Chapter II: Of Composition (1)

All compound words in Gaelic consist of two component parts, exclusive of the derivative terminations enumerated in the preceding Chapter. Of these component parts, the former may be conveniently named the Prepositive, the latter the Subjunctive term. It sometimes happens, though rarely, that the Subjunctive term also is a compound word, which must itself be decompounded in order to find out the Root.

In compounding words, the usual mode has been, to prefix to the term denoting the principal idea the word denoting the accessory idea or circumstance by which the signification of the principal word is modified. Accordingly we find Nouns, Adjectives, and Verbs modified by prefixing to them a Noun, an Adjective, a Verb, or a Preposition.

In forming compound words, a Rule of very general application is, that when the Subjunctive term begins with a Consonant, it is aspirated. From this Rule, however, are to be excepted, 1. Words beginning with _s_ followed by a mute, which never admit the aspirate; 2. Words beginning with a Lingual when the Prepositive term ends in _n_; 3. A few other instances in which there is an euphonic agreement between the Consonants thus brought into apposition, which would be violated if either of them were aspirated.

These observations will be found exemplified in the following Compounds:-- {169}

I. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A NOUN PREFIXED.

_Nouns Compounded with a Noun._

Beart _dress, equipage_, ceann _head_--ceann-bheart _head-dress, armour for the head_.

F[`a]inn _a ring_, cluas _the ear_--cluas-fhainn _an ear-ring_.

Galar _a distemper_, crith _shaking_--crith-ghalar _distemper attended with shaking, the palsy_.

Oglach _a servant_, bean (in composition, ban) _a woman_--banoglach _a female servant_.

F[`a]idh _a prophet_, ban-fhaidh _a prophetess_.

Tighearn _a lord_, baintighearn _a lady_.

_Adjectives Compounded with a Noun._

Geal _white_, bian the _skin_--biangheal _white-skinned_.

Lom _bare_, cas the _foot_--caslom _bare-foot_; ceann the _head_--ceannlom _bare-headed_.

Biorach _pointed, sharp_, cluas the _ear_--cluasbhiorach _having pointed ears_.

_Verbs Compounded with a Noun._

Luaisg _to rock_ or _toss_, tonn _a wave_--tonn-luaisg _to toss on the waves_.

Sleamhnuich _to slide_, c[`u]l the _back_--c[`u]l-sleamhnuich _to back-slide_.

Folaich _to hide_, feall _deceit_--feall-fholaich _to lie in wait_.

II. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH AN ADJECTIVE PREFIXED.

_Nouns Compounded with an Adjective._

Uisge _water_, fior _true, genuine_--fioruisge _spring-water_.

Airgiod _silver_, beo _alive_--beo-airgiod _quick-silver_.

Sgolt _a crack_, crion _shrunk, decayed_--crionsgolt _a fissure in wood caused by drought or decay_.

Criochan _bounds, regions_, garbh _rough_--garbhchriochan _rude mountainous regions_. {170}

_Adjectives Compounded with an Adjective._

Donn _brown_, dubh _black_--dubh-dhonn _dark-brown_.

Gorm _blue_, dubh _black_--dubh-ghorm _dark-blue_.

Briathrach (not in use) from briathar _a word_, deas _ready_--deas-bhriathrach _of ready speech, eloquent_.

Seallach (not in use) from sealladh _sight_, geur _sharp_--geur-sheallach _sharp-sighted_.

_Verbs Compounded with an Adjective._

Ruith _to run_, dian _keen, eager_--dian-ruith _to run eagerly_.

Lean _to follow_, geur _sharp, severe_--geur-lean _to persecute_.

Buail _to strike_, trom _heavy_--trom-buail _to smite sore, discomfit_.

Ceangail _to bind_, dl[`u]th _closer_--dl[`u]th-cheangail _to bind fast_.

III. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A VERB PREFIXED.

Art _a stone_, tarruing _to draw_--tarruing-art _load-stone_.

S[`u]il _the eye_, meall _to beguile_--meall-shuil _a leering eye_.

IV. WORDS COMPOUNDED WITH A PREPOSITION.

Radh _a saying_, roimh _before_--roimh-radh _preface, prologue_.

Solus _light_, eadar _between_--eadar-sholus _twilight_.

M[`i]nich _to explain_, eadar-mh[`i]nich _to interpret_.

Gearr _to cut_, timchioll _about_--timchioll-ghearr _circumcise_.

Lot _to wound_, troimh _through_--troimh-lot _to stab, pierce through_.

Examples of words compounded with an inseparable Preposition are already given in Part II. Chap. VII.

Compound Nouns retain the gender of the principal Nouns in their simple state. Thus crith-ghalar _palsy_, is masculine, because the principal Noun, Galar _distemper_, is masculine, although the accessary Noun crith, by which galar is qualified, be feminine. So c[`i]s-mhaor is masculine though c[`i]s be a feminine Noun, Luke xviii. 11; c[`i]s-mheasadh ought also to be masculine, Acts v. 37. Except Nouns compounded with {171} Bean _woman_, which are all feminine, though the simple principal Noun be masculine, because the compound word denotes an object of the female sex; as, oglach _a servant_, masculine, but banoglach _a maid-servant_, feminine, caraid _a friend_, masculine, bancharaid _a female friend_, feminine.

Compound words are declined in the same manner as if they were uncompounded.

In writing compound words, the component parts are sometimes separated by a hyphen, and sometimes not. The use of the hyphen does not seem to be regulated by any uniform practice. In the case of two vowels coming in apposition, the insertion of a hyphen seems indispensable; because, by the analogy of Gaelic orthography, two Vowels, belonging to different syllables, are scarcely ever placed next to each other without some mark of separation[118]. Thus so-aomaidh, _easily induced_, _propense_; so-iomchair, _easily carried_; do-innsidh, _difficult to be told_; and not soamaidh, doinnsidh, &c., without the hyphen.

It was formerly remarked, Part I., that almost all Gaelic Polysyllables are accented on the first syllable. When, in pronouncing compound words, the accent is placed on the first syllable, the two terms appear to be completely incorporated into one word. When, on the other hand, the accent is placed, not on the first syllable of the Compound, but on the first syllable of the Subjunctive term, the two terms seem to retain their respective powers, and to produce their effect separately, and instead of being incorporated into one word, to be rather collaterally connected. A rule may then be derived from the pronunciation for the use of the hyphen in writing Compounds, viz., to insert the hyphen between the component parts, when the Prepositive term is not accented. Thus it is proposed to write aineolach _ignorant_, antromaich _to exaggerate_, comhradh _conversation_, dobheart _a bad action_, {172} soisgeul _Gospel_, banoglach _a maidservant_, &c., without a hyphen; but to write an-fhiosrach _unacquainted_, ban-fhiosaiche _a female fortune-teller_, co-fhreagarach _corresponding_, so-fhaicsin _easily seen_, &c., with a hyphen[119]. By this rule, a correspondence is maintained, not only between the writing and the pronunciation, but likewise between the written language and the ideas expressed by it. A complex idea, whose parts are most closely united in the mind, is thus denoted by one undivided word; whereas an idea composed of parts more loosely connected, is expressed by a word, whereof the component parts are distinguished, and exhibited separately to the eye. Thus also the Gaelic scholar would have one uniform direction to follow in reading, viz., to place the accent always on the first syllable of an undivided word, or member of a word. If any exception be allowed, it must be only in the case already stated of two vowels coming in apposition, as beo-airgiod _quicksilver_.

Let it be observed that, according to this rule, an Adjective preceding a Noun can never, but in the case just mentioned, be connected with it by a hyphen. For if the accent be wholly transferred from the Noun to the Adjective, then they are to be written as one undivided word; as, garbhchriochan _highlands_; but if the accent be not so transferred, the Adjective and the Noun are to be written as two separate words; as, seann duine _an old man_, deagh chomhairle _good advice_, droch sgeul _a bad tale_.

It not unfrequently happens that two Nouns, whereof the one qualifies the meaning of the other, and connected by the common grammatical relation of the one governing the other in the Genitive, come through use to be considered as denoting only one complex object. The two Nouns in this case are sometimes written together in one word, and thus form a Compound of a looser structure than those which have been considered. Such are ceann-cinnidh, _the head of a tribe or {173} clan_; ceann-tighe, _the head of a family_; ceann-feadhna, _the leader of an army_; fear-turnis, _a traveller_; luchd-faire, _watchmen_; iobairt-pheacaidh, _a sin-offering_; urlar-bualaidh, _a threshing-floor_; fear-bainse, _a bridegroom_; crith-thalmhain, _an earth-quake_; crios-guailne, _a shoulder-belt_, &c. In writing Compound Nouns of this description, the two Nouns are never written in one undivided word, but always separated by a hyphen. It comes to be a question, however, in many instances of one Noun governing another in the Genitive, whether such an expression is to be considered as a compound term, and the words to be connected by a hyphen in writing, or whether they are to be written separately, without any such mark of composition. An observation that was made in treating of the Government of Nouns may help us to an answer, and furnish an easy rule in the case in question. It was remarked that when one Noun governed another in the Genitive, the Article was never joined to both; that for the most part, it was joined to the Noun governed, but sometimes to the Noun governing, that in the latter case, the two Nouns seemed to figure as one compound term, denoting one complex idea. If this last remark hold true, it may be laid down as a rule that in every instance of a Noun governing another in the Genitive, where the Article is or may be prefixed to the _governing Noun_, there the two Nouns ought to be connected by a hyphen in writing; otherwise not. Thus we can say, without impropriety, an ceann-feadhna, _the commander_; an luchd-coimhid, _the keepers_; and the Nouns are accordingly considered as Compounds, and written with a hyphen. But it would be contrary to the usage of the language to say, am mullach craige, _the top of a rock_; an t-uachdar talmhain, _the surface of the ground_. Accordingly it would be improper to write a hyphen between the Nouns in these and similar examples.

The different effects of these two modes of writing, with or without the hyphen, is very observable in such instances as the following:--Ainm d[`u]thcha, _the name of a country_, as Scotland, Argyle, &c.; ainm-d[`u]thcha, _a country name_, or {174} _patronymic_, as Scotsman, Highlander, &c.; clann Donuill, _Donald's children_; clann-Donuill, _the Macdonalds_.

Though few have exerted themselves hitherto in explaining the structure of the Gaelic language, in respect of its inflections, construction, and collocation, this cannot be said to be the case with regard to Etymology. Much has been attempted, and something has been done, toward analysing single vocables, particularly names of places. But this analysis seems to have been too often made rather in a way of random conjecture than by a judicious regard to the analogy of Derivation and Composition. The passion for analysing has even induced some to assert that all true Gaelic Primitives consist of but one syllable, that all Polysyllables are either derived or compounded, and therefore that there is room to search for their etymon. This seems to be carrying theory too far. It appears a fruitless and rather chimerical attempt to propose a system of directions by which all Polysyllables whatever may be resolved into component parts, and traced to a root of one syllable. All I have thought it necessary to do is to methodize and exemplify those general principals of Etymology which are obvious and unquestioned, and which regulate the composition and derivation of those classes of words whereof the analysis may be traced with some probability of success.

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{175}

EXERCISES IN READING, EXPLAINING, AND ANALYZING.

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_From an Address to the Soldiers of a Highland Regiment_, by D. SMITH, M.D.

Theid an deadh shaighdear gu h-aobhach suilbhear an d[`a]il gach tuiteamais a thig 'n a chrannchur. Ach 's e a's n[`o]s do 'n droch shaighdear a bhi gearan 's a' talach air gach l[`a]imh; beadaidh ri l[`i]nn socair, is diombach ann eiric caoimhneis; lag-chridheach ri h-am cruachais, agus d[`i]blidh ri h-uchd feuma.

_In English._

The good soldier will advance, with spirit and cheerfulness, to any service that falls in his way. But it is the practice of the bad soldier to be complaining and grumbling on all occasions; saucy in time of ease, and peevish in return for kindness; faint-hearted under hardships, and feeble in encountering exigency.

_Analysis._

_Theid._ 3. per. sing. Fut. Affirm, of the irregular Verb _Rach_, go.

_An._ Nom. sing. of the Article _an_, the.

_Deadh._ An indeclinable Adjective, always placed before its Noun.

_Shaighdear._ Nom. sing. of the mas. noun _saighdear_, a soldier, in the aspirated form, because preceded by the Adj. _deadh_. Gram. p. 145. {176}

_Gu._ A proper Preposition, to, for.

_Aobhach._ An Adject. of the first Declension, joyous, having an _h_ before it, because preceded by the Prep. _gu_. Gram. p. 161. _Gu h-aobhach_, joyfully, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase. Gram. p. 109.

_Suilbhear._ An Adject. cheerful. _Gu_ is to be supplied from the former phrase; _gu suilbhear_, cheerfully, an adverbial phrase.

_An d[`a]il._ An improper Preposition, to meet, to face, to encounter; made up of the proper Prep. _ann_, in, and the Noun _d[`a]il_, meeting. Gram. p. 121.

_Gach._ An indeclinable Adj. Pronoun, each, every.

_Tuiteamais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _tuiteamas_, an occurrence, accident, governed in the Gen. case by the improp. Prep. _an d[`a]il_ (Gram. p. 161), derived from the Verb _tuit_. Infinitive _tuiteam_, to fall, befal.

_A._ Nom. sing. Relative Pronoun, who, which.

_Thig._ Fut. Affirm. of the irregular Verb _thig_, come.

_'N._ Contracted for _ann_, a proper Prep., in.

_A._ Possessive Pronoun, his.

_Chrannchur._ Mas. Noun, a lot; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _ann_; in the aspirated form after the adject. Pron. _a_, 'his'--compounded of _crann_, a lot, and _cur_, casting, the Infinitive of the Verb _cuir_, to put, cast.

_Ach._ Conjunction, but. Hebr. [Hebrew: AD].

_'S._ for _is_, Pres. Indic. of the Verb _is_, I am. _'S e a 's_ it is [that] which is.

_N[`o]s._ Noun mas., custom, habit.

_Do._ Prep. to.

_An._ the article, the.

_Droch._ indeclinable Adject. bad; always placed before its Noun.

_Shaighdear._ mas. Noun, soldier; governed in the Dative by the Prep. _do_; in the aspir. form after the Adject. _droch_. {177}

_A bhi._ for _do bhi_ or _do bhith_, Infinit. of the irregular Verb _bi_, to be.

_Gearan._ Infin. of the obsolete Verb _gearain_, to complain, _ag_ being understood; _ag gearan_ equivalent to a present Participle, complaining. Gram. p. 86.

_'S._ for _agus_, conjunction, and.

_A' talach._ for _ag talach_, complaining, repining; Infin. of the obsolete Verb _talaich_, to complain of a thing or person.

_Air._ Prep. on.

_Gach._ Adject. Pron. indeclin. each, every.

_L[`a]imh._ dat. sing. of the fem. Noun _l[`a]mh_, a hand; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _air_, on. _Air gach l[`a]imh_, on every hand.

_Beadaidh._ Adject. nice, fond of delicacies, saucy, petulant.

_Ri._ Prep. to, at.

_L[`i]nn._ Noun fem. an age, period, season. _Ri l[`i]nn_, during the time of any event, or currency of any period; _ri l[`i]nn Fhearghuis_, in the time, or reign of Fergus; _gu faigheamaid s[`i]th r' ar l[`i]nn_, that we may have peace in our time.

_Socair._ Noun fem., ease, conveniency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun _l[`i]nn_.

_Is._ for _agus_, Conjunct. and.

_Diombach_, or _di[`u]mach_. Adject. displeased, indignant; derived from the Noun _diom_ or _di[`u]m_, indignation.

_Ann._ Prep. governing the Dat. in.

_Eiric._ Noun femin., requital, compensation; governed in the Dat. by the Prep. _ann_.

_Caoimhneis._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _caoimhneas_, kindness; governed in the Gen. by the noun _eiric_, derived from the Adject. _caomh_, gentle, kind.

_Lag-chridheach._ Adject. faint-hearted; compounded of the Adject. _lag_, weak, and _cridhe_, the heart.

_Ri._ Prep. to, at. {178}

_Am._ Noun masc., time; governed in the Dat. case by the Prep. _ri_, and preceded by _h_. Gram. p. 161.

_Cruachais._ Gen. sing. of the mas. Noun _cruachas_, hardship, strait; governed in the Gen. by the noun _am_; compounded of the Adject. _cruaidh_, hard, and _c[`a]s_, danger, extremity.

_Agus._ Conjunct., and.

_D[`i]blidh._ Adject., feeble, silly.

_Uchd._ Noun mas. breast, chest; hence it signifies an ascent, a steep; in the Dat. case, preceded by _h_, after the Prep. _ri_: _ri h-uchd_, in ascending, breasting, encountering, assailing.

_Feuma._ Gen. sing. of the Noun mas. _feum_, necessity, exigency; governed in the Gen. by the Noun _uchd_.

* * * * *

_Extract from an old Fingalian Tale or Legend._

Dh' imich Garbh mac Stairn agus Dual a dh' fhaicinn Fhinn agus a threun fheara colgach, iomraiteach ann an gniomharaibh arm. Bha Fionn 's an [`a]m sin 'n a thigheadas samhraidh am Buchanti. 'N an turus d'a ionnsuidh, ghabh iad beachd air gach gleann agus faoin mhonadh, air gach allt agas caol choirean. Ghabh iad sgeul de gach coisiche agus gach fear a thachair 'n an c[`o]ir. Ann an gleann nan cuach agus nan lon, chunnaic b[`u]th taobh sruthain; chaidh a steach, dh' iarr deoch; dh' eirich ribhinn a b' aluinne snuadh a dh' fh[`a]ilteachadh an turuis le s[`i]th. Thug i biadh dhoibh r'a itheadh, dibhe ri [`o]l; dh' iarr an sgeul le cainnt thl[`a]. Bhuail gaol o a s[`u]il an Garbh borb, agus dh' innis cia as doibh. "Thainig sinn o th[`i]r nan crann, far an lionor sonn--mac righ Lochlainn mise--m' ainm Garbh na'm b' aill leat--esan Dual, o th[`i]r nam beann, a thuinich ann Albainn o thuath--a ghabhail cairdeis gun sg[`a]th agus aoidheachd o 'n [`a]rd righ Fionn, sud f[`a]th ar turuis a Chiabh na maise--ciod am bealach am buail sinn? seol ar cos gu teach Fhinn, bi dhuinn mar i[`u]l, is gabh duais." "Duais {179} cha do ghabh mi riamh, ars an nighean bu bhl[`a]ithe s[`u]il 's bu deirge gruaidh; cha b' e sud [`a]bhaist Theadhaich nam beann ['e]ilde, 'g am bu lionor d[`a]imheach 'n a thalla, 'g am bu tric tathaich o thuath--ni mise dhuibh i[`u]l." Gu gleann-s[`i]th tharladh na fir; gleann an tric guth feidh is loin; gleann nan glas charn is nan scor; gleann nan sruth ri uisg is gaoith. Thachair orra buaghar bho, is rinn dhoibh i[`u]l; thug dhoibh sgeul air duthaich nan creag, air fir agus air mnaibh, air f[`a]s shliabh agus charn, air neart feachd, air rian nan arm, air miann sloigh, agus craobhthuinidh nam Fiann.

_In English._

Garva the son of Starno and Dual, went to visit Fingal and his brave warriors, renowned for feats of arms. Fingal was at that time in his summer residence at Buchanti. On their journey thither, they took a view of every valley and open hill, every brook and narrow dell. They asked information of every passenger and person that came in their way. In the glen of cuckoos and ouzles they observed a cottage by the side of a rivulet. They entered; asked drink, a lady of elegant appearance arose and kindly bade them welcome. She gave the food to eat, liquor to drink. In mild speech she inquired their purpose. Love from her eye smote the rough Garva, and he told whence they were. "We are come from the land of Pines, where many a hero dwells--the son of Lochlin's king am I--my name is Garva, be pleased to know--my comrade is Dual, from the land of hills, his residence is in the north of Albion. To accept the hospitality and confidential friendship of the mighty prince Fingal, this is the object of our journey, O Lady fair[120]; say, by what pass shall we shape our course? Direct our steps to the mansion of Fingal, be our guide, and accept a reward." "Reward I never took," said the damsel of softest eye and rosiest cheek; "such was not the manner of [my father] Tedaco of the hill of hinds; {180} many were the guests in his hall, frequent his visitors from the North,--I will be your guide." The chiefs reach Glenshee, where is heard the frequent voice of deer and elk; glen of green mounts and cliffs; glen of many streams in time of rain and wind. A keeper of cattle met them, and directed their course. He gave the information concerning the country of rocks; concerning its inhabitants male and female; the produce of moor and mount; the military force, the fashion of the armour; the favourite pursuits of the people; and the pedigree of the Fingalians.

* * * * *

_Extract from Bishop_ CARSUEL'S _Gaelic translation of the Confession of Faith, Forms of Prayer, &c., used in the Reformed Church of Scotland_; Printed in the year 1567.

(_From the Epistle Dedicatory._)

Acht ata ni cheana is mor an leathtrom agas anuireasbhuidh ata riamh orainde gaoidhil alban & eireand, tar an gcuid eile don domhan, gan ar gcanamhna gaoidheilge do chur agcl['o] riamh mar ataid agcanamhna & adteangtha f['e]in agcl['o] ag gach uile chinel dhaoine oile sa domhan, & ata uireasbhuidh is m['o] ina gach uireasbhuidh oraind, gan an Biobla naomhtha do bheith agcl['o] gaoidheilge againd, marta s[`e] agcl['o] laidne agas bherla agas ingach teangaidh eile osin amach, agas f['o]s gan seanchus arsean no ar sindsear do bheith mar an gcedna agcl['o] againd riamh, acht ge t['a] cuid eigin do tseanchus ghaoidheal alban agas eireand sgriobhtha aleabhruibh l['a]mh, agas adtamhlorgaibh fileadh & ollamhan, agas asleachtaibh suadh. Is mortsaothair sin re sgriobhadh do laimh, ag fechain an neithe buailtear sa chl['o] araibrisge agas ar aithghiorra bhios gach ['e]n ni dh['a] mhed da chriochnughadh leis. Agas is mor an doille agas andorchadas peacaidh agas aineolais agas indtleachda do lucht deachtaidh agas sgriobhtha agas chumhdaigh na gaoidheilge, gurab m['o] is mian leo agas gurab m['o] ghnathuidheas siad eachtradha dimhaoineacha buaidheartha bregacha {181} saoghalta do cumadh ar thuathaibh d['e]dhanond agas ar mhacaibh mileadh agas arna curadhaibh agas fhind mhac cumhaill gona fhianaibh agas ar mh['o]ran eile nach airbhim agas nach indisim andso do chumhdach, agas do choimhleasughagh, do chiond luadhuidheachta dimhaonigh an tsaoghail dfhaghail doibhf['e]in, ina briathra disle D['e] agas slighthe foirfe na firinde do sgriobhadh, agas dheachtadh, agas do chumhdach.

_English Translation._

[_From the_ REPORT _of the Committee of the_ HIGHLAND SOCIETY _of_ SCOTLAND, _appointed to inquire into the nature and authenticity of the Poems of_ OSSIAN.]

But there is one great disadvantage which we the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland labour under, beyond the rest of the world, that our Gaelic language has never yet been printed, as the language of every other race of men has been. And we labour under a disadvantage which is still greater than every other disadvantage, that we have not the Holy Bible printed in Gaelic, as it has been printed in Latin and in English, and in every other language; and also that we have never yet had any account printed of the antiquities of our country, or of our ancestors; for though we have some accounts of the Gaeil of Scotland and Ireland, contained in manuscripts, and in the genealogies of bards and historiographers, yet there is great labour in writing them over with the hand, whereas the work which is printed, be it ever so great, is speedily finished. And great is the blindness and sinful darkness, and ignorance and evil design of such as teach, and write, and cultivate the Gaelic language, that, with the view of obtaining for themselves the vain rewards of this world, they are more desirous, and more accustomed, to compose vain, tempting, lying, worldly histories, concerning the _Tuath de dannan_, and concerning warriors and champions, and _Fingal_ the son of _Cumhal_, with his heroes, and concerning many others which {182} I will not at present enumerate or mention, in order to maintain or reprove, than to write and teach and maintain the faithful words of God, and of the perfect way of truth[121].

* * * * *

_From the Preface to a Metrical Version of the Book of Psalms in Gaelic_, by Mr ROBERT KIRK, Minister of the Gospel at Balquhidder; Printed in the year 1684.

Ataid na Psalma taitneamhach, tarbhach: beag nach mion-fhlaitheas l['a]n dainglibh, Cill fhonnmhar le ceol naomhtha. Mur abholghort Eden, lionta do chrannaibh brioghmhoire na beatha, & do luibhennibh iocshlainteamhail, amhluidh an leabhar Psalmso Dhaibhioth, ata na liaghais ar uile anshocair na nanma. Ata an saoghal & gach be['o] chreatuir da bfuil ann, na chlarsigh; an duine, se is Clairseoir & duanaire, chum moladh an mor-Dhia mirbhuileach do sheinn; & ata Daibhidh do ghn['a] mar fhear don chuideachd bhias marso ag caoin-chaint gu ceolmhar ma nard-R['i].... Do ghabhas mar chongnamh don obairsi, dioghlum ughdairidh an uile ch['a]il, ar sheann['o]s, phriomh chreideamh & eachdardha na nGaoidheal, sgriobhta & cl['o]-bhuailte: achd gu ba reula iuil & soluis dhamh, br['i]dh na nSalm fein. Anois maseadh a Chomharbadha ro chaomh, ata mar phlaneidi dhealroidh ag sdiurughadh na ngcorp ioch dardha gan mhonmar, is deaghmhaise dhaoibh an tsaothairse a sgrudadh & a ghnathughadh gu neimhfhiat, gan ghuth ar bheiginmhe & neimhnitheachd an tsaothairigh. Griosam oraibhse a Uaisle, & a Thuatha charthanacha araon, gun {183} bheith mur thacharain ar luaidrean a nunn & a nall go sbailpe breigi; achd le gcroidhibh daingne, dosgartha, deagh-fhreumhaighte, druididh re Firinn, Ceart, & Ceannsachd, mar fhuraileas na psalma: Ata clu & tarbha a nsdriocadh don choir; call & masladh a ntuitim le heugcoir.

Imthigh a Dhuilleachain gu d['a]n,
Le D['a]n glan diagha duisg iad thall;
Cuir failte ar Fonn fial na bFionn,
Ar Gharbh chriocha, 's Indseadh gall.

_In English._

The Psalms are pleasant and profitable. A church resounding with sacred melody is almost a little Heaven full of angels. As the Garden of Eden, replenished with trees of life of potent efficacy, and with medicinal plants, so is this Book of the Psalms of David, which contains a remedy for all the diseases of the soul. The world and every living creature it contains are the Harp; man is the Harper and Poet, who sings the praise of the great wonder-working God; and David is ever one of the company who are thus employed in sweetly and tunefully discoursing about the Almighty King.... I was assisted in this work by culling from authors of every kind, who have treated of the ancient manners, the primitive religion, and the history of the Gaels, both in manuscript and in print: but the star and light by which I steered was the sense of the Psalms themselves. Now, then, my very dear colleagues, who as shining luminaries guide the inferior bodies, it becomes you to examine and to use this work candidly, without regarding the meanness and insignificancy of the workman. I beseech you, men of high and of low degree alike, that you be not, like weak silly creatures, tossed to and fro by false conceits; but with firm, resolute, well-established hearts, adhere to Truth, Justice, and Temperance, as these Psalms exhort. There is honour and profit in complying with what is right, loss and disgrace in declining to what is wrong. {184}

Little Volume, move boldly on;
In pure godly strains awaken yonder people;
Salute the hospitable land of the Fingalians,
The highland regions, and the Isles of strangers[122].

* * * * *

PRINTED BY NEILL AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH.

* * * * *

Notes

* * * * *

[1] Analysis of the Gaelic Language, by William Shaw, A.M.

[2] A few examples of what I conceived to be deviations from grammatical propriety are given from the Gaelic version of the Bible. As the translation of the Prophetical Books underwent a revision, the exceptionable passages in those Books have been changed in the second edition from what they were as they came out of the hands of the original translator. The criticism on those passages is, however, allowed to remain in this edition of the Grammar, because the first edition of the Gaelic Prophets is still in the hands of many, and because it often happens that "we can best teach what is right by showing what is wrong."--_Lowth._

[3] It will immediately occur to any grammarian that there is a slight difference between this and the common division into _mutes_ and _liquids_, by the letter _m_ being removed from the class of liquids to that of mutes. This is not an oversight, but an intentional arrangement; as the _accidents_ of the letter _m_ are, in Gaelic, the same with those of the mute, not of the liquid consonants. For a like reason, _s_ is included in the class of liquids.

[4] Writers, who have touched on this part of Gaelic Grammar, following the Irish grammarians, have divided the consonants further into _mutable_ and _immutable_. The former name has been given to consonants which, in writing, have been occasionally combined with the letter _h_; and the latter name to those consonants which have not, in writing, been combined with _h_. But, in fact, both classes of consonants are alike _mutable_ in their pronunciation; and their _mutation_ ought to have been marked in the orthography, though it has not. This defect in Gaelic orthography has been often observed and regretted, though it has never been corrected. Rather than continue a distinction which has no foundation in the structure of the language, I venture to discard the division of _mutable_ and _immutable_ consonants, as not merely useless, but as tending to mislead the learner.

[5] In explaining the sounds of the letters I have availed myself of the very correct and acute remarks on this subject annexed to the Gaelic version of the New Testament, 1767.

[6] If it be thought that this renders the language too monotonous, it may be observed, on the other hand, that it prevents ambiguities and obscurities in rapid speaking, as the accent marks the initial syllable of polysyllables. Declaimers, of either sex, have often found their advantage in this circumstance.

[7] That is the second sound assigned to a.

[8] The plural of la or latha _a day_, is sometimes written laeth; but it is doubtful how far this is a proper mode of writing it.

[9] The effect of the vowels in qualifying the sound of the adjoining consonants will be explained in treating of the Palatals and Linguals.

[10] This propensity is seen in the aspirating of consonants in Gaelic words, which have an evident affinity to words in other languages, where the same consonants are not so aspirated. The following list will sufficiently illustrate and confirm the truth of this remark:--

_Greek._ _Latin._ _Gaelic._
[Greek: Diabolos] Dia_b_olus Diabhol.
Scri_b_o* Scriobh, _write_.
Fe_b_ris* Fiabhrus, _a fever_.
Ba_c_ulum Bacholl, _a staff_.
[Greek: Deka] De_c_em Deich, _ten_.
Lori_c_a L[`u]ireach, _a coat of mail_.
Cleri_c_us Cleireach, _a clerk_.
Mo_d_us Modh, _manner_.
Gla_d_ius Claidheamh, _a sword_.
[Greek: Kardia] } Cor_d_-is Cridhe, _the heart_.
[Greek: Kradia] }
Me_d_ium Meadhon, _middle_.
Lau_d_o Luadh, _mention_.
Le_g_o Leugh, _read_.
Gre_g_-is Greigh, _a herd_.
Re_g_-is Righ, _a king_.
Pla_g_a Plaigh, _a plague_.
Sa_g_itta Saighead, _an arrow_.
Ma_g_ister Maighistir, _master_.
Ima_g_o Iomhaigh, _an image_.
Pri_m_us Priomh, _chief_.
Re_m_us R[`a]mh, _an oar_.
Si_m_ilis Samhuil, _like_.
Hu_m_ilis Umhal, _humble_.
Ca_p_ra Gabhar, _a goat_.
[Greek: Meter] Ma_t_er Mathair, _mother_.
Ro_t_a Roth, Rath, _a wheel_.
Mu_t_o M[`u]th, _change_.

It is probable that the consonants, thus aspirated, were pronounced without aspiration in the older dialects of the Celtic tongue; for we are told that in the Irish manuscripts of the first class for antiquity, the consonants are for the most part written without any mark of aspiration. See "Lhuyd's Archaeol. Brit.," p. 301, col. 1.

The tendency to attenuate the articulations shows itself in a progressive state, in a few vocables which are pronounced with an aspiration in some districts, but not universally. Such are deatach or deathach _smoke_, cuntart or cunthart _danger_, ta or tha _am_, _art_, tu or thu _thou_, troimh or throimh _through_, tar or thar _over_, am beil or am bheil _is there?_ dom or domh _to me_, &c. Has not this remission or suppression of the articulations the effect of enfeebling the speech, by mollifying its bones and relaxing its nerves? Ought not therefore the progress of this corruption to be opposed, by retaining unaspirated articulations in those instances where universal practice has not entirely superseded them, and even by restoring them in some instances, where the loss of them has been attended with manifest inconvenience? It is shameful to see how many monosyllables, once distinguished by their articulations, have in process of time, by dropping these articulations, come to be represented by the solitary vowel _a_, to the no small confusion of the language and embarrassment of the reader. The place of the absent consonant is often supplied, indeed, in writing, by an apostrophe. This, however, is at best but an imperfect and precarious expedient.

* So in French, from Aprilis, _Avrilis_; habere, _avoir_; Febris,
Fi[`e]vre: [Greek: episkopos], _ev['e]que_.

[11] Ph is found in no Gaelic word which is not inflected, except a few words transplanted from the Greek or the Hebrew, in which _ph_ represents the Greek [phi], or the Hebrew [Hebrew: P]. It might perhaps be more proper to represent [Hebrew: P] by _p_ rather than _ph_; and to represent [phi] by _f_, as the Italians have done in _filosofia_, _filologia_, &c., by which some ambiguities and anomalies in declension would be avoided.

[12] The affinity between the sounds of _v_ and _u_ is observable in many languages, particularly in the Hebrew, Greek, and Latin.

[13] Agreeably to the like pronunciation, the Welsh write this word _marw_, the Manks _marroo_.

[14] It is still pronounced fuair in the Northern Highlands, and it is so written in Irish. See Irish Bible, Gen. xxxv. 18, 19; John ii. 14, viii. 62, 53.

[15] So fathast _yet_, fein _self_, are in some places pronounced as if they began with an _h_ instead of an _f_. The latter word is, by the Manks, written hene.

[16] Over a considerable part of the Highlands that propensity to aspiration, which has been already remarked, has affixed to _c_, in the end of a word, or of an accented syllable, the sound of _chc_; as, mac _a son_, torc _a boar_, acain _moaning_; pronounced often machc, torchc, achcain.

There is reason to believe that this compound sound of _chc_ was not known of old, but is a modern corruption.

This pronunciation is not universal over the Highlands. In some parts the _c_ retains its proper sound in all situations.

If the articulation in question had, from the first, been compounded, it is highly probable that it would have been represented, in writing, by a combination of letters, such as _chc_; especially as we find that the same sound is represented at other times, not by a single consonant, but by a combination, as in the case of _chd_. Why should it be thought that boc _a buck_, and bochd _poor_, were originally pronounced alike, when they are distinguished both in writing and signification?

The word [Hebrew: SHQ] _a sack_, has been transplanted from the Hebrew into many languages, among the rest the Gaelic, where it has been always written sac, although now pronounced sachc. In none of the other languages in which the word is used (except the Welsh alone), has the final palatal been aspirated. It would appear therefore that the sound sachc is a departure from the original Gaelic pronunciation. The same change may have happened in the pronunciation of other words, in which the plain _c_ is now aspirated, though it may not have been so originally.

[17] Though _th_ be quiescent in the middle of a polysyllable, over the North and Central Highlands, yet it is, with more propriety, pronounced, in the West Highlands, as an aspiration; as, athair _father_, mathanas _pardon_, pronounced a-hair, mahanas.

[18] I am informed that this pronunciation of _chd_ is not universal; but that in some districts, particularly the East Highlands, the _d_ has here, as in other places, its proper lingual sounds. In many, if not all the instances in which _chd_ occurs, the ancient Irish wrote _ct_. This spelling corresponds to that of some foreign words that have a manifest affinity to Gaelic words of the same signification; which, it is therefore presumable, were all originally pronounced, as they were written, without an aspiration, such as,

_Latin._ _Old French._ _Gaelic._

Noct-u Noct-is, &c. Nuict an nochd, _to night_.
Oct-o Huict Ochd, _eight_.
Benedict-um Benoict Beannachd, _blessing_.
Maledict-um Maudict Mallachd, _cursing_.
Ruct-us Bruchd, _evomition_.
Intellect-us Intleachd, _contrivance_.
Lact-is, -i, &c. Lachd, _milk_.
Dict-o, -are, &c. Deachd, _to dictate_.
Rego }
Rect-um } Reachd, _a law, institution_.

From the propensity of the Gaelic to aspiration, the original _c_ was converted into _ch_, and the words were written with _cht_, as in the Irish acht _but_, &c., or with the slight change of _t_ into _d_, as in ochd, &c. This is the opinion of O'Brien, when he says the word lecht is the Celtic root of the Latin _lectio_--the aspirate _h_ is but a late invention.--_O'Br. Ir. Dict. voc. lecht._ In process of time the true sound of _cht_ or _chd_ was confounded with the kindred sound of _chc_, which was commonly, though corruptly, given to final c.

[19] It is certain that the natural sound of d aspirated is that of [the Saxon dh] or _th_ in _thou_; as the natural sound of _t_ aspirated is that of _th_ in _think_. This articulation, from whatever cause, has not been admitted into the Gaelic, either Scottish or Irish, although it is used in the kindred dialects of Cornwall and Wales.

[20] In sean _old_, the _n_ has its _plain_ sound when the following word begins with a Lingual. Accordingly it is often written in that situation seann; as, seann duine _an old man_, an t-seann tiomnaidh _of the old Testament_.

[21] So in Latin, _canmen_ from _cano_ was pronounced, and then written _carmen_; _genmen_ from the obsolete [Greek: geno] passed into _germen_.

[22] Another mode, proposed by a learned correspondent, of marking the distinction in the sound of the initial Linguals, is by writing the letter double, thus ll, nn, rr, when its sound is the same with that which is represented by those double letters in the end of a syllable; and when the sound is otherwise, to write the letter single; as, llamh _hand_, llion _fill_, mo lamh _my hand_, lion mi _I filled_.

It is perhaps too late, however, to urge now even so slight an alteration as this in the Orthography of the Gaelic, which ought rather to be held as fixed beyond the reach of innovation, by the happy diffusion of the Gaelic Scriptures over the Highlands.

[23] _Leathan re Leathan, is Caol re Caol._

Of the many writers who have recorded or taken notice of this rule, I have found none who have attempted to account for its introduction into the Gaelic. They only tell that such a correspondence between the vowels ought to be observed, and that it would be improper to write otherwise. Indeed, none of them seem to have attended to the different effects of a broad and of a small vowel on the sound of an adjacent consonant. From this circumstance, duly considered, I have endeavoured to derive a reason for the rule in question, the only probable one that has yet occurred to me.

[24] As deanuibh or deanaibh _do ye_, beannuich or beannaich _bless_.

[25] It is worthy of remark that in such words as caird-eil _friendly_, slaint-eil _salutary_, the substitution of _e_ in place of _a_ in the termination, both misrepresents the sound, and disguises the derivation of the syllable. The sound of this termination as in fear-ail _manly_, ban-ail _womanly_, is properly represented by _ail_. This syllable is an abbreviation of amhuil _like_, which is commonly written in its full form by the Irish, as fear-amhuil, &c. It corresponds exactly to the English termination _like_, in _soldier-like_, _officer-like_, which is abridged to _ly_, as _manly_, _friendly_. By writing _eil_ instead of _ail_, we almost lose sight of amhuil altogether.

[26] From the extracts of the oldest Irish manuscripts given by Lhuyd, Vallancey, and others, it appears that the rule concerning the correspondence of vowels in contiguous syllables, was by no means so generally observed once as it is now. It was gradually extended by the more modern Irish writers, from whom, it is probable, it has been incautiously adopted by the Scottish writers in its present and unwarrantable latitude. The rule we have been considering has been reprobated in strong terms by some of the most judicious Irish philologers, particularly O'Brien, author of an Irish Dictionary printed at Paris 1768, and Vallancey, author of an Irish Grammar, and of various elaborate disquisitions concerning Irish antiquities, from whom I quote the following passages: "This Rule [of dividing one syllable into two by the insertion of an aspirated consonant] together with that of substituting small or broad vowels in the latter syllables, to correspond with the vowel immediately following the consonant in the preceding syllable, has been very destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish language." _Vallancey's Ir. Gram. Chap. III. letter A._ "Another [Rule] devised in like manner by our bards and rhymers, I mean that which is called _Caol le caol, agus Leathan le leathan_, has been woefully destructive to the original and radical purity of the Irish language. This latter (much of a more modern invention than the former, for our old manuscripts show no regard to it) imports and prescribes that two vowels, thus forming, or contributing to form, two different syllables, should both be of the same denomination or class of either broad or small vowels, and this without any regard to the primitive elementary structure of the word." _O'Brien's Ir. Dict. Remarks on A._ "The words _biran_ and _biranach_ changed sometimes into _bioran_ and _bioranach_ by the abusive rule of _Leathan le leathan_." _Id. in voc._ Fear. The opinion of Lhuyd on this point, though not decisive, yet may properly be subjoined to those of Vallancey and O'Brien, as his words serve at least to show that this judicious philologer was no advocate for the Rule in question. "As for passing any censure on the rule concerning broad and small vowels, I chose rather to forbear making any remark at all upon them, by reason that old men who formerly wrote arget _silver_, instead of airgiod as we now write it, never used to change a vowel but in declining of words, &c. And I do not know that it was ever done in any other language, unless by some particular persons who, through mistake or ignorance, were guilty of it." _Archaeol. Brit. Preface to Ir. Dict. translated in Bp. Nicolson's Irish Historical Library._

[27] Pinkerton's Inquiry into the History of Scotland.

[28] _E.g._, troidh _a foot_, has been written troidh or troigh, either of which corresponds to the pronunciation, as the last consonant is quiescent. In Welsh, the articulation of the final consonant has been preserved, and the word is accordingly written troed. This authority seems sufficient to determine the proper orthography in Gaelic to be troidh and not troigh. For a like reason, perhaps, it would be proper to write tr[`a]idh _shore_, rather than tr[`a]igh, the common way of spelling the word, for we find the Irish formerly wrote tr[`a]idh, and the Welsh traeth. Claidheamh _a sword_, since the final articulation was wholly dropped, has been sometimes written claidhe. The mode of writing it still with a final labial, though quiescent, will probably be thought the more proper of the two, when it is considered that claidheamh is the cognate, or rather the same word with the Irish cloidheamh the Welsh cleddyf, and the French glaive.

[29] I flatter myself that all my readers, who are acquainted with any of the ancient or the modern languages which have a distinction of gender in their attributives, will readily perceive that the import of the term Gender, in the grammar of those languages, is precisely what I have stated above. The same term has been introduced into the grammar of the English Tongue, rather improperly, because in an acceptation different from what it bears in the grammar of all other languages. In English there is no distinction of gender competent to Articles, Adjectives, or Participles. When a noun is said to be of the masculine gender, the meaning can only be that the object denoted by it is of the male sex. Thus in the English grammars, gender signifies a quality of the _object_ named, while in other grammars it signifies a quality of the _name_ given to the object. The varieties of _who_, _which_, and _he_, _she_, _it_, refer not to what is properly called the _gender_ of the antecedent _noun_, but to the _Sex_ real or attributed, or the _absence of Sex_, of the _object_ signified by the antecedent. This is in effect acknowledged by writers on rhetoric, who affirm that in English the pronouns _who_, _he_, _she_, imply an express personification, or attribution of life, and consequently of Sex, to the objects to which these pronouns refer. The same thing is still more strikingly true of the variations on the termination of nouns, as _prince_, _princess_; _lion_, _lioness_, which are all discriminative of Sex. It seems therefore to be a mis-stated compliment which is usually paid to the English, when it is said that "this is the only language which has adapted the gender of its nouns to the constitution of Nature." The fact is, that it has adapted the _Form_ of some of the most common names of living creatures, and of a few of its pronouns, to the obvious distinction of _male_, and _female_, and _inanimate_, while it has left its nouns without any mark characteristic of _gender_. The same thing must necessarily happen to any language by abolishing the distinction of masculine and feminine in its attributives. If all languages had been constructed on this plan, it may confidently be affirmed that the grammatical term _gender_ would never have come into use. The compliment intended, and due to the English, might have been more correctly expressed, by saying that "it is the only language that has rejected the unphilosophical distinction of gender, by making its attributives, in this respect, all indeclinable."

[30] Uan beag bainionn, 2 Sam. xii. 3. Numb. vi. 14. So leomhann boirionn, Ezek. xix. 1.

[31] It must appear singularly strange that any nouns which signify females exclusively should be of the masculine gender. The noun bainionnach, is derived from the adjective bainionn, _female_, which is formed from bean, the appropriate term for a _woman_. Yet this noun bainionnach, or boirionnach, _a female_, is masculine, to all grammatical intents and purposes. We say boirionnach c[`o]ir, _a civil woman_, am boirionnach maiseach, _the handsome woman_.

The gender of this Noun seems to have been fixed, not by its signification, but by its determination, for most Derivatives in _ach_ are masculines; as, oganach _a young man_, marcach _a horseman_, Albanach _a Scotsman_, &c. So in Latin, mancipium, scortum, though applied to persons, follow the gender of their termination.

[32] It was necessary to be thus explicit in stating the changes at the beginning and those on the termination as unconnected independent _accidents_, which ought to be viewed separately; because many who have happened to turn their thoughts toward the declension of the Gaelic noun have got a habit of conjoining these, and supposing that both contribute their united aid toward the forming the _cases_ of nouns. This is blending together things which are unconnected, and ought to be kept distinct. It has therefore appeared necessary to take a separate view of these two _accidents_ of nouns, and to limit the term _case_ to those changes which are made on the termination, excluding entirely those which take place at the beginning.

[33] It is to be observed that these names of the cases are adopted merely because they are already familiar, not because they all denominate correctly the relations expressed by the cases to which they are respectively applied. There is no Accusative or Objective case in Gaelic different from the Nominative; neither is there any Ablative different from the Dative. For this reason, it is not only unnecessary, but erroneous, to reckon up six Cases in Gaelic, distinguished not by the form of the Noun, but by the Prepositions prefixed. This is to depart altogether from the common and proper use of the term _Case_. And if the new use of that term is to be adopted, then the enumeration is still incomplete, for we ought to have as many Cases as there are Prepositions in the language. Thus, besides a Dative do Bhard, and an Ablative o Bhard, we should have an Impositive Case air Bhard, a Concomitative le Bard, an Insertive ann am Bard, a Precursive roimh Bhard, &c. &c. Grammarians have very correctly reckoned only five Cases in Greek, two in English, one in French [See _Moore_, _Murray_, _Buffier_, &c.] because the variations in the form of the Noun extend no further. Surely nothing but an early and inveterate prepossession in favour of the arrangements of Latin Grammar could ever have suggested the idea of Six Cases in Gaelic or in English.

[34] It is not improbable that anciently all feminine nouns, except a few irregular ones, added a syllable to the nominative, as _e_ or _a_, in forming the genitive. The translators of the S. S. have sometimes formed the genitive of feminine polysyllables in this manner, as sionagoige from sionagog, Mark v. 36, 38. But it appears more agreeable to the analogy of inflection that such polysyllables should now be written without an _e_ in the genitive.

[35] It is probable that this noun should rather be written [`a]dh. See McFarlane's Paraphrases, III. 3. also Lhuyd and O'Brien, _in loco_.

[36] Derivatives in _an_, and _ag_ should form their genitive according to the general Rule, _ain_, _aig_; and in pronunciation they do so. When the syllable preceding the termination ends in a small vowel, the Rule of 'Caol re caol' has introduced an _e_ into the final syllable, which is then written _ean_, _eag_. In this case writers have been puzzled how to form the genitive. The terminations _eain_, _eaig_, would evidently contain too many vowels for a short syllable. To reduce this awkward number of vowels they have commonly thrown out the _a_, the only letter which properly expressed the vocal sound of the syllable. Thus from caimean m. a _mote_, they formed the gen. sing. caimein; from cuilean m. a _whelp_, g. s. cuilein; from duileag f. a _leaf_, g. s. duileig; from caileag f. a _girl_, g. s. caileig. Had they not yielded too far to the encroachments of the Rule of 'Caol re caol' they would have written both the nom. and the gen. of these and similar nouns more simply and more justly, thus: caiman, g. s. caimain; cuilan, g. s. cuilain; duilag, g. s. duilaig; cailag, g. s. cailaig.

[37] In many instances, the Plural termination _a_ is oftener written with this final _n_ than without it. When the vowel preceding the termination is small, the termination _a_ or _an_ is very needlessly written _e_ or _ean_, to preserve the correspondence of vowels.

[38] We are informed by E. O'C. that this is the usual construction in the Irish Dialect, and it appears to be the same in the Scottish. Thus, air son mo dh[`a] sh[`u]l, _for my two eyes_.--Judg. xvi. 28. Ir. & Scott. versions.

[39] So in Hebrew, we find a noun in the singular number joined with _twenty_, _thirty_, _a hundred_, _a thousand_, &c.

[40] The Pronouns tu _thou_, se _he_, si _she_, siad _they_, are not employed, like other nominatives, to denote the object after a transitive verb. Hence the incorrectness of the following expression in most editions of the Gaelic Psalms: Se chr[`u]nas _tu_ le coron graidh, Psal. ciii. 4., which translated literally signifies, _it is he whom thou wilt crown_, &c. To express the true sense, viz., _it is he who will crown thee_, it ought to have been, se chr[`u]nas _thu_ le coron graidh. So is mise an Tighearn a slanuicheas _thu_, _I am the Lord that healeth thee_, Exod. xv. 26; Ma ta e ann a fhreagaireas _thu_, _If there be any that will answer thee_, Job v. 1; Co e a bhrathas thu? _Who is he that will betray thee?_ John xxi. 20., Comp. Gen. xii. 3. and xxvii. 29.

[41] This use of the Pronoun of the 2d person plural is probably a modern innovation, for there is nothing like it found in the more ancient Gaelic compositions, nor in the graver poetry even of the present age. As this idiom seems, however, to be employed in conversation with increasing frequency, it will probably lose by degrees its present import, and will come to be used as the common mode of addressing any individual; in the same manner as the corresponding Pronouns are used in English, and other European languages.

[42] There seems hardly a sufficient reason for changing the _d_ in this situation into _t_, as has been often done, as t'oglach for d'oglach _thy servant_, &c. The _d_ corresponds sufficiently to the pronunciation, and being the constituent consonant of the pronoun, it ought not to be changed for another.

[43] The Irish are not so much at a loss to avoid a _hiatus_, as they often use na for a _his_; which the translators of the Psalms have sometimes judiciously adopted; as,

An talamh tioram le na laimh
Do chruthaich e 's do dhealbh. Psal. xcv. 5.

[44] In the North Highlands this Pronoun is pronounced sid.

[45] This Pronoun occurs in such expressions as an deigh na chuala tu _after what you have heard_; their leat na th' agad, or na bheil agad, _bring what you have_. It seems to be contracted for an ni a _the thing which_.

[46] There is reason to think that ge b'e is corruptly used for cia b' e. Of the former I find no satisfactory analysis. The latter cia b' e is literally _which it be_, or _which it were_; which is just the French _qui que ce soit_, _qui que ce f[^u]t_ expressed in English by one word _whosoever_, _whichsoever_. We find cia used in this sense and connection, Psal. cxxxv. 11. Glasg. 1753. Gach uile rioghachd mar an ceadn' _cia_ h-iomdha bhi siad ann, _All_ _kingdoms likewise, however numerous they be_. See also Gen. xliv. 9, Rom. ii. 1.

[47] This pronoun is found written with an initial c in Lhuyd's "Archaeol. Brit." Tit. I. page 20. col. 2. ceach; again Tit. X. voc. Bealtine, cecha bliadna _each year_. So also O'Brien, cach _all_, _every_, like the French _chaque_. "Irish Dict." voc. cach.