Chapter II: Part 2

The sharpening is done with a slip-stone. A slip-stone used for beads and molding planes is wedge-shaped in the cross section, with rounded edges (see Fig. 86).

Where sharp corners occur in molding plane irons, triangular and square slips are used.

EXERCISE NUMBER 6.

It has already been mentioned that a bead is used in decoration. An application of the bead as a decoration is given in connection with the use of the rabbet in this exercise, the bead can be applied to door frames where glass panels, etc., are to be used.

In Fig. 87 is shown the working drawing. The features in this exercise to be specially noticed are the method of joining the bead so as to form a continuous bead around the edge, the method of laying out and cutting the shoulder so that the opening in the frame will be kept to size; the mortise and tenon used here is what is called a blind mortise and tenon.

Having noticed these features, proceed to prepare the material, by methods previously given, to dimensions called for in the drawing. The requirements for this exercise are that all measurements be correct, that all joints fit closely, that the angles be right angles, and that the work be finished in a neat workmanlike manner.

The material having been prepared, proceed to lay the work out.

Suppose this exercise to be the top of a glass panel door; the pieces on the sides of a door are called the stiles; the cross-pieces are called the rails, and, according to the position they occupy, are called respectively the top rail, the mid-rail, and the bottom rail. The pieces that stand in the center are known as muntings.

To lay out the work, mark out the mortise on the top of the stile about 1½ inches from the end. It will be noticed that the mortise is not so long as the top rail is wide; the piece that is cut out of the tenon is known as a rebate or rabbet. The reason for cutting out this piece and shortening the mortise is to strengthen the joint by leaving a piece of solid wood so that the mortise will not be open on the end. Fig. 88 shows the piece marked out for the stile; the arrow heads in the figure are known as witness marks and show between what lines the cutting is to be done.

The shoulders on the top rail and on the muntings are to be specially noticed. In laying out the top rail the opening between the munting and the stile is 4 inches. The shoulder on the face side of the top rail reaches to the farthest side of the bead so as to form a close fitting joint, and the shoulder on the back reaches to the bottom of the glass rabbet.

In order to keep the opening as called for in the drawing and to miter the bead so as to make it continuous around the edge, lay out the work in the following manner: Locate a line on the edge of the rail that will represent the side of the opening next to the stile, leaving enough for the tenon; then lay off the width of the opening; draw a line which will represent the end of the mortise for the munting; mark the length of the munting mortise. On the inside of each end of the mortise lay off the width of the bead which is stuck on the munting.

Return to the first line which represents the opening, and add to the outside of that the width of the bead and rabbet; then from those lines mark across the face from the line which will represent the bead, and across the back from the line which represents the depth of the glass rabbet.

Prepare the shoulder lines for the saw as directed in previous work. The lines to be drawn on the edge of the rail are shown in Fig. 89.

The shoulders on the munting are prepared in the same way as the rail. In marking the sides of the mortise and tenon use the _mortise_ gauge (see Fig. 73).

Cut the mortise and the tenon as directed in previous work, using a narrow chisel to remove the chips from the mortise. The bead is to be joined so that it will appear continuous; the method of joining is called mitering. A miter is made by cutting, at an angle of 45 degrees, the pieces to be joined.

The practical man will try many methods of cutting material in order to save time. For instance, if he is to make frames where the corners are to be mitered, he will make a miter box. This box (which is not a box at all) is three pieces fastened together to form a bottom and two sides, all of which must be true before being nailed together; then by cutting across the sides in both directions with the saw at an angle of 45 degrees and square to the bottom, the so-called miter box is made, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 90. Iron miter boxes are now in general use; of these Fig. 91 is a good representation.

In the mitering of the bead, a templet, which can be made by the student, is of great service.

A templet is a mould or pattern used as an auxiliary. The templet for this work is made in the following manner. Take a piece and rabbet out one corner as shown in Fig. 92; then cut the ends as shown in Fig. 93, which are at 45 degrees. With this templet placed on the work as shown in Fig. 94, with a chisel cut off the bead, which protrudes beyond the templet.

At the mortises remove part of the bead as shown in Fig. 95; then place the templet in position, and cut to the angle.

Care should be taken to see that the mortises are cut square to the edges on the ends, so that they will not squeeze the tenon when putting the work together.

After all cutting and fitting is done glue the work (see note on glue at the end of the book), and clamp the pieces together with handscrews. Handscrews are of the form as shown in Fig. 96.

In order further to strengthen this kind of joint, small iron pins may be driven into the back through the tenon, but they must not come through the work. The pins may be made by cutting wire brads off to the required length and driving them in and setting them below the surface with a nail set. After the glue is set finish off the work with a smooth plane.

EXERCISE NUMBER 7.

DOVETAILING.

One of the most important methods employed by the joiner is that termed dovetailing, which is of three kinds, namely, common, lap, and miter. Common dovetailing (see Fig. 97) shows the form of the pins or projecting parts, as well as the excavations made to receive them. Lap dovetailing is similar to this, but in that system the ends of the dovetails of the side A, Fig. 98, are shortened, and the recesses which are to receive them in B are not cut through when joined together; only the ledge is visible on the return side.

Miter dovetailing (sometimes also called secret dovetailing) conceals the dovetails, and shows only the miter at the edges. The manner in which this joint is made will be understood from Fig. 99, in which the two parts A and B are given, each part being lettered to correspond with the position it is to occupy when the sides are joined. Concealed dovetailing is particularly useful where the faces of the boards are intended to form a salient angle; that is, one which is on the outside of any piece of work; but when the faces form a re-entrant angle, that is, a joint to be seen from the inside, common dovetailing will answer best; for, first, it is stronger, because the dovetails pass entirely instead of only partly through; secondly, it is cheaper, for the dovetails which go through the whole wood take up much less time in working than where a miter has to be left; and further, if well executed, the dovetails are, by the very nature of the work, concealed internally.

Fig. 100 shows a variation of the common dovetail, used in attaching the fronts of drawers to the sides, and for similar purposes.

In Fig. 101 is given the working drawing of the common dovetail, and Fig. 102, A-B shows the details of each piece.

The stock can be prepared in one piece (having it long enough so that if a poor joining is made, the dovetails can be cut off and new ones cut on this piece). After planing, cut in two, square one end of each piece (the ends to be joined). To lay out the work, it is advisable to lay out the piece with the pins or tenons first. From the squared end measure in the thickness of the side; then mark on both sides, using the knife to draw the lines.

On the face side (which is the side that would be toward the inside of a box) lay off the lines shown for the pins in the detail marked A, Fig. 102. These lines can be drawn from the working edge with a gauge, or, if the ends are perfectly square, the square can be used (the lines being parallel with the edge). From these lines will be drawn the oblique lines across the end with the bevel set at a taper of 1 inch to 4 inches. The bevel can be set by the steel framing square, by the methods already given.

After drawing the lines saw down the required depth on the outside of the line, and remove the pieces between the pins or tenons by first boring a hole through the piece to be removed, then cutting from both sides with the chisel.

(The boring is done with the brace, Fig. 103, and the bit, Fig. 104. Bits are of different forms; Fig. 105 shows a number of different styles).

It will be necessary only to draw the lines across the end of the piece marked B, Fig. 102, as the marking of this piece for the recesses will be made by holding in position the piece already cut, and scribing or marking the pins or tenons, then squaring the lines across the end.

Great care must be taken in sawing the mortises if a perfect fit is desired. This can be done only by sawing on the inside of the line, cutting the lines in two. The pieces should go together by light driving, and should be perfectly square on the inside. If the joint is satisfactory take apart and glue together. After the glue is dry the joint can be smoothed and the ends of the pieces cut off and squared to the proper dimensions given in Fig. 101.

EXERCISE NUMBER 8.

DOOR FRAME FOR GLASS PANEL.

The preceding exercises are only a few of the methods employed by the workmen in joining pieces together. The experience gained in their execution will be of great help in the work that follows.

Fig. 106 shows the working drawing for a small frame door for a glass panel; the details and sections of the pieces required are shown in Fig. 107.

It must be taken into consideration that this door is actually to fit into an opening of a given size, and a little forethought will be necessary to work the material so that when all cutting and fitting is done the correct size will be the result of the labor expended.

Study the drawing and make out a bill of lumber, noting what work must be done in order to proceed intelligently with the work.

The outside size of the door is 9 inches by 12 inches, and the width of the stiles is 2 inches. The width of the top rail is 1½ inches, and the width of the bottom rail is 2 inches, so that (allowing a little on the length of the rails so that the tenons would project through the stiles about ⅛ inch, and the stiles would project beyond the rails about ½ inch, leaving what is known to workmen as horns) the bill of lumber would be:

{ 2 pieces 13 in × 2 in × 1 in.
Bill of Lumber { 1 piece 9¼ in × 2 in × 1 in.
{ 1 piece 9¼ in × 1½ in × 1 in.

It must also be taken into consideration that the door must be planed on the edges and the ends when it is all put together; it will be necessary to allow for this work when the material is being planed; having the stiles and rails a little over size in width will provide for this.

The laying out of this exercise is important, for there are several things to be considered; we must first find out the depth of the rabbet and the width of the molding before we proceed to lay out the work.

It will be seen from section drawing A, Fig. 107, that the molding from the edges of the piece to the quirk is ⁵/₁₆ inch, (this is the depth that the molding plane cuts); the rabbet is also the same depth; the opening between the stiles is 5 inches; to this must be added the depth of the molding and rabbet on both sides, which makes the distance between the shoulders of the rails 5⅝ inches.

A simple rule to follow in laying out work, where pieces are in pairs or right and left, is to place the pieces together with their faces out and their edges up.

Placing the rails in this position, lay out the rails. At the end draw a line across the edges. (It must be remembered that when the pieces were sawed out, they were left a little longer than the width of the door, so that the position of the first line is to be determined by the amount of extra stock left). From this line measure off the width of the door and mark across the other end. From these lines measure in the width of the stiles, which is 2 inches; this gives the width of the opening.

We saw from A, Fig. 107, that the depth of the molding and the rabbet was ⁵/₁₆ inch; so from the 2 inch line we measure back on each end ⁵/₁₆ inch; this gives the lines from which the shoulder lines are to be drawn across the faces and the backs of the pieces. Prepare shoulders for back-saw as directed in other work.

Now, taking the stiles, and placing them together by the rule given, lay out the lines for the extreme length of the door, and from one end measure in the width of the top rail (1½ inches). From the other end measure in the width of the bottom rail (2 inches). From these lines measure back the length of the mortises. It will be understood that by measuring is meant that lines are to be drawn.

Lines are also needed on the back edges of the stiles for the mortises, as the mortise is cut all the way through. To obtain those lines apply the method given in exercise No. 3; never mark lines across the outside of the work unless it is absolutely necessary, and then with pencil only, so that they may be cleaned off when the work is being finished.

The marking of the sides of the mortises and the tenons is done with the mortise gauge set to the dimensions given in the drawing, the gauge to be applied to the face side. Cut out mortises and tenons as in former work, using the ¼ inch mortising chisel which is found in the tool room.

(All gauging for mortises and tenons having been done from the face side, and all cutting having been done to the lines, it necessarily follows that the face side of the door will be flush. This is absolutely necessary for the molding and the rabbet to match.) Take the combination plow and set it to cut the rabbet, applying the fence to the face side and cutting the rabbets out of the corners opposite to where the plow is placed. See that the shoe is set to stop the plane cutting when the desired depth is reached.

Fig. 108 shows how this may be done. After cutting the rabbet, stick the molding (which in this case is called a Gothic or Scotia molding). Prepare the stiles as shown in Fig. 107, B.

The joining of the molding is to be what is known as coping. This is done in the following manner: The molding is left projecting beyond the inside end of the mortises, as shown in Fig. 107, B. The molding on the rails is to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees. This is done by taking the templet used in Exercise No. 6 and placing it on the rail as shown in Fig. 107, C, and cutting the molding with a chisel down to the tenons. This will give the line by which the coping is to be cut. The cutting is done by using the gouge, Fig. 109, one that is ground on the inside preferred; cut the coping deep enough to receive the molding which projects beyond the mortise, Fig. 107, B. The line which will show at the joining of the molding on the face of the exercise will look like a miter joint. This joint has the advantage of always being close, for no amount of shrinking or swelling will open it.

After all cutting is done, put together and see if all joints fit; having tenons cut as shown in Fig. 107, C. This allows room for wedges.

The wedges are cut with a back-saw out of a piece of board of the same thickness as the tenons. Fig. 110 shows how this is to be done.

If the joints are all satisfactory open them enough to allow the glue brush to go between the shoulders and the stiles; put a little glue on both sides of the tenons and drive together, putting clamps or large handscrews on to bring the joints up close; dip the points of the wedges in glue and drive them between the ends of the mortise and the edges of the tenon; remove the clamps and let the glue set before smoothing the sides of the work. The door, when the wedges are driven and clamps removed, will look as shown in Fig. 111.

The ends of the tenons and horns are sawed off and the edges planed. The gouge, (Fig. 109), has a blade that is curved in its section the whole length; gouges are of different sweeps. The bevel which is ground on the cutting edge may be on the concave or the convex side; and according to this grinding the tools are known as inside and outside gouges. The sharpening is done with a slip-stone.

After the glue is hard enough, smooth the surface with the smooth plane, and then take sand paper and finish the work. Put the sand paper on a block, being careful not to round the surfaces when using it.

EXERCISE NUMBER 9.

BENCH HOOK.

(This exercise may be omitted at the option of instructor.)

It will not be necessary to give many directions for this exercise, as the student by this time should have learned the sequence of operations in preparing material. The special points to be noticed in the working out of this exercise are that the sides are cut out with the rip-saw; the ends cut with the back-saw; the sides to be finished with the plane, using the rabbet plane to plane the corners at the stops at the ends, and the jack-plane for the rest of the surfaces. Surfaces are to be finished with sand paper and shellaced.

In Fig. 112 will be seen the working drawing. The thickness of stock required is 1¾ inches. The angle at which to set the bevel for the ends is ½ inch in 4 inches. All the other dimensions are found on the drawing.

After the piece is cut out and finished with sand paper, give it a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry from 8 to 10 hours. Then with No. 00 sand paper smooth the shellac (but do not cut through). After which give another coat. To obtain a glossy surface the pores of the wood must be filled with the varnish; by repeating the operation with the sand paper and giving another coat of shellac, a very good surface will be obtained.

Care must be taken in putting on the shellac varnish not to put it on too thick, as it sets or dries quickly and an uneven coat of varnish is unsightly. Spread it quickly; see that plenty of shellac is on the brush; do not go over it after it has once been spread evenly, as it will roll up in small lumps which will have to be left to dry before anything can be done to it, and then it will take a great amount of labor to smooth it.

This is one method of finishing with shellac varnish.

To prepare shellac varnish see note.

EXERCISE NUMBER 10.

BOX WITH SLIDING TOP.

There are so many ways in which a box may be made that it would be out of place here to enumerate them all. The joints used here are known as butt joints.

Fig. 113 is the working drawing; the details of the work are shown in Fig. 114.

The first step to be taken in making this exercise is to make out a bill of lumber. By the drawing we find the length of the box to be 12 inches, the width to be 7 inches, and the height to be 5 inches, allowing ⅛ inch on each end of the sides for finishing. The side pieces would be 12¼ inches. The thickness of the sides is ½ inch and the ends are let into the sides ¼ inch as shown in Fig. 114, A; this would make the length of the ends 6½ inches finished; one end being ½ inch narrower than the other to let the top slide over it in the groove on the sides. The width of one end would be 5 inches, and of the other 4½ inches. The bottom is to be let into the sides and ends in a groove which is ¼ inch deep. This would make the bottom 11½ inches long, 6½ inches wide, and ½ inch thick. The top slides in the groove shown in the section at B, Fig. 114, which is ¼ inch deep, and the end of the top goes into the groove in the end of the box, which is ¼ inch deep. This would make the length of the top 11¾ inches, the width 6½ inches, and the thickness ½ inch. The bill of lumber would be as follows:

Bill of Sides, 2 pieces 12¼ in × ½ in.
Lumber Top, 1 piece 11¾ in × 6½ in × ½ in. Finished
Cherry or End, 1 piece 6½ in × 5 in × ½ in.
Birch End, 1 piece 6½ in × 4½ in × ½ in. Size.
Bottom, 1 piece 11½ in × 6½ in × ½ in.

The material used in this exercise will be planed nearly to the thickness by the planing machine, enough being left to smooth the work. Select and lay out on a board the pieces required (allowing enough for the work on the edges). Saw out the pieces; then plane the edges by the methods given, omitting the planing of the face side and the back, but select and mark the sides for the working faces.

The extremities of the end pieces are to be planed perfectly square to insure a close fit against the sides. The method of planing the ends is to plane half way through from the edge, then plane from the other edge, being careful not to let the plane go all the way across, as the corner will be liable to break off.

It will not be necessary to plane the ends of the sides until the box is glued together, when they can be finished off even with the end.

To lay out and prepare the sides, place the pieces together, faces out and edges up, draw a line across the edges at the ends for the full length of the box, then measure back the thickness of the ends. From these lines mark across the faces of each piece. It will be noticed that one end of each side can be sawed across, but the other end where the top enters the grooves will have to be cut partly with a saw and the rest of the way with a chisel. Prepare the ends the same as the shoulders of the tenon, being careful not to cut the groove all the way across where the top enters.

Gauge the depth to which the ends go into the sides, and after sawing across remove the pieces from the corners with a chisel. It will be necessary only to have the end pieces the correct length, as there will be no lines to be drawn on them.

Take the plow plane and put a ¼ inch iron into it, and set it for the grooves that are cut out of the sides and the ends.

The grooves are all the same distance in from the edges and are all the same depth. To protect the bench while using the plow, get a piece of board and on it fasten pieces to hold the work while running the groove. This is done by sawing out three or four pieces as shown in Fig. 115, and fastening them to the board as shown in Fig. 116.

The tongue on the edges of the top and the bottom can be made with the plow by fastening the pieces in the vise and rabbeting out the corners as shown in C, Fig. 114.

After all cutting and fitting has been done smooth the inside of each piece with the plane; then take the steel scraper (shown in Fig. 117), and scrape the surfaces; then finish with sand paper; glue the corners; put the bottom in place and fasten together with hand screws and let dry. There are no nails used in the construction of this exercise.

Finish the outside of the box in the same way that the inside was done.

After finishing the outside and the top, use filler or stain to color the wood. The filler is a mixture of fine whiting and linseed oil with a little turpentine to act as a dryer, colored with any of the pigments desired. A little experience is necessary in using the colors to obtain the desired shade.

The filler comes already prepared, of a cream color, and must be colored as required. Apply the filler with a brush, and let it stand on the wood for a short time; then rub it off with cotton waste or a rag; then set the work aside until the surfaces are perfectly hard; then give a coat of shellac varnish and let it dry. Repeat the operation two or three times, using sand paper to smooth each coat of varnish.

After the varnish is thoroughly hard, take powdered pumice and oil or water, using a soft rag, and rub the surfaces until they are smooth; then take rotten stone and oil and rub until it has a fairly bright gloss. Rub with a soft dry cloth, then finish with the palm of the hand until a bright glossy surface is obtained.

For polishing see note.

PROBLEM IN TRUSS WORK.

The preceding work is what might be termed joiner work; the carpenter also is called upon to join timbers, and uses to a great extent the same joints that the joiner does, but the joiner’s work is usually where it must bear inspection, whereas the carpenter’s work is generally covered over either by plaster or casings. A single mechanic may be able to perform every kind of work that is required in the construction of a building; thus the two trades are usually spoken of as one, i. e., carpenter work.

In Fig. 118 is shown a method that is sometimes used in the construction of trusses. A truss is that part of a roof which supports the purlines, rafters and sheathing. A roof is the covering or upper enclosure of a building with the frame work by which it is supported. It may be of almost any shape. A light roof is usually of moderate span, without trusses, the rafters being supported by the walls or partitions of the building. A heavy roof is employed for wider spans, and the rafters are then supported by the purlines and trusses. A truss is usually required for spans of more than 20 feet.[A]

[A] Definitions from Ricker’s Trussed Roofs.

The span of a roof is the horizontal distance between the external surfaces of the walls of the building; its rise is a vertical let fall from its ridge to a horizontal line joining the intersections of the external surfaces of the walls and the roof surfaces. The inclination of a roof equals the angles between its surface and a horizontal.

The span of a truss is the horizontal distance between the centers of its end joints, and is usually the same as that between the centers of the walls, which support the truss. Its rise is the vertical connecting its span line and the center of the joint at the apex or highest point of the truss.

A member of a truss is any straight or curved piece which connects two adjacent joints of the truss.

The upper chord is composed of the members which form the upper edge or margin of the truss. Each half of the upper chord of a triangular truss is often called a principal. The lower chord is composed of the members forming the lower edge of the truss. If straight, this is termed the tie-beam or tie-rod; the first being a wooden timber; the second, one or more rods of iron.

The web members connect the joints of one chord with those of the other, and may be radials in case of curved trusses, diagonals, or verticals. They are commonly called struts where they resist compression, ties where they resist tension, and strut-ties where they resist compression and tension.

A joint is the connection of two or more members whose center lines must intersect at a common point if possible, this common point being the center of the joint.

The rafters of light roofs are not trussed, but rest directly on the walls, and support the sheathing and covering of the roof.

Heavy roofs are supported by trusses resting on the side walls.

The sheathing is supported by rafters which rest on the purlines, these being supported by the trusses.

The drawing, Fig. 118, shows the half of a truss; the members are the upper chord, the lower chord, and a strut.

Although carpenter work is usually of a rough character, the joints of a truss should fit snugly so that there will be no room to give when loaded; so, for the practice, the student will plane the stock either to the sizes given in the drawing or double the sizes, making the whole truss as time and circumstances permit. (This to be determined by the instructor.)

Fig. 119 shows what is termed a truss diagram; the distance from point A, to B, is the distance between the center of the walls, and the angle A, C, D, is the inclination or pitch of the roof. The pitch of the roof is determined by the distance the peak of the roof rises above the walls; thus if a roof has a quarter pitch, the peak would rise above the walls one quarter the width of the building; if half pitch the peak would rise one half the width of the building, etc. For simplicity in laying out this problem we will make the pitch one half. The points A, B, represent the span of the walls; also the lines A, C, and B, C, show the outside margin of the upper chord of the truss. By bisecting A, B, and erecting a perpendicular at D, to C, we divide, the triangle A, B, C, into two triangles, A, D, C, and B, D, C. Now, the line A, C, is the hypotenuse of the right-angled triangle A, D, C. We had one example of finding the length of the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle in Exercise No. 4. The workman who lays out rafters or trusses rarely takes time to calculate the hypotenuse of the triangle, but uses the steel framing square in the following manner. He obtains the horizontal distance at the bottom of the rafters, and the pitch. Take for example a truss that is 30 feet across from point to point, and a pitch of one half; then the distance the peak would rise would be 15 feet. Take the framing square and lay it on the chord, taking 12 inches on the blade and 12 inches on the tongue and mark off 15 triangles as shown in Fig. 120, which is half the width of the building. The rise was also 15 feet; so by using the square as shown, we obtain the rise and the run of the rafter. The line on one side of the square gives the angle at which the chord or rafter is to be cut at the peak. The line at the other end of the chord gives the line from which to measure the distance the tenon and shoulders go down into the tie-beam. The strut shown in the drawing, Fig. 118, has one joint square, and the other at an angle of 45 degrees. Where the pitch is one half, the angles are 45 degrees and right angles.

The line E, D, on the diagram represents a tie-rod, which by the construction of this truss would naturally tend to stiffen the structure by supporting the center of the tie-beam.

Wire, nuts, and washers are supplied (where the student makes a whole model) to make the tie-strut.

The student in writing out notes will make two sketches of trusses he may have observed on shop visits. The buildings visited almost all have trussed roofs, either wood or iron.

PROBLEM IN STAIR BUILDING.

Two or three students may work together on this problem.

Read all through before commencing work.

The stair and the hand-rail may be considered as one problem, since the hand-rail forms part of the completed staircase, but they are separated into two distinct problems for convenience in working them out.

In Fig. 121, is shown the plan and the elevation of the stair, the dimensions for each piece required are calculated by the student from this drawing. The name of each piece also is found in Fig. 121. The nosing is to be added to the width of the tread. The nosing is the part which projects beyond the front of the riser.

The thickness of the stringers is to be ½ inch, the risers ⅜ inches, the treads ⅜ inches, and the well-hole is to be built up as in practical work, as shown in Fig. 122.

FORM OF BILL OF LUMBER.

Length Width Thickness
Wall stringer “ “ “
Outside stringer “ “ “
Risers (5 pieces) “ “ “
Treads plus nosings (4 pieces) “ “ “
Top tread (1 piece) “ “ “
Well-hole piece “ “ “

After the material is prepared, proceed to make the templets. The templets required are shown in Fig. 122.

Templet E, is used to lay out the brackets for the risers and treads on the wall and outside stringers; templet G, to lay out the housing for the treads on the wall stringer; templet H, for the housing for the risers on the wall stringer.

Now take the piece for the wall stringer, A, Fig. 122, and draw the line X, Y; proceed to lay it out.

Commencing at the bottom, lay templet E on the piece as shown at 1 A, and draw lines for the riser and the bottom of the tread; then place the templet as shown by 2 A, (remembering that in order to have the bottom step the same height as the others the bottom riser must be the thickness of the tread narrower than the others. This will be seen by looking at the drawing, Fig. 122, which shows the height of the risers). Then place templet E, in position as indicated by 3 A, and draw the line for the riser and the tread, and so on until all the lines have been drawn which will represent the front of the risers and the bottom side of the treads.

After having drawn these lines, take templet G, and place it on the tread line as shown at J, Fig. 122, and draw the lines for the top of the steps, the nosing, and the wedges; the thickness of the step is to be measured up from the tread line.

Now take templet H, place it in position on the riser lines, J, Fig. 122, draw lines back of the riser line for the thickness of the risers and the wedges; then proceed to cut out the housing in the following manner:

Take a center or auger bit the same size as the thickness of the step and bore the depth that the housing is to be, as shown at 5 A, Fig. 122; then take a chisel and cut out as shown at 4 A, Fig. 122. This will give room to use the back-saw to cut the rest of the lines. Now take a chisel and remove the pieces to the depth required, which, in this case, is ¼ inch; cut for the risers and remove in the same manner.

In larger work of this kind a router should be used.

To lay out the outside stringer take templet E, Fig. 122, and mark as at B, Fig. 122. The riser is to form a miter with the front of the bracket; so it will be necessary to begin at the top step and saw the stringer off square to the face; then take a bevel (which will be set at an angle of 45 degrees) and mark from the riser line so that it will form a miter. Saw down this line; then saw the next tread line square to the face. Repeat with the bevel as before, and saw the next riser line, and so on until the bottom is reached. C, and D, Fig. 122, show how the risers and the treads are to be cut. The ends of the risers are to be cut at an angle of 45 degrees to fit the bracket on the outside stringer. The end of the step is cut as shown in order to receive the return nosing. The dovetails on the end are to receive the baluster which supports the hand-rail.

The piece F, which is to form the well-hole, is built up of pieces, then planed out with a round bottom plane. The method of fastening this piece to the stringer is to halve the stringer and to cut out the well-hole piece to receive it; then glue and screw together.

I, Fig. 122, shows what the top or landing step is to be.

The curves that are shown at the bottom and the top of the stringers are known as easings. The student will use his own ingenuity in forming the easing, remembering that a little glue will fasten pieces together, and that it is not necessary to take a board the whole width at those points of the stringers to accomplish this.

To put the stairs together after all the pieces have been prepared, place the bottom riser in place and fasten it in with glue and a wedge; then toe-nail it into the stringer from the back. Now fasten the outside stringer to the riser, bracing it into position; then fit the second riser and the first tread into place; then fasten with glue and wedges, and toe-nail the riser and the tread to the stringer. The treads will be nailed to the risers so as to unite the work firmly together.

Another method of fastening the riser to the tread is to groove the front edge of the tread and have a tongue on the riser, an illustration of which is shown in Fig. 123.

To decorate stairways mouldings are used; generally a cove moulding is fastened under the front and the end of the tread, an illustration of which is shown at Fig. 124. The hammer is used in this problem; it is hardly necessary to explain its use.

Toe-nailing is the driving of nails obliquely in order to fasten two pieces that may be at an angle to each other, as illustrated by Fig. 125.

PROBLEM IN HAND RAILING.

The student, not having had wood turning as yet, will not consider the making of the turned balusters, such work being introduced in the course in wood turning.

In commencing work on the hand railing, notice the several parts that have to be made; first, the newel post; second, the easing at the bottom of the stairs; third, the straight piece of railing; fourth, the return or twist at the top.

Fig. 126 shows the working drawing for the newel post, the explanation of which will be unnecessary. The easing is the bend in the rail before it strikes the newel post. The method of laying out a graceful easing is shown in Fig. 127. The straight piece of rail is worked out with the hollow and the round planes which are to be found in the tool room.

The return or twist requires to be developed by descriptive geometry, and to do this we will refer to drawing Fig. 121 in order to find the diameter of the well. It will be noticed that one half of the twist is parallel with the landing and that the curve for that half would be a true quarter circle, while the other half of the twist, that part which follows the incline of the stairs, would be part of an ellipse.

To demonstrate this, take a cylinder and cut it at an angle to its axis; the section through which the cylinder was cut would be an ellipse, an illustration of which is shown by Fig. 128. To develop this part of the ellipse lay out, on a board, by the following method, a full sized drawing of the rail required.

On the board draw a straight line which will be the center line of the well, and on any convenient point placing the leg of the compass (which will be set at the required radius), describe a semi-circle, which will represent the diameter of the well given in the plan in Fig. 121. Now from the semi-circle draw lines parallel to the center line, which will represent the outside stringer of the stair and the casing on the landing. Fig. 129 shows the development thus far.

The rail is to be 1¼ inches wide and the balusters to be ½ inch square. The side of the balusters which come on the outside of the stairs comes even with the stringer, and the rail is to be placed so that the balusters are on its center.

From the line which is already drawn to show the part which is parallel to the landing, draw a line for the center of the rail, and on each side of the center line lay out half the width of the rail. On the other half, which represents the outside stringer (the incline of the twist), draw the center line of the rail for the straight part; then draw lines for the width of the rail as on the other half. Now, to obtain that part of the ellipse required, take the pitch-board E, Fig. 122, and place it on the drawing as shown in Fig. 130; then draw lines from points X, Y, Z, perpendicular to the center line. Now set the compass to the distance A, B, and mark the distance A, B, on each side of the point Y. This gives the width of the piece required for the twist on the center line.

Describe the ellipse. The major chord would be 2 (E, F,) for the outside ellipse, and the minor chord is G, H, for the inside.

There are several methods used in describing an ellipse which the student no doubt has used in studying geometry, but the practical stair builder uses a trammel and block. The block is grooved through its center as shown in Fig. 131, and the trammel is a strip of wood; a pencil is fastened on one end and pins are fixed at points to be found by trial near the middle. Fig. 132 shows how the trammel is made. The pins slide in the grooves of the block, and the pencil marks the curve required.

Fig. 133 gives a very comprehensive idea of the pieces before they are worked down. The pieces at the right and at the top are the moulds, and the mould for the rail is on the top of the piece which is seen in the front of the figure.

After having laid out the lines as directed make the moulds or templets out of thin stuff; then mark the stock (out of which the pieces of the rail are to be made), by the templets, and saw them out, either with a compass saw, or with the band-saw where it is convenient to do so.

It will be noticed that the piece out of which the curved or twisted piece is made is thicker than the piece which is parallel with the landing.

After the pieces are sawed out, proceed to lay out the lines by which the rail is to be worked out. The templet E, Fig. 122, is used to obtain the perpendicular and the horizontal lines, from which is drawn the rectangle that is seen on the end of the rail, (in Fig. 133,) and the templet seen on the right (in Fig. 133) is used to obtain the curved lines on the top. Work off the surplus stock on each side of the rectangle with the draw knife and the spokeshave, then work off the top and the bottom, taking care to make a graceful curve on the top and the bottom. Then mark the shape of the rail on the end and work out.

In Fig. 134 is seen the finished twist developed from the pieces shown at Fig. 133.

NOTES.

TO DISSOLVE SHELLAC.

Put gum shellac into a glass or earthen vessel (a wooden box coated inside with glue makes a very good vessel in which to dissolve shellac), and pour over it alcohol enough to cover the shellac; keep stirring it until no lumps remain. This will take from two to three hours, according to quantity. If left in a tin can the shellac becomes very dark. To clear it when dark add a little oxalic acid and stir until cleared.

TO POLISH WITH SHELLAC.

Dissolve shellac in 90 per cent alcohol. Stir for two hours, though not continually; do not allow it to stand long enough for lumps to settle. After the shellac is dissolved the polish is ready for use.

Now take a piece of old soft woolen material, and form it into a ball about the size of an egg in a way to permit the lower side to remain smooth. On the latter pour about from one half to one thimbleful of the polish. Around the whole put a four-cornered piece of old linen about 10 × 13 inches, and fold it around the ball just as you have done with the woolen cloth but in such a way that you can hold it by the end of the goods. On the smooth side put a few drops of linseed oil, and then begin to polish the surface with a light and even pressure in a circular movement from one side to the other, forward and backward, until the entire surface receives a slight covering of polish. When the work becomes more difficult the ball requires moistening by a few drops of oil; at the same time put a few drops of oil on the plate, and the ball will move easily again. You must observe the work constantly. If everything is in order the plate as well as the ball will keep clean, but if the ball sticks to the plate and gets smeary then you will know that the polish is too thick and must be thinned with alcohol, which you are to put on the woolen cloth, previously removing the linen and putting it back on the other side; that is, turn the linen rag before putting it back on the ball. After having polished it sufficiently so that all the pores of the wood are filled and the surface has a nice gloss, put another soft linen rag around the ball, and moisten it with a few drops of alcohol; again polish as before until the flat surface has a high grade of smoothness and gloss and all the greasy appearance has disappeared. You must be very careful, however, to apply but a few drops of alcohol and to press these into the ball as well as possible; otherwise the strength of it may dissolve the polish in some places entirely. When at last the ball leaves but weak traces, then polish fast with strong strokes forward and backward until the ball is completely dry and the surface of the wood very glossy.

If you polish the finished surface once more after ten days the gloss will be nicer, as the surface gets harder with age.

If you want the polish to be colored use Curcuma for yellow, Sandal for red, and Spanish green for green. The color is to be put in a thin coat between two linen rags, over which should be put a woolen rag. While polishing some of the coloring will stick to the polish.

It is not to be expected that by working according to these directions you will learn how to polish perfectly, as there are always some unlooked-for difficulties, but generally you can tell what to do in any emergency.

GLUE.

How to dissolve and how to use.

Glue, which one workman finds all right and from which he obtains excellent results, may, in the hands of another workman, prove a failure from many causes, some of which may be that the glue is too thick, or it may have been chilled before the pieces were clamped together, or the glue is too thin. The workman has to know from experience just how thick the glue has to be for the work he has on hand. A hardwood piece of work requires a thinner glue than soft wood. The average consistency of glue should be about like that of thin syrup, and should be applied hot to the work. Sometimes in cold weather the glue “sets” quickly; then the pieces to be glued should be heated so that the glue may be kept soft. When the pieces are put together clamp them up quickly or rub them together, forcing out the surplus glue from the joint. When work is glued together it should stand from eight to twelve hours before being handled.

When the end grain of wood has to be glued, it should first be sized, that is, it should be given a coat of glue and let dry. This fills the pores of the wood so that when the joint is made it will hold.

There are two kinds of glue, animal and fish glue. Animal glue is made from the refuse of slaughter houses and tanneries, and the number of grades and colors are innumerable. Fish glue is made chiefly from the entrails and skin of fish, and is mostly in liquid form.

To prepare glue, put as much as is needed in the glue pot and cover over with cold water; then let it soak from six to ten hours, according to the quantity; after this place the glue pot in the water kettle or glue heater, and apply heat in any convenient way to the water, which in turn heats the glue. The use of the two vessels is to prevent the glue from burning.

Glue should always be used as freshly as possible, for then it holds better than when it is old.

It can be made to stand the weather by adding boiled linseed oil. Add the linseed oil to the glue slowly, stirring it all the time, the proportion of oil to glue being two ounces of oil to sixteen ounces of glue. Another method of preparing glue to stand the weather, is to use skimmed milk instead of water when preparing it.

TO TRUE OILSTONES.