Chapter IV: Words, Sentences, Paragraphs

+28. English Composite.+ The English language is composite, its words being drawn from various sources. The original and principal element is Anglo-Saxon, which prevailed in England for about five hundred years. By the conquest of William of Normandy, French was introduced into England, and was spoken by the ruling classes for about three hundred years. The amalgamation of the Anglo-Saxon and the Norman French--a process that was fairly completed in the fourteenth century--resulted in modern English. But numerous words came in from other sources. The early introduction of Roman Christianity into England, and the revival of learning at the close of the Middle Ages, introduced a large Latin element. The Celtic population of the British Isles contributed a few words, such as _pibroch_, _clan_, _bard_. A considerable Greek element has been introduced by theology and science, and English conquests and commerce have introduced words from almost every portion of the globe, of which _pagoda_, _bazaar_, _veda_, _bamboo_, _taboo_, and _raccoon_ will serve as examples.

The composite character of our language has made it very copious and very interesting. No other language has so many words, our largest dictionaries defining more than a hundred thousand. Every word has its history, and often a very interesting one. _Raccoon_, for instance, takes us back to the adventures of the redoubtable John Smith in Virginia. The word _bishop_ carries us back to the introduction of Christianity among the Anglo-Saxons at the close of the sixth century, and then through the Latin to the primitive days of the Church, when an _episkopos_, or overseer, presided over the newly founded congregations in the leading cities of Greece. _Taboo_ reminds us of English explorations and conquests in the islands of the Pacific. Thus nearly every word may be traced to its source and, rightly understood, is freighted with tales of conquest, battle, exploration, commerce, science, and invention. It carries with it its meaning and atmosphere of association, which the intelligent and skillful writer knows how to use to advantage.

+29. Anglo-Saxon and Latin Elements.+ The Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic element of our language embraces about sixty per cent of the words in common use. It may be regarded as the trunk, on which the other elements have been grafted as branches. The Latin element embraces about thirty per cent of an ordinary vocabulary, nearly two thirds of which, or about twenty per cent, comes through the French. The question has been raised as to which element is preferable. Should a writer's style be Saxonized or Latinized?

No absolute rule can be laid down. The two elements supplement each other. In general the Anglo-Saxon element comprises concrete terms, and the Latin element abstract terms. As Trench has pointed out, "The great features of nature, sun, moon, and stars, earth, water, and fire; the divisions of time; three out of the four seasons, spring, summer, and winter; the features of natural scenery, the words used in earliest childhood, the simpler emotions of the mind; all the prime social relations, father, mother, husband, wife, son, daughter, brother, sister,--these are of native growth and unborrowed."[57:1]

It is thus seen that the Anglo-Saxon element is full of force in its presentation of definite concrete objects; and it is a noteworthy fact that our best writers use a large proportion of native words. In ordinary discourse none of our best writers, perhaps, fall below seventy per cent of Anglo-Saxon. But in philosophy, which deals largely with abstract ideas, the Anglo-Saxon element, as in passages from Herbert Spencer, may fall as low as sixty per cent. It is interesting to estimate the percentage of Anglo-Saxon or Latin in an author. This may easily be done by counting the number of words in a given passage for the denominator, and the number of Anglo-Saxon or Latin words for the numerator of a common fraction, which may then be reduced to a decimal.

+30. What Element to Choose.+ A writer's style should be determined by higher considerations than the deliberate purpose to use as far as possible any single element of our language. Such a purpose degenerates into affectation, and becomes a mannerism. The following extract from a sonnet by Addison Alexander shows what may be done by short Anglo-Saxon words; but, because of its lack of musical rhythm and fine poetic quality, it is not to be commended as a model:

"Think not that strength lies in the big round word,
Or that the brief and plain must needs be weak.
To whom can this be true who once has heard
The cry for help, the tongue that all men speak
When want, or woe, or fear, is in the throat,
So that each word gasped out is like a shriek
Pressed from the sore heart, or a strange wild note
Sung by some fay or fiend."

With this may be compared the following lines from a sonnet by Longfellow, in which the musical effect of the Latin element will be clearly recognized:

"I saw the long line of the _vacant_ shore,
And the sea-weed and the shells upon the sand,
And the brown rocks left bare on every hand,
As if the ebbing tide would flow no more.
Then heard I, more _distinctly_ than before,
The ocean breathe and its great breast _expand_,
And hurrying came on the _defenceless_ land
The _insurgent_ waters with _tumultuous_ roar."

The use of Latin words often gives clearness and melody to style; and instead of a violent effort to Saxonize his writing, an author should clothe his thoughts in the diction that is most fitting and expressive.

+31. Diction.+ Aristotle truly said that "the beginning of style is correctness of diction." By diction is meant the choice and use of words. Good diction lies at the basis of good writing. Words are used to express ideas; and in view of this fundamental principle, it follows that they should be intelligible and correct. They should belong to our language; and hence the use of foreign words and phrases, except to supply a real want in English, is generally in bad taste. The use of provincial expressions, such as _tote_ for _carry_, is to be avoided, except in the portrayal of provincial character. Archaic words, as well as those that have not yet established themselves, should not be employed. For these two classes of words Pope has laid down an excellent rule in his "Essay on Criticism":

"In words, as fashions, the same rule will hold,
Alike fantastic, if too new or old;
Be not the first by whom the new are tried,
Nor yet the last to lay the old aside."

There is sometimes an obvious effort among young or half-cultured writers to seek after unusual words.

Unless the purpose of discourse is to be defeated, it is evident that the words used by a writer should have their accepted and exact meaning. The study of etymology, though sometimes misleading, is very helpful in learning the exact force of words. There are very few words in our language that are exactly synonymous; and while synonyms are often loosely used, the skillful writer is careful to distinguish their different shades of meaning. This nice use of words, impossible to the uncultivated mind, adds an exquisite charm to writing.

A very common fault of diction results in what is called "fine writing." This fault consists in the choice of high-sounding words to express commonplace ideas. It is the besetting vice of half-educated writers. In the hands of such persons a "fair lady" becomes a "female possessing considerable personal attractions," and "drinking liquor" turns into "ingurgitating spirituous stimulus." Except for purposes of wit or humor, this affectation is not to be tolerated.

+32. Sentences.+ In reading various authors, it is readily observed that they use different kinds of sentences. Some writers use short sentences, others long and complicated sentences. In comparing recent authors with those of two or three centuries ago, it will generally be found that shorter sentences are now more frequent. This brevity and simplicity of predication has resulted in greater clearness. But the constant use of short, simple sentences produces a disagreeable monotony.

Sentences are rhetorically distinguished as _loose_, _periodic_, and _balanced_. A _loose_ sentence is one in which the meaning is complete at one or more points before the end. Thus, at the beginning of "Pilgrim's Progress," we read: "As I walked through the wilderness of this world, I lighted on a certain place where was a den, and laid me down in that place to sleep; and as I slept, I dreamed a dream."

A _periodic_ sentence holds the meaning in suspense till the close. For example, Macaulay writes: "If any man could have succeeded in this attempt, a man of talents so rare, of judgments so prematurely ripe, of temper so calm, and of manners so plausible, might have been expected to succeed."

A _balanced_ sentence consists of two parts, the one corresponding to the other. In Johnson's famous parallel we read: "The style of Dryden is capricious and varied, that of Pope is cautious and uniform; Dryden obeys the motions of his own mind, Pope constrains his mind to his own rules of composition. Dryden is sometimes vehement and rapid; Pope is always smooth, uniform, and gentle."

A good style is apt to make use of all three kinds of sentences, which give an agreeable diversity to composition. The exclusive use of any one form produces monotony. In studying a writer's style, it is important to determine the prevailing type, as well as the average length, of his sentences. This investigation will give us some insight into a source of his weakness or power, and furnish a basis of interesting comparison with others.

Every sentence should have _clearness_, _unity_, _harmony_, and _strength_. Of these four qualities, _clearness_ is the most important; for without it the purpose of discourse is defeated. Apart from the right choice and position of words, clearness is secured by _unity_ of thought. This requires that the main subject retain a dominant place throughout the sentence. The writer should not allow himself to be switched off from the main proposition. _Harmony_ is attained by the choice of euphonious words, and by their arrangement in an agreeable or rhythmical order. _Strength_ is secured, in large measure, by the omission of unnecessary words. The error of repeating the same thought in different words is called _tautology_, while the use of more words than are necessary is known as _pleonasm_ or _redundancy_. The fault of redundancy is most likely to be found in the use of adjectives; and a chaste or classic style appears particularly in a severe self-restraint in the use of qualifying expressions.

+33. Paragraph.+ A paragraph consists of a group of sentences related in thought. It contains the discussion of a single phase of the subject. The nature of the paragraph determines its laws. The paragraph, like each sentence, should be characterized by unity. The opening sentence should contain the subject, or phase of the subject, to be discussed. The succeeding treatment should be cumulative in character, so that the reader is led on by a sense of the unfolding of the point under consideration.

There are various ways of expanding or building up the paragraph. It may be expanded by a process of definition. Frequently one specification after another is given till all sides of the subject have been presented. Sometimes a general statement is followed by concrete and individual instances. Again, the development of the paragraph takes the form of proof or illustration. But whatever may be the form of development, it should grow in importance till the conclusion.

The importance of paragraphing is often lost sight of by even experienced writers. Sometimes there is an absence of clear, definite thought. Hence it happens that we frequently find whole pages without any break to indicate the transitions of thought. Such writing is apt to leave a confused or obscure impression.

FOOTNOTES:

[57:1] Trench's "Study of Words," 155.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

28. Why is the English language called composite? Which is the principal element? How was French introduced? What was the origin of our present English? Whence came the Latin element? Name some other elements and their sources. What is said of the copiousness of our language? of the history of words? Give illustrations. 29. What per cent in daily use is Anglo-Saxon? What per cent is Latin? What proportion of the Latin element comes through the French? Which element is preferable? What classes of words are Anglo-Saxon? What per cent of Anglo-Saxon words is used by our best writers? How do you estimate the percentage? 30. How is the purpose to use a single element of our language characterized? Contrast the sonnets of Alexander and Longfellow. What should determine the writer's choice of words? 31. What did Aristotle say of _diction_? What is meant by _diction_? What qualities should diction have? What is said of the use of foreign words and phrases? What is a _provincialism_? Define _archaism_ and _neologism_. What is Pope's rule in regard to them? What is said of the study of etymology? of synonyms? of the nice use of words? What is meant by fine writing? Give an illustration. 32. What is the difference in the sentences of recent and older writers? What is the gain in short predication? What is the rhetorical classification of sentences? Define _loose_, _periodic_, and _balanced_ sentences. Illustrate. What is said of a good style? What four characteristics should a sentence have? Which is the most important? Why? What is meant by _unity_? How is _harmony_ attained? How is strength or energy secured? Explain _tautology_ and _redundancy_. By what is a classic style characterized? 33. What is a _paragraph_? What should be its chief characteristic? What should the opening sentence do? How is the paragraph expanded or developed? What is the effect of bad paragraphing?

ILLUSTRATIVE AND PRACTICAL EXERCISES

The following extracts should be tested by such questions as these:

What percentage of the words is Anglo-Saxon? What
percentage is Latin? From what sources are there
other words? Is the diction pure, appropriate, and
precise? Are there provincialisms, archaisms,
neologisms? Are synonyms carefully discriminated? Is
the diction high-flown? What proportion of sentences
are simple? complex? compound? What proportion are
_loose_? _periodic_? _balanced_? What is the average
number of words? Are the sentences clear? Do they
show unity of structure? Are they harmonious? Are
they forcible? Can any words be omitted without loss?
Is there tautology or redundancy? Are the paragraphs
well built up? By what means are they developed?

Yea, here they heard continually the singing of birds, and saw
every day the flowers appear in the earth, and heard the voice
of the turtle in the land. In this country the sun shineth
night and day; wherefore this was beyond the valley of the
Shadow of Death, and also out of the reach of Giant Despair;
neither could they from this place so much as see
Doubting-Castle. Here they were within sight of the City they
were going to: also here met them some of the inhabitants
thereof; for in this land the shining ones commonly walked,
because it was upon the borders of heaven.--BUNYAN.

God that made the world and all things therein, seeing that he
is Lord of heaven and earth, dwelleth not in temples made with
hands; neither is worshipped with men's hands, as though he
needed any thing, seeing he giveth to all life, and breath,
and all things; and hath made of one blood all nations of men
for to dwell on all the face of the earth, and hath determined
the times before appointed, and the bounds of their
habitation; that they should seek the Lord, if haply they
might feel after him, and find him, though he be not far from
every one of us; for in him we live, and move, and have our
being; as certain also of your own poets have said, for we are
also his offspring.--PAUL.

Criticism, either didactic or defensive, occupies almost all
his prose, except those pages which he has devoted to his
patrons; but none of his prefaces were ever thought tedious.
They have not the formality of a settled style, in which the
first half of the sentence betrays the other. The clauses are
never balanced, nor the periods modeled; every word seems to
drop by chance, though it falls into its proper place. Nothing
is cold or languid; the whole is airy, animated, and vigorous;
what is little, is gay; and what is great, is splendid. He may
be thought to mention himself too frequently; but while he
forces himself upon our esteem, we cannot refuse him to stand
high in his own. Everything is excused by the play of images
and the spriteliness of expression. Though all is easy,
nothing is feeble; though all seems careless, there is nothing
harsh; and though, since his earlier works, more than a
century has passed, they have nothing yet uncouth or
obsolete.--SAMUEL JOHNSON.

The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the
first century of the Christian era, was the province of
Britain. In this single instance, the successors of Cæsar and
Augustus were persuaded to follow the example of the former,
rather than the precept of the latter. The proximity of its
situation to the coast of Gaul seemed to invite their arms;
the pleasing though doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery
attracted their avarice; and as Britain was viewed in the
light of a distinct and insulated world, the conquest scarcely
formed any exception to the general system of continental
measures. After a war of about forty years, undertaken by the
most stupid, maintained by the most dissolute, and terminated
by the most timid of all the emperors, the far greater part of
the island submitted to the Roman yoke.
GIBBON.

A mob is a society of bodies voluntarily bereaving themselves
of reason, and traversing its work. The mob is man voluntarily
descending to the nature of the beast. Its fit hour of
activity is night. Its actions are insane, like its whole
constitution. It persecutes a principle; it would whip a
right; it would tar and feather justice by inflicting fire and
outrage upon the houses and persons of those who have these.
It resembles the prank of boys who run with fire-engines to
put out the ruddy aurora streaming to the stars. The inviolate
spirit turns that spite against the wrong-doers. The martyr
cannot be dishonored. Every lash inflicted is a tongue of
fame; every prison a more illustrious abode; every burned book
or house enlightens the world; every suppressed or expunged
word reverberates through the earth from side to side. Hours
of sanity and consideration are always arriving to
communities, as to individuals, when the truth is seen, and
the martyrs are justified.--EMERSON.

I deny not but that it is of greatest concernment, in the
Church and Commonwealth, to have a vigilant eye how books
demean themselves, as well as men; and thereafter to confine,
imprison, and do sharpest justice on them as malefactors. For
books are not absolutely dead things, but do contain a potency
of life in them to be as active as that soul was whose progeny
they are; nay, they do preserve as in a vial the purest
efficacy and extraction of that living intellect that bred
them. I know they are as lively, and as vigorously productive,
as those fabulous dragon's teeth; and, being sown up and down,
may chance to spring up armed men. And yet, on the other hand,
unless wariness be used, as good almost kill a man as kill a
good book: who kills a man kills a reasonable creature, God's
image; but he who destroys a good book kills reason itself,
kills the image of God, as it were, in the eye. Many a man
lives a burden to the earth; but a good book is the precious
life-blood of a master-spirit, embalmed and treasured up on
purpose to a life beyond life.--MILTON.

Thus the Puritan was made up of two different men, the one all
self-abasement, penitence, gratitude, passion, the other
proud, calm, inflexible, sagacious. He prostrated himself in
the dust before his Maker; but he set his foot on the neck of
his king. In his devotional retirement, he prayed with
convulsions, and groans, and tears. He was half-maddened by
glorious or terrible illusions. He heard the lyres of angels
or the tempting whispers of fiends. He caught a gleam of the
Beatific Vision, or woke screaming from dreams of everlasting
fire. But when he took his seat in the council, or girt on his
sword for war, these tempestuous workings of the soul had left
no perceptible trace behind them. People who saw nothing of
the godly but their uncouth visages, and who heard nothing
from them but their groans and their whining hymns, might
laugh at them. But those had little reason to laugh who
encountered them in the hall of debate or in the field of
battle.--MACAULAY.

More manifest still are the physiological benefits of
emotional pleasures. Every power, bodily and mental, is
increased by "good spirits," which is our name for a general
emotional satisfaction. The truth that the fundamental vital
actions--those of nutrition--are furthered by laughter-moving
conversation, or rather by the pleasurable feeling causing
laughter, is one of old standing; and every dyspeptic knows
that in exhilarating company, a large and varied dinner,
including not very digestible things, may be eaten with
impunity, and, indeed, with benefit, while a small, carefully
chosen dinner of simple things, eaten in solitude, will be
followed by indigestion.--HERBERT SPENCER.

NOTE

In addition to the foregoing extracts, some of those previously given, in poetry as well as prose, may be studied in the same way. Furthermore, the student may be required to examine more at length a few authors designated by the teacher, in order to determine (1) the proportion of simple, complex, and compound sentences; (2) the proportion of loose, periodic, and balanced sentences; (3) the percentage of Anglo-Saxon or Latin words; and (4) the average number of words in a sentence. The results will give occasion for interesting and instructive comparisons.