a simple equipment as this, however, is rarely to be found in practice.

=Series-Parallel Control.= Single-truck cars usually have two motors, one on each axle; and on such cars a series-parallel controller is the kind usually employed. Diagrams of connections on the various points of a series-parallel controller (Type K6) of the General Electric Company, are given in Fig. 18.

From these diagrams it is seen that the motors are first operated in series until all the resistance is short-circuited by the controller. When this has occurred, the cars are running at about half speed. The next point on the controller puts the two motors in multiple, with some resistance in the circuit, which resistance is cut out upon the following points, until at full speed the two motors are in multiple, without any resistance in the circuit.

=Four Motors.= Where four motors are used on a car, as is frequently the case with double-truck cars, the motors on each truck are usually controlled just as in case of the two-motor equipment that has been described; but each pair of motors is operated in multiple. That is, on the first points of the controller, the two motors of a pair are in series, as in Fig. 19, and the two pairs are in parallel; and on the last points of the controller, all the motors are in parallel, as in Fig. 20.

=Controller Construction.= The controller (Type K) shown open in Fig. 21, which in its various forms is the type most commonly used on street cars in the United States, has a contact cylinder or drum mounted upon the main shaft of the controller. This contact drum carries contact rings insulated from the drum, and is suitably interconnected, as indicated in Fig. 22, which shows the contact rings of the controller as they would appear if rolled out flat. Contact fingers are placed along the left side of the controller, as seen in Fig. 21, one for each ring on the drum; and as the controller handle is turned to revolve this drum, the contact fingers make contact with the rings on the drum and give the various connections. Alongside the main controller drum is a reverse drum which simply reverses the armature connections of the two motors. =Controller Wiring.= The connection between motors, controllers, and resistances, with two motors and a K6 controller is shown in Fig. 22. A careful study of this will show the combinations to be the same as indicated in the diagram, Fig. 18. The wiring is rather complicated; and in practice, to avoid confusion, the ends of each wire are labeled with tags showing the terminals to which they belong.

With the aid of Figs. 22, 23 and 24, the wiring of a type K6 controller with two motors may be followed. Figs. 23 and 24 are for a different controller but can be used to assist in an understanding of the complicated diagram 22. The current leaves the choke or kicking coil of the lightning arrester and passes through the blow out coil of the controller. It then goes to the top finger T of the controller. On the first point the circuit is as shown in Fig. 23. The top segment A makes contact with the top or trolley finger. All but the lower five segments of the cylinder are electrically connected together by means of the iron cylinder upon which they are mounted. On the first point then the current passes from the cylinder over R₁, and with straight series connections of the resistances, it goes through all of the rheostats under the car, and returns to the controller over the last resistance lead, R₇. Behind the motor cut-out switches at the base of the controller this lead is tapped into a wire one end of which leads to finger 19 of the controller, and the other end through the cut-out switch and reverse cylinder to No. 1 armature. The current takes the latter path, passes through the armature of the motor and returns by way of the reverse cylinder, thence through the fields of No. 1 motor and then through the cut-out switch of No. 1 motor and to finger E₁, of the controller. Segments O, M, N and L, shown in Fig. 23, and corresponding segments of Figs. 22 and 24, are insulated from the remainder of the controller cylinder. From finger E₁ and segment O (Fig. 23) the current passes over finger 15 through No. 2 cut-out switch and the reverse cylinder to the armature of No. 2 motor. Returning it passes through the reverse cylinder, then back through the fields of No. 2 motor and to the ground, which is usually through a connection on the motor casing.

On points 2, 3, 4 and 5, the successive series points of the controller R₁, R₂, etc., make contact with segments B, C, etc., Figs. 23 and 24, until finally finger 19 rests on segments J, the resistance is all cut out and the motors are connected in series directly across the line. A further movement of the controller handle changes the motors from series to multiple connection and inserts in the circuit a portion of the external resistance. There are four separate stages in making this change. First, the resistance fingers slide off their segments and the resistance is inserted in the line. Second, fingers E₁ and G make contact with segments P and Q. Motor No. 1 is then across the line in series with the resistance; the circuit being from E₁ to ground over G. When the lower finger E₁ makes contact with P, the upper one has not yet left segment O. This short-circuits No. 2 motor, the path being from the ground, up wire G, thence by way of segments P and Q and through connecting clip V, between the two E₁ fingers back through finger 15 to the motor.

A further movement of the controller handle causes the fingers to leave segments M and O and No. 2 motor is open-circuited until finger 15 makes contact with segment N. When this takes place the motors are in multiple. On the successive points after this the external resistance is cut out in the same manner as previously described.

By reference to Fig. 22, it will be noticed that the leads to the motors and the resistances are tapped on wires of the cables connecting the two controllers on the ends of the car. The two ends of these wires, with the exception of the armature wires, lead to similar binding posts on the two controllers. The armature wires are interchanged connecting at one controller into binding post A A, while the other end connects into binding post A. This change of connection is necessary in order that the reverse handles be forward for forward direction of movement of the car.

To reverse a series motor it is simply necessary to reverse the direction of flow of the current in either the armature or field. For several reasons, it is advantageous in the case of the street railway motor to reverse the current in the armature rather than in the field. Figs. 25 and 26 show how this is accomplished. The squares shown in the figures represent the lugs on the reverse cylinder as shown in Fig. 21. With the reverse handle in one position (Fig. 25), the large lugs are under the reverse fingers, and current passes from finger 19 to finger A₁, and from finger 15 to finger A₂. Fig. 26 shows the relative position of reverse fingers and lugs for the reverse position of the controller handle. In this case the current passes from finger 19 to A A₁, and from finger 15 to finger A A₂. The effect is to change the direction of flow in the armatures while that in the fields remains the same as may be observed by the arrows.

=Wiring of Type L Controllers.= The type L controller, shown in Fig. 27, while accomplishing the same results as the type K, is wired in a radically different manner. The circuit is opened in changing from series to multiple connections. The controller handle makes two complete revolutions in moving from the series to the multiple position. It is geared to the rheostatic cylinder in such a manner that the first half of both the first and second revolutions gives this cylinder one complete turn. During the second half of the revolution the cylinder is returned to its original position. The controller handle is so connected to the commutating arm that this stands in a central position for the off position of the handle. At the beginning of the first revolution it is swung to the left, throwing the motors in series. At the beginning of the second revolution it is moved to the right, putting the motors in multiple.

The rheostats instead of being wired in series are connected in multiple. Current passes from the blow-out coil to the bottom fingers of the controller S, and thence to the rheostats. On the first point the current returns over R₁ to the controller cylinder. It passes off through a collar at the base of the cylinder through No. 1 cut-out, and the reverse, which is shown in the central position, to No. 1 motor. On returning to the controller over E₁ it passes to the upper section of the commutating arm. In the diagram this is shown in the central position. In series it is thrown to the left. The current then passes from the commutating arm to No. 2 cut-out, and to No. 2 motor. Movement of the controller handle further multiplies the paths through the rheostats and finally, when fingers S rest on the cylinder, the rheostats are short-circuited. If the controller handle is moved still farther, the rheostat cylinder is returned to the off position and the commutating arm is thrown to the left. With the arm in this position the current divides, one portion passing to No. 1 motor as before and to ground by way of the upper section of the commutating arm; while the other branch goes by way of the lower section of the commutating arm to the cut-out switch for No. 2 motor and thence to the motor.

Reversing is accomplished by one-quarter revolutions to the right and left of the segments shown. It is evident that this will connect either A₁ or A A₁, to the trolley. And likewise connect the other armature leads.

=Reversal.= The reversing handle and the main controller handle are made interlocking so that the motors cannot be reversed without first throwing the controller to off position. This is to prevent damage to the motors through careless or inadvertent throwing of the reverse handle when the controller is on some of its higher points. Such a reversal would cause an enormous current to flow through the motors, and would be likely to damage them and to open all the circuit breakers and fuses in that circuit. The reason for the enormous flow of current is, of course, that the counter-electromotive force of the motors, when reversed with the car going at some speed, would materially add to the electromotive force of the trolley line, instead of opposing it as when the cars are in operation. The current flowing through the motor circuit would then be equal to (_electromotive force of line_ + _electromotive force of motors_) ÷ (_resistance of motors_), which would result in a very large current.

=Magnetic Blow-Out.= On the Type K controller as well as on most other successful controllers, the flashing or arcing between contact rings and fingers, which occurs when the circuit is broken, is materially reduced by a magnet that produces what is called the magnetic blow-out to extinguish the arc. This magnet derives its current from the main circuit, and is so arranged as to create a strong magnetic field in the neighborhood of the place where the arc is formed. Fig. 21 shows a Type K controller open with the magnetic blow-out magnet thrown back on a hinge. The coil which produces this magnet is seen in the right side of the controller. The main contact drum is in the middle, and the reversing drum at the right hand. There are in use a number of other controllers built upon these same general principles but differing in mechanical arrangement.

=Controller Notches.= All controllers are provided with some device which prevents the motorman from stopping the controller handle between the various points or notches, as the stopping between points might result in drawing an arc or an imperfect contact. The most common arrangement to prevent this is a notched wheel on the controller shaft, against which bears a small wheel of just the right size to enter the notches. The small wheel is held against the notched wheel by a strong spring. As the tendency of the small wheel is to seek the bottom of the notches, it is difficult to stop the controller handle anywhere between notches, and the motorman is thus given a guide which tells him without any effort on his part just where the notches are.

To prevent advancing the controller handle too rapidly and avoid the jerking of passengers, excessive currents and slipping of wheels during acceleration, several devices have been planned. On the multiple unit control systems, a limit switch is usually provided which prevents the controller advancing when the current exceeds a predetermined amount. A device to accomplish the same results on the K type of controllers is termed the Automotoneer. A cam connected with a dash pot prevents movement of the controller handle to the successive notches faster than a previously prescribed rate.

A switch is usually provided in a controller, for cutting out of service one motor or a pair of motors if defective, and allowing the car to proceed with the good motor or motors.

Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad, Columbus,
Ohio.]

MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL.

A system called “multiple-unit control” or “train control” has come into use where it is desired to operate motors under a number of different cars in a train; all the motors being controlled from the head of the train or from any other point on the train where the motorman may be stationed.

There are several types of multiple-unit control. In all of them there is on each car a controller of some kind which controls the current flowing to the motors on that car. This controller is operated from a distance by means of electro-magnetic or electro-pneumatic devices controlled by circuits called _pilot circuits_, which circuits are connected to the motorman’s controller. All the pilot circuits of a train are connected together by means of train plugs which make the connections between the cars. The pilot circuits of each car are connected to a motorman’s controller on that car and this makes it possible to operate the train from any controller.

=Sprague Multiple-Unit System.= In the earliest form of multiple-unit control—which was that devised by F. J. Sprague—the motors on each car were controlled by an ordinary Type K controller, which had geared to its shaft a small pilot motor. The pilot motor was controlled by the pilot circuits connected with the motorman’s controller.

In the more recent forms of multiple-unit control, the use of main controllers having contact cylinders has been practically abandoned. The contacts are made instead by a number of electro-magnetic or electro-pneumatic contact devices sometimes called _contactors_.

=General Electric Train Control.= In the General Electric train-control system each contact for the motor circuits is made by a solenoid magnet which draws together two heavy copper contact fingers to establish the circuit. A magnetic blow-out coil in series with the contact is also provided. The contactors make contact only when energized by a small amount of current from the master or motorman’s controller. In Fig. 28_a_ is a diagram of the car wiring for a motor car equipped with this system. The motorman’s controller is a drum controller, but is comparatively small since it has to handle only the small amount of current necessary to operate the solenoid magnets of the contactors. It is evident that by connecting together the pilot circuits, which are connected to the motorman’s controller, so that the pilot circuits will be continuous for the entire length of the train, any number of cars equipped with the train-control system can be operated; and similar contacts will be made by the contactors under all the cars simultaneously, by virtue of the circuits established by the master controller at any platform.

Besides controlling the contactors, the master or motorman’s controller must control an electro-magnetic reversing switch, or _reverser_, to change the direction of car travel.

The handle of the motorman’s controller is provided with a push button, which must be depressed while the current is turned on. Should the motorman release this push, the circuit through the controller will be opened and all the contactors will fall open. This handle is called the _dead man’s handle_ because it is put there to provide for cutting off the current should the motorman fall dead or in a faint at his post.

The flow of the current in the control circuits, which operates the reverser and picks up the contactors on the several points may be followed in the diagram Fig. 28_a_. With the reverse handle in the forward position and the controller on the first point, current passes from the main circuit through a single-pole fused switch called the control switch and through the auxiliary blow-out coil to a finger bearing on the upper section of the master controller cylinder by which connection is established to the adjacent finger and thence to the reverse cylinder. It leaves this over wire No. 8, passing by way of the connection board and control cut-out switch to the forward operating coil of the reverser, thence through the forward blow-out coil and over wire 81, through the switch underneath contactor No. 2 and to ground G, by way of wire B 2 after passing through the fuse shown. The current through the operating coil of the reverser, having thrown this, the path is changed somewhat. The current then instead of passing from the reverser over wire 81, is conducted through wire 15, through the operating coils of contactors No. 1, 2, 3, and 11 in series, through the switch under contactor No. 12, and to ground through finger 1 of the controller. Contactors 1 and 2 are in multiple and when raised connect the trolley with the contactors controlling the resistance leads. Contactor 3 connects R to the line while contactor 11 places the two motors in series. The motors then operate with all of the resistance in circuit. When contactor 2 raises, it opens the switch immediately below it, making it impossible for the reverse to operate while current is flowing through the motors. On the second notch of the controller an additional path is opened by way of finger 3 of the controller. This path leads from finger 3 through four of the control circuit rheostat coils, through contactor No. 5 and to ground over 32. On the 3rd, 4th and 5th points contactors 6, 7 and 9 respectively are raised. The motors are then in full series. Between the 5th and 6th points all the control circuits are broken preparatory to starting the multiple connections of motors. On the 6th or the first multiple point the ground through finger 1 of the master controller is opened while a ground through finger 3 is established. The current from the reverser then, after raising contactors 1 and 2 as before, instead of passing through contactors 3 and 11, passes through the coils of 4, 12 and 13, through the switch under contactor 11 and to ground over finger 2. Contactor 12 connects motor No. 2 to R₇, while contactor 13 grounds No. 1 motor. The motors now operate in parallel and on successive notches of the controller, contactors 6, 7, 8, and 9 are raised, cutting out all of the resistance. The switches underneath contactors 11 and 12 make it impossible for 11 to raise with 12 and 13 or vice versa. The reason for this arrangement is very evident, as a direct ground for R₇ would result.

=The Westinghouse Electro-Pneumatic System of Control.= In this system of multiple unit or train control, the current to the motors is supplied through a set of unit switches or circuit breakers which are sometimes placed in a circular case or turret underneath the car and in other cases are ranged in a row under the car. The opening and closing of these unit switches is done with compressed air acting on a piston in an air cylinder. When the circuit is to be closed, compressed air is admitted behind the piston and forces it down against the tension of a seventy-pound spring, and the contacts are brought together. When the switch is to be opened, the air is let out of the cylinder and the spring forces the piston back. The air supply is obtained from the storage tanks of the air brake system. The valve controlling the air supply to the cylinder of each unit switch is operated by electromagnets which derive current from a seven cell, fourteen-volt, storage battery. The small master controller operated by the motorman, makes and breaks the battery connections to the magnets controlling the air valves.

An advantage of this over other multiple-unit systems is that by the use of battery current the control system is not disturbed by interruptions of the main supply of current. The chief advantage of this is that it makes it possible to reverse the motors and operate them as brakes in emergencies at all times.

The battery is charged from the main line through lamps as resistance, or may be charged by being connected in series with the air compressor motor.

In the accompanying diagram, Fig. 28_b_, there are two batteries shown which are charged in series with the compressor motor. By means of two double-pole, double-throw switches, first one and then the other battery is connected for charging and for service. The battery is charged in shunt with a resistance and a relay is connected in the circuit as shown, so as to open the battery circuit whenever the current through the motor stops, and thus prevent the battery discharging through the resistance.

The master controller has a double set of segments in order to decrease the length of the shaft. The handle, therefore, is moved only one-sixth of a revolution from off to full speed. The various circuits can be traced by the letters and numbers each wire bears, so that the circuits will not be gone over in detail. The first position of the master controller throws the reverser switch in the proper direction and also closes the main circuit breaker. On the second point the motors are connected in series with all resistance in circuit, and these resistances are automatically cut out one by one. On the next point of the controller the motors are in multiple and the resistances are automatically cut out in a similar manner. The automatic cutting out of resistances is accomplished by a limit switch in conjunction with operating and holding coils on the electro-pneumatic valves. This limit switch is a kind of a relay which has the current from one of the motors flowing through its coil and which acts to open a certain battery circuit which operates the electro-pneumatic valves whenever the current in the motor circuit in question exceeds the amount for which the limit switch is set. The automatic acceleration or cutting out of resistance is accomplished as follows:

Each electro-pneumatic valve has two magnet coils, one of which is an operating coil and the other a holding coil for holding the valve open after it is operated. When first the current flows through a circuit to one of the electro-pneumatic valves, it flows through the operating coil and operates the valve to close the corresponding switch or switches of the main circuit by turning the air into the cylinders. As soon as the main switch is closed, it cuts into circuit the holding coil of its corresponding electro-pneumatic valve and this coil will, with the battery current, hold the switch closed even though the circuit to the operating coil may be opened momentarily by the limit switch as each step of resistance is cut out. This prevents the switches from opening when they are once closed and allows the operating coils to open an air valve each time the current through the limit switch coil falls below the amount for which it is set. The contacts which close the holding coil circuit on each valve whenever a main switch is closed, are called interlocks and are indicated on the diagram.