Chapter XXI: Part 21

_Gospel of Nicodemus._--This title is first met with in the 13th century. It is used to designate an apocryphal writing entitled in the older MSS. [Greek: hypomnemata tou Kuriou hemon Iesou Christou praxchenta epi Pontiou Pilatou]; also "Gesta Salvatoris Domini ... inventa Theodosio magno imperatore in Ierusalem in praetorio Pontii Pilati in codicibus publicis." See Tischendorf, _Evang. Apocr.[2]_ pp. 333-335. This work gives an account of the Passion (i.-xi.), the Resurrection (xii.-xvi.), and the _Descensus ad Inferos_ (xvii.-xxvii.). Chapters i.-xvi. are extant, in the Greek, Coptic, and two Armenian versions. The two Latin versions and a Byzantine recension of the Greek contain i.-xxvii. (see Tischendorf, _Evangelia Apocrypha[2]_, pp. 210-458). All known texts go back to A.D. 425, if one may trust the reference to Theodosius. But this was only a revision, for as early as 376 Epiphanius (_Haer._ i. 1.) presupposes the existence of a like text. In 325 Eusebius (_H.E._ ii. 2) was acquainted only with the heathen _Acts of Pilate_, and knew nothing of a Christian work. Tischendorf and Hofmann, however, find evidence of its existence in Justin's reference to the [Greek: Hakta Pilatou] (_Apol._ i. 35, 48), and in Tertullian's mention of the _Acta Pilati_ (_Apol._ 21), and on this evidence attribute our texts to the first half of the 2nd century. But these references have been denied by Scholten, Lipsius, and Lightfoot. Recently Schubert has sought to derive the elements which are found in the Petrine Gospel, but not in the canonical gospels, from the original _Acta Pilati_, while Zahn exactly reverses the relation of these two works. Rendel Harris (1899) advocated the view that the Gospel of Nicodemus, as we possess it, is merely a prose version of the Gospel of Nicodemus written originally in Homeric centones as early as the 2nd century. Lipsius and Dobschutz relegate the book to the 4th century. The question is not settled yet (see Lipsius in Smith's _Dict. of Christ. Biography_, ii. 708-709, and Dobschutz in Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, iii. 544-547).

_Gospel according to the Hebrews._--This gospel was cited by Ignatius (_Ad Smyrnaeos_, iii.) according to Jerome (_Viris illus._ 16, and _in Jes._ lib. xviii.), but this is declared to be untrustworthy by Zahn, op. cit. i. 921; ii. 701, 702. It was written in Aramaic in Hebrew letters, according to Jerome (_Adv. Pelag._ iii. 2), and translated by him into Greek and Latin. Both these translations are lost. A collection of the Greek and Latin fragments that have survived, mainly in Origen and Jerome, will be found in Hilgenfeld's _NT extra Canonem receptum_, Nicholson's _Gospel according to the Hebrews_ (1879), Westcott's _Introd. to the Gospels_, and Zahn's _Gesch. des NTlichen Kanons_, ii. 642-723; Preuschen, _op. cit_. 3-8. This gospel was regarded by many in the first centuries as the Hebrew original of the canonical Matthew (Jerome, _in Matt._ xii. 13; _Adv. Pelag._ iii. 1). With the canonical gospel it agrees in some of its sayings; in others it is independent. It circulated among the Nazarenes in Syria, and was composed, according to Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 722), between the years 135 and 150. Jerome identifies it with the _Gospel of the Twelve_ (_Adv. Pelag._ iii. 2), and states that it was used by the Ebionites (_Comm. in Matt._ xii. 13). Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 662, 724) contests both these statements. The former he traces to a mistaken interpretation of Origen (_Hom. I. in Luc._). Lipsius, on the other hand, accepts the statements of Jerome (Smith and Wace, _Dict. of Christian Biography_, ii. 709-712), and is of opinion that this gospel, in the form in which it was known to Epiphanius, Jerome and Origen, was "a recast of an older original," which, written originally in Aramaic, was nearly related to the Logia used by St Matthew and the Ebionitic writing used by St Luke, "which itself was only a later redaction of the Logia."

According to the most recent investigations we may conclude that the Gospel according to the Hebrews was current among the Nazarenes and Ebionites as early as 100-125, since Ignatius was familiar with the phrase "I am no bodiless demon"--a phrase which, according to Jerome (_Comm. in Is._ xviii.), belonged to this Gospel.

The name "Gospel according to the Hebrews" cannot have been original; for if it had been so named because of its general use among the Hebrews, yet the Hebrews themselves would not have used this designation. It may have been known simply as "the Gospel." The language was Western Aramaic, the mother tongue of Jesus and his apostles. Two forms of Western Aramaic survive: the Jerusalem form of the dialect, in the Aramaic portions of Daniel and Ezra; and the Galilean, in isolated expressions in the Talmud (3rd century), and in a fragmentary 5th century translation of the Bible. The quotations from the Old Testament are made from the Massoretic text.

This gospel must have been translated at an early date into Greek, as Clement and Origen cite it as generally accessible, and Eusebius recounts that many reckoned it among the received books The gospel is synoptic in character and is closely related to Matthew, though in the Resurrection accounts it has affinities with Luke. Like Mark it seems to have had no history of the birth of Christ, and to have begun with the baptism. (For the literature see Hennecke, _NTliche Apok. Handbuch_, 21-23.)

_Gospel of Peter._--Before 1892 we had some knowlege of this gospel. Thus Serapion, bishop of Antioch (A.D. 190-203) found it in use in the church of Rhossus in Cilicia, and condemned it as Docetic (Eusebius, _H.E._ vi. 12). Again, Origen (_In Matt._ tom. xvii. 10) says that it represented the brethren of Christ as his half-brothers In 1885 a long fragment was discovered at Akhmim, and published by Bouriant in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Robinson, Harnack, Zahn, Schubert, Swete.

_Gospel of Thomas._--This gospel professes to give an account of our Lord's boyhood. It appears in two recensions. The more complete recension bears the title [Greek: Thoma Isrealitou Philosophou hreta eis ta paidika Kuriou], and treats of the period from the 7th to the 12th year (Tischendorf, _Evangelia Apocrypha[2]_, 1876, 140-157). The more fragmentary recension gives the history of the childhood from the 5th to the 8th year, and is entitled [Greek: Sungramma tou hagiou apostolou Thoma peri tes paidikes anastrophes tou Kuriou] (Tischendorf, _op. cit._ pp. 158-163). Two Latin translations have been published in this work by the same scholar--one on pp. 164-180, the other under the wrong title, _Pseudo-Matthaei Evangelium_, on pp. 93-112. A Syriac version, with an English translation, was published by Wright in 1875. This gospel was originally still more Docetic than it now is, according to Lipsius. Its present form is due to an orthodox revision which discarded, so far as possible, all Gnostic traces. Lipsius (Smith's _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ ii. 703) assigns it to the latter half of the 2nd century, but Zahn (_Gesch. Kan._ ii. 771), on good grounds, to the earlier half. The latter scholar shows that probably it was used by Justin (_Dial._ 88). At all events it circulated among the Marcosians (Irenaeus, _Haer._ i. 20) and the Naasenes (Hippolytus, _Refut._ v. 7), and subsequently among the Manichaeans, and is frequently quoted from Origen downwards (_Hom. I. in Luc._). If the stichometry of Nicephorus is right, the existing form of the book is merely fragmentary compared with its original compass. For literature see Hennecke, _NTliche Apokryphen Handbuch_, 132 seq.

_Gospel of the Twelve._--This gospel, which Origen knew (_Hom. I. in Luc._), is not to be identified with the _Gospel according to the Hebrews_ (see above), with Lipsius and others, who have sought to reconstruct the original gospel from the surviving fragments of these two distinct works. The only surviving fragments of the _Gospel of the Twelve_ have been preserved by Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 13-16, 22: see Preuschen, _op. cit._ 9-11). It began with an account of the baptism. It was used by the Ebionites, and was written, according to Zahn (op. cit. ii. 742), about A.D. 170.

OTHER GOSPELS MAINLY GNOSTIC AND ALMOST ALL LOST.--_Gospel of Andrew._--This is condemned in the Gelasian Decree, and is probably the gospel mentioned by Innocent (1 Ep. iii. 7) and Augustine (_Contra advers. Leg. et Proph._ i. 20).

_Gospel of Apelles._--Mentioned by Jerome in his _Prooem. ad Matt._

_Gospel of Barnabas._--Condemned in the Gelasian Decree (see under BARNABAS _ad fin_.).

_Gospel of Bartholomew._--Mentioned by Jerome in his _Prooem. ad Matt._ and condemned in the Gelasian Decree.

_Gospel of Basilides._--Mentioned by Origen (_Tract. 26 in Matt._ xxxiii. 34, and in his _Prooem. in Luc._); by Jerome in his _Prooem. in Matt._ (See Harnack i. 161; ii. 536-537; Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, i. 763-774.)

_Gospel of Cerinthus._--Mentioned by Epiphanius (_Haer._ li. 7).

_Gospel of the Ebionites._--A fragmentary edition of the canonical Matthew according to Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxx. 13), used by the Ebionites and called by them the Hebrew Gospel.

_Gospel of Eve._--A quotation from this gospel is given by Epiphanius (_Haer._ xxvi. 2, 3). It is possible that this is the Gospel of Perfection ([Greek: Euangelion teleioseos]) which he touches upon in xxvi. 2. The quotation shows that this gospel was the expression of complete pantheism.

_Gospel of James the Less._--Condemned in the Gelasian Decree.

_Wisdom of Jesus Christ._--This third work contained in the Coptic MS. referred to under _Gospel of Mary_ gives cosmological disclosures and is presumably of Valentinian origin.

_Apocryph of John._--This book, which is found in the Coptic MS. referred to under _Gospel of Mary_ and contains cosmological disclosures of Christ, is said to have formed the source of Irenaeus' account of the Gnostics of Barbelus (i. 29-31). Thus this work would have been written before 170.

_Gospel of Judas Iscariot._--References to this gospel as in use among the Cainites are made by Irenaeus (i. 31. 1); Epiphanius (xxxviii. 1. 3).

_Gospel, The Living (Evangelium Vivum)._--This was a gospel of the Manichaeans. See Epiphanius, _Haer_. lxvi. 2; Photius, _Contra Manich_. i.

_Gospel of Marcion._--On this important gospel see Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, i. 585-718.

_Descent of Mary_ ([Greek: Tenna Marias]).--This book was an anti-Jewish legend representing Zacharias as having been put to death by the Jews because he had seen the God of the Jews in the form of an ass in the temple (Epiphanius, _Haer_. xxvi. 12).

_Questions of Mary_ (_Great and Little_).--Epiphanius (_Haer_. xxvi. 8) gives some excerpts from this revolting work.

_Gospel of Mary._--This gospel is found in a Coptic MS. of the 5th century. According to Schmidt's short account, _Sitzungsberichte d. preuss. Akad. d. Wiss. zu. Berlin_ (1896), pp. 839 sqq., this gospel gives disclosures on the nature of matter ([Greek: ulae]) and the progress of the Gnostic soul through the seven planets.

_Gospel of Matthias._--Though this gospel is attested by Origen (_Horm. in Luc._ i.), Eusebius, _H.E._ iii. 25. 6, and the List of Sixty Books, not a shred of it has been preserved, unless with Zahn ii. 751 sqq. we are to identify it with the _Traditions of Matthias_, from which Clement has drawn some quotations.

_Gospel of Perfection_ (_Evangelium perfectionis_).--Used by the followers of Basilides and other Gnostics. See Epiphanius, _Haer._ xxvi. 2.

_Gospel of Philip._--This gospel described the progress of a soul through the next world. It is of a strongly Encratite character and dates from the 2nd century. A fragment is preserved in Epiphanius, _Haer_. xxvi. 13. In Preuschen, _Reste_, p. 13, the quotation breaks off too soon. See Zahn ii. 761-768.

_Gospel of Thaddaeus._--Condemned by the Gelasian Decree.

_Gospel of Thomas._--Of this gospel only one fragment has been preserved in Hippolytus, _Philos_. v. 7, pp. 140 seq. See Zahn, _op. cit._ i. 746 seq.; ii. 768-773; Harnack ii. 593-595.

_Gospel of Truth._--This gospel is mentioned by Irenaeus i. 11. 9, and was used by the Valentinians. See Zahn i. 748 sqq.

(b) ACTS AND TEACHINGS OF THE APOSTLES.--_Acts of Andrew._--These Acts, which are of a strongly Encratite character, have come down to us in a fragmentary condition. They belong to the earliest ages, for they are mentioned by Eusebius, _H.E._ iii. 25; Epiphanius, _Haer._ xlvii. 1; lxi. 1; lxiii. 2; Philaster, _Haer._ lxviii., as current among the Manichaeans and heretics. They are attributed to Leucius, a Docetic writer, by Augustine (_c. Felic. Manich._ ii. 6) and Euodius (_De Fide c. Manich._ 38). Euodius in the passage just referred to preserves two small fragments of the original Acts. On internal grounds the section recounting Andrew's imprisonment (Bonnet, _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_, ii. 38-45) is also probably a constituent of the original work. As regards the martyrdom, owing to the confusion introduced by the multitudinous Catholic revisions of this section of the Acts, it is practically impossible to restore its original form. For a complete discussion of the various documents see Lipsius, _Apokryphen Apostelgeschichte_, i. 543-622; also James in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ i. 92-93; Hennecke, _NT. Apokryphen_, _in loc._ The best texts are given in Bonnet's _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_, 1898, II. i. 1-127. These contain also the _Acts of Andrew and Matthew_ (or Matthias) in which Matthew (or Matthias) is represented as a captive in the country of the anthropophagi. Christ takes Andrew and his disciples with Him, and effects the rescue of Matthew. The legend is found also in Ethiopic, Syriac and Anglo-Saxon. Also the _Acts of Peter and Andrew_, which among other incidents recount the miracle of a camel passing through the eye of a needle. This work is preserved partly in Greek, but in its entirety in Slavonic.

_Acts of John._--Clement of Alexandria in his _Hypotyposes_ on 1 John i. 1 seems to refer to chapters xciii. (or lxxxix.) of these Acts. Eusebius (_H.E._ iii. 25. 6), Epiphanius (_Haer._ xlvii. 1) and other ancient writers assign them to the authorship of Leucius Charinus. It is generally admitted that they were written in the 2nd century. The text has been edited most completely by Bonnet, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._, 1898, 151-216. The contents might be summarized with Hennecke as follows:--Arrival and first sojourn of the apostle in Ephesus (xviii.-lv.); return to Ephesus and second sojourn (history of Drusiana, lviii.-lxxxvi.); account of the crucifixion of Jesus and His apparent death (lxxxvii.-cv.); the death of John (cvi.-cxv.). There are manifest gaps in the narrative, a fact which we would infer from the extent assigned to it (i.e. 2500 stichoi) by Nicephorus. According to this authority one-third of the text is now lost. Many chapters are lost at the beginning; there is a gap in chapter xxxvii., also before lviii., not to mention others. The encratite tendency in these Acts is not so strongly developed as in those of Andrew and Thomas. James (_Anecdota_, ii. 1-25) has given strong grounds for regarding the Acts of John and Peter as derived from one and the same author, but there are like affinities existing between the Acts of Peter and those of Paul. For a discussion of this work see Zahn, _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 856-865; Lipsius, _Apok. Apostelgesch._ i. 348-542; Hennecke, _NT. Apokryphen_, 423-432. For bibliography, Hennecke, _NT. Apok. Handbuch_, 492 sq.

_Acts of Paul._--The discovery of the Coptic translation of these Acts in 1897, and its publication by C. Schmidt (_Acta Pauli aus der Heidelberger koptischen Papyrushandschrift herausgegeben_, Leipzig, 1894), have confirmed what had been previously only a hypothesis that the Acts of Thecla had formed a part of the larger Acts of Paul. The Acts therefore embrace now the following elements:-(a) Two quotations given by Origen in his _Princip._ i. 2. 3 and his comment on John xx. 12. From the latter it follows that in the Acts of Paul the death of Peter was recounted, (b) _Apocryphal 3rd Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians_ and _Epistle from the Corinthians to Paul_. These two letters are connected by a short account which is intended to give the historical situation. Paul is in prison on account of Stratonice, the wife of Apollophanes. The Greek and Latin versions of these letters have for the most part disappeared, but they have been preserved in Syriac, and through Syriac they obtained for the time being a place in the Armenian Bible immediately after 2 Corinthians. Aphraates cites two passages from 3 Corinthians as words of the apostle, and Ephraem expounded them in his commentary on the Pauline Epistles. They must therefore have been regarded as canonical in the first half of the 4th century. From the Syriac Bible they made their way into the Armenian and maintained their place without opposition to the 7th century. On the Latin text see Carriere and Berger, _Correspondance apocr. de S.P. et des Corinthiens_, 1891. For a translation of Ephraem's commentary see Zahn ii. 592-611 and Vetter, _Der Apocr. 3. Korinthien_, 70 sqq., 1894. The Coptic version (C. Schmidt, _Acta Pauli_, pp. 74-82), which is here imperfect, is clearly from a Greek original, while the Latin and Armenian are from the Syriac. (c) _The Acts of Paul and Thecla_. These were written, according to Tertullian (_De Baptismo_, 17) by a presbyter of Asia, who was deposed from his office on account of his forgery. This, the earliest of Christian romances (probably before A.D. 150), recounts the adventures and sufferings of a virgin, Thecla of Iconium. Lipsius discovers Gnostic traits in the story, but these are denied by Zahn (_Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 902). See Lipsius, _op. cit._ ii. 424-467; Zahn (_op. cit._ ii. 892-910). The best text is that of Lipsius, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._, 1891, i. 235-272. There are Syriac, Arabic, Ethiopic and Slavonic versions. As we have seen above, these Acts are now recognized as belonging originally to the Acts of Paul. They were, however, published separately long before the Gelasian Decree (496). Jerome also was acquainted with them as an independent work. Thecla was most probably a real personage, around whom a legend had already gathered in the 2nd century. Of this legend the author of the Acts of Paul made use, and introduced into it certain historical and geographical facts, (d) The healing of Hermocrates of dropsy in Myra. Through a comparison of the Coptic version with the Pseudo-Cyprian writing "Caena," Rolffs (Hennecke, _NT. Apok._ 361) concludes that this incident formed originally a constituent of our book, (e) The strife with beasts at Ephesus. This event is mentioned by Nicephorus Callistus (_H.E._ ii. 25) as recounted in the [Greek: perlodoi] of Paul. The identity of this work with the Acts of Paul is confirmed by a remark of Hippolytus in his commentary on Daniel iii. 29. 4, ed. Bonwetsch 176 (so Rolffs). (f) Martyrdom of Paul. The death of Paul by the sentence of Nero at Rome forms the close of the Acts of Paul. The text is in the utmost confusion. It is best given by Lipsius, _Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 104-117.

Notwithstanding all the care that has been taken in collecting the fragments of these Acts, only about 900 stichoi out of the 3600 assigned to them in the Stichometry of Nicephorus have as yet been recovered.

The author was, according to Tertullian (_De Baptism._ 17), a presbyter in Asia, who out of honour to Paul wrote the Acts, forging at the same time 3 Corinthians. Thus the work was composed before 190, and, since it most probably uses the martyrdom of Polycarp, after 155. The object of the writer is to embody in St Paul the model ideal of the popular Christianity of the 2nd century. His main emphasis is laid on chastity and the resurrection of the flesh. The tone of the work is Catholic and anti-Gnostic. For the bibliography of the subject see Hennecke, _NT. Apok._ 358-360.

_Acts of Peter._--These acts are first mentioned by Eusebius (_H.E._ iii. 3) by name, and first referred to by the African poet Commodian about A.D. 250. Harnack, who was the first to show that these Acts were Catholic in character and not Gnostic as had previously been alleged, assigns their composition to this period mainly on the ground that Hippolytus was not acquainted with them; but even were this assumption true, it would not prove the non-existence of the Acts in question. According to Photius, moreover, the Acts of Peter also were composed by this same Leucius Charinus, who, according to Zahn (_Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 864), wrote about 160 (_op. cit._ p. 848). Schmidt and Ficker, however, maintain that the Acts were written about 200 and in Asia Minor. These Acts, which Ficker holds were written as a continuation and completion of the canonical Acts of the Apostles, deal with Peter's victorious conflict with Simon Magus, and his subsequent martyrdom at Rome under Nero. It is difficult to determine the relation of the so-called Latin _Actus Vercellenses_ (which there are good grounds for assuming were originally called the [Greek: Praxeis Petrou]) with the Acts of John and Paul. Schmidt thinks that the author of the former made use of the latter, James that the Acts of Peter and of John were by one and the same author, but Ficker is of opinion that their affinities can be explained by their derivation from the same ecclesiastical atmosphere and school of theological thought. No less close affinities exist between our Acts and the Acts of Thomas, Andrew and Philip. In the case of the Acts of Thomas the problem is complicated, sometimes the Acts of Peter seem dependent on the Acts of Thomas, and sometimes the converse.

For the relation of the _Actus Vercellenses_ to the "Martyrdom of the
holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol. Apocr._ i. 118-177) and
to the "Acts of the holy apostles Peter and Paul" (_Acta Apostol.
Apocr._ i. 178-234) see Lipsius ii. 1. 84 sqq. The "Acts of Xanthippe
and Polyxena," first edited by James (_Texts and Studies_, ii. 3.
1893), and assigned by him to the middle of the 3rd century, as well
as the "Acts of the Disputation of Archelaus, bishop of Mesopotamia,
and the Heresiarch Manes" ("Acta Disputationis Archelai Episcopi
Mesopotamiae et Manetis Haeresiarchae," in Routh's _Reliquiae
Sacrae[2]_, v. 36-206), have borrowed largely from our work.

The text of the _Actus Vercellenses_ is edited by Lipsius, _Acta
Apostol. Apocr._ i. 45-79. An independent Latin translation of the
"Martyrdom of Peter" is published by Lipsius (_op. cit._ i. 1-22),
_Martyrium beati Petri Apostoli a Lino episcopo conscriptum_. On the
Coptic fragment, which Schmidt maintains is an original constituent of
these Acts, see that writer's work: _Die alten Petrusakten im
Zusammenhang der apokryphen Apostelliteratur nebst einem neuentdeckten
Fragment_, and _Texte und Untersuch_. N.F. ix. 1 (1903). For the
literature see Hennecke, _Neutestamentliche Apokryphen Handbuch_, 395
sqq.

_Preaching of Peter._--This book ([Greek: Petrou Kerygma]) gave the substance of a series of discourses spoken by one person in the name of the apostles. Clement of Alexandria quotes it several times as a genuine record of Peter's teaching. Heracleon had previously used it (see Origen, _In Evang. Johann._ t. xiii. 17). It is spoken unfavourably of by Origen (_De Prin._ Praef. 8). It was probably in the hands of Justin and Aristides. Hence Zahn gives its date as 90-100 at latest; Dobschutz, as 100-110; and Harnack, as 110-130. The extant fragments contain sayings of Jesus, and warnings against Judaism and Polytheism.

They have been edited by Hilgenfeld: _Nov. Test. extra Can._, 1884, iv. 51-65, and by von Dobschutz, _Das Kerygma Petri_, 1893. Salmon (_Dict. Christ. Biog._ iv. 329-330) thinks that this work is part of a larger work, _A Preaching of Peter and a Preaching of Paul_, implied in a statement of Lactantius (_Inst. Div._ iv. 21); but this view is contested by Zahn, see _Gesch. Kanons_, ii. 820-834, particularly pp. 827-828; Chase, in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ iv. 776.

_Acts of Thomas._--This is one of the earliest and most famous of the Gnostic Acts. It has been but slightly tampered with by orthodox hands. These Acts were used by the Encratites (Epiphanius, _Haer._ xlvii. 1), the Manichaeans (Augustine, _Contra Faust_. xxii. 79), the Apostolici (Epiphanius lxi. 1) and Priscillianists. The work is divided into thirteen Acts, to which the Martyrdom of Thomas attaches as the fourteenth. It was originally written in Syriac, as Burkitt (_Journ. of Theol. Studies_, i. 278 sqq.) has finally proved, though Macke and Noldeke had previously advanced grounds for this view. The Greek and Latin texts were edited by Bonnet in 1883 and again in 1903, ii. 2; the Greek also by James, _Apoc. Anec._ ii. 28-45, and the Syriac by Wright (_Apocr. Acts of the Gospels_, 1871, i. 172-333). Photius ascribes their composition to Leucius Charinus--therefore to the 2nd century, but Lipsius assigns it to the early decades of the 3rd. (See Lipsius, _Apokryphen Apostelgeschichten_, i. 225-347; Hennecke, _N.T. Apokryphen_, 473-480.)

_Teaching of the Twelve Apostles_ (Didache).--This important work was discovered by Philotheos Bryennios in Constantinople and published in 1883. Since that date it has been frequently edited. The bibliography can be found in Schaff's and in Harnack's editions. The book divides itself into three parts. The first (i.-vi.) contains a body of ethical instruction which is founded on a Jewish and probably pre-Christian document, which forms the basis also of the _Epistle of Barnabas_. The second part consists of vii.-xv., and treats of church ritual and discipline; and the third part is eschatological and deals with the second Advent. The book is variously dated by different scholars: Zahn assigns it to the years A.D. 80-120; Harnack to 120-165; Lightfoot and Funk to 80-100; Salmon to 120. (See Salmon in _Dict. of Christ. Biog._ iv. 806-815, also article DIDACHE.)

_Apostolical Constitutions._--For the various collections of these ecclesiastical regulations--the Syriac _Didascalia, Ecclesiastical Canons of the Holy Apostles_, &c.--see separate article.

(c) EPISTLES.--_The Abgar Epistles._--These epistles are found in Eusebius (_H.E._ i. 3), who translated them from the Syriac. They are two in number, and purport to be a petition of Abgar Uchomo, king of Edessa, to Christ to visit Edessa, and Christ's answer, promising after his ascension to send one of his disciples, who should "cure thee of thy disease, and give eternal life and peace to thee and all thy people." Lipsius thinks that these letters were manufactured about the year 200. (See _Dict. Christ. Biog._ iv. 878-881, with the literature there mentioned.) The above correspondence, which appears also in Syriac, is inwoven with the legend of Addai or Thaddaeus. The best critical edition of the Greek text will be found in Lipsius, _Acta Apostolorum Apocrypha_, 1891, pp. 279-283. (See also ABGAR.)

_Epistle of Barnabas._--The special object of this epistle was to guard its readers against the danger of relapsing into Judaism. The date is placed by some scholars as early as 70-79, by others as late as the early years of the emperor Hadrian, 117. The text has been edited by Hilgenfeld in 1877, Gebhardt and Harnack in 1878, and Funk in 1887 and 1901. In these works will be found full bibliographies. (See further BARNABAS.)

_Epistle of Clement._--The object of this epistle is the restoration of harmony to the church of Corinth, which had been vexed by internal discussions. The epistle may be safely ascribed to the years 95-96. The writer was in all probability the bishop of Rome of that name. He is named an apostle and his work was reckoned as canonical by Clement of Alexandria (_Strom._ iv. 17. 105), and as late as the time of Eusebius (_H.E._ iii. 16) it was still read in some of the churches. Critical editions have been published by Gebhardt and Harnack, _Patr. Apost. Op._, 1876, and in the smaller form in 1900, Lightfoot[2], 1890, Funk[2], 1901. The Syriac version has been edited by Kennet, _Epp. of St Clement to the Corinthians in Syriac_, 1899, and the Old Latin version by Morin, _S. Clementis Romani ad Corinthios epistulae versio Latina antiquissima_, 1894.

"_Clement's_" _2nd Ep. to the Corinthians._--This so-called letter of Clement is not mentioned by any writer before Eusebius (_H. E_. iii. 38. 4). It is not a letter but really a homily written in Rome about the middle of the 2nd century. The writer is a Gentile. Some of his citations are derived from the Gospel to the Egyptians.

_Clement's Epistles on Virginity._--These two letters are preserved only in Syriac which is a translation from the Greek. They are first referred to by Epiphanius and next by Jerome. Critics have assigned them to the middle of the 2nd century. They have been edited by Beelen, Louvain, 1856.

_Clement's Epistles to James._--On these two letters which are found in the Clementine Homilies, see Smith's _Dict. of Christian Biography_, i. 559, 570, and Lehmann's monograph, _Die Clementischen Schriften_, Gotha, 1867, in which references will be found to other sources of information.

_Epistles of Ignatius._--There are two collections of letters bearing the name of Ignatius, who was martyred between 105 and 117. The first consists of seven letters addressed by Ignatius to the Ephesians, Magnesians, Trallians, Romans, Philadelphians, Smyrnaeans and to Polycarp. The second collection consists of the preceding extensively interpolated, and six others of Mary to Ignatius, of Ignatius to Mary, to the Tarsians, Antiochians, Philippians and Hero, a deacon of Antioch. The latter collection is a pseudepigraph written in the 4th century or the beginning of the 5th. The authenticity of the first collection also has been denied, but the evidence appears to be against this contention. The literature is overwhelming in its extent. See Zahn, _Patr. Apost. Op_., 1876; Funk[2], _Die apostol. Vater_, 1901; Lightfoot[2], _Apostolic Fathers_, 1889.

_Epistle of Polycarp._--The genuineness of this epistle stands or falls with that of the Ignatian epistles. See article in Smith's _Dictionary of Christian Biography_, iv. 423-431; Lightfoot, _Apostolic Fathers_, i. 629-702; also POLYCARP.

_Pauline Epistles to the Laodiceans and the Alexandrians_.--The first of these is found only in Latin. This, according to Lightfoot (see _Colossians[3]_, 272-298) and Zahn, is a translation from the Greek. Such an epistle is mentioned in the Muratorian canon. See Zahn, _op. cit_. ii. 566-585. The Epistle to the Alexandrians is mentioned only in the Muratorian canon (see Zahn ii. 586-592).

For the _Third Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians_, and _Epistle from
the Corinthians to Paul_, see under "Acts of Paul" above.
(R. H. C.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Judaism was long accustomed to lay claim to an esoteric
tradition. Thus though it insisted on the exclusive canonicity of the
24 books, it claimed the possession of an oral law handed down from
Moses, and just as the apocryphal books overshadowed in certain
instances the canonical scriptures, so often the oral law displaced
the written in the regard of Judaism.

[2] See Porter in Hastings' _Bible Dict._ i. 113

[3] The New Testament shows undoubtedly an acquaintance with several
of the apocryphal books. Thus James i. 19 shows dependence on Sirach
v. 11, Hebrews i. 3 on Wisdom vii. 26, Romans ix. 21 on Wisdom xv. 7,
2 Cor. v. 1, 4 on Wisdom ix. 15, &c.

[4] Thus some of the additions to Daniel and the Prayer of Manasses
are most probably derived from a Semitic original written in
Palestine, yet in compliance with the prevailing opinion they are
classed under Hellenistic Jewish literature. Again, the Slavonic
Enoch goes back undoubtedly in parts to a Semitic original, though
most of it was written by a Greek Jew in Egypt.

[5] These editors have discovered (1907) a gospel fragment of the 2nd
century which represents a dialogue between our Lord and a chief
priest--a Pharisee.

APODICTIC (Gr. [Greek: apodeiktikos], capable of demonstration), a logical term, applied to judgments which are necessarily true, as of mathematical conclusions. The term in Aristotelian logic is opposed to dialectic, as scientific proof to probable reasoning. Kant contrasts apodictical with problematic and assertorical judgments.

APOLDA, a town of Germany, in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar, near the river Ilm, 9 m. E. by N. from Weimar, on the main line of railway from Berlin via Halle, to Frankfort-On-Main. Pop. (1900) 20,352. It has few notable public buildings, but possesses three churches and monuments to the emperor Frederick III. and to Christian Zimmermann (1759-1842), who, by introducing the hosiery and cloth manufacture, made Apolda one of the most important places in Germany in these branches of industry. It has also extensive dyeworks, bell foundries, and manufactures of steam engines, boilers and bicycles.

APOLLINARIS, "the Younger" (d. A.D. 390), bishop of Laodicea in Syria. He collaborated with his father Apollinaris the Elder in reproducing the Old Testament in the form of Homeric and Pindaric poetry, and the New after the fashion of Platonic dialogues, when the emperor Julian had forbidden Christians to teach the classics. He is best known, however, as a warm opponent of Arianism, whose eagerness to emphasize the deity of Christ and the unity of His person led him so far as a denial of the existence of a rational human soul ([Greek: nous]) in Christ's human nature, this being replaced in Him by a prevailing principle of holiness, to wit the Logos, so that His body was a glorified and spiritualized form of humanity. Over against this the orthodox or Catholic position maintained that Christ assumed human nature in its entirety including the [Greek: nous], for only so could He be example and redeemer. It was held that the system of Apollinaris was really Docetism (see DOCETAE), that if the Godhood without constraint swayed the manhood there was no possibility of real human probation or of real advance in Christ's manhood. The position was accordingly condemned by several synods and in particular by that of Constantinople (A.D. 381). This did not prevent its having a considerable following, which after Apollinaris's death divided into two sects, the more conservative taking its name (Vitalians) from Vitalis, bishop of Antioch, the other (Polemeans) adding the further assertion that the two natures were so blended that even the body of Christ was a fit object of adoration. The whole Apollinarian type of thought persisted in what was later the Monophysite (q.v.) school.

Although Apollinaris was a prolific writer, scarcely anything has
survived under his own name. But a number of his writings are
concealed under the names of orthodox Fathers, e.g. [Greek: He kata
meros pistis], long ascribed to Gregory Thaumaturgus. These have been
collected and edited by Hans Lietzmann.

He must be distinguished from the bishop of Hierapolis who bore the
same name, and who wrote one of the early Christian "Apologies" (c.
170). See A. Harnack, _History of Dogma_, vols. iii. and iv. _passim_;
R.L. Ottley, _The Doctrine of the Incarnation_; G. Voisin,
_L'Apollinarisme_ (Louvain, 1901); H. Lietzmann, _Apollinaris von
Laodicea und seine Schule_ (Tubingen, 1905).

APOLLINARIS, SULPICIUS, a learned grammarian of Carthage, who flourished in the 2nd century A.D. He taught Pertinax--himself a teacher of grammar before he was emperor,--and Aulus Gellius, who speaks of him in the highest terms (iv. 17). He is the reputed author of the metrical arguments to the _Aeneid_ and to the plays of Terence and (probably) Plautus (J.W. Beck, _De Sulpicio Apollinari_, 1884).

APOLLINARIS SIDONIUS, CAIUS SOLLIUS (c. 430-487 or 488), Christian writer and bishop, was born in Lyons about A.D. 430. Belonging to a noble family, he was educated under the best masters, and particularly excelled in poetry and polite literature. He married (about 452) Papianilla, the daughter of Avitus, who was consul and afterwards emperor. But Majorianus, in the year 457, having deprived Avitus of the empire and taken the city of Lyons, Apollinaris fell into the hands of the enemy. The reputation of his learning led Majorianus to treat him with the greatest respect. In return Apollinaris composed a panegyric in his honour (as he had previously done for Avitus), which won for him a statue at Rome and the title of count. In 467 the emperor Anthemius rewarded him for the panegyric which he had written in honour of him by raising him to the post of prefect of Rome, and afterwards to the dignity of a patrician and senator. In 472, more for his political than for his theological abilities, he was chosen to succeed Eparchius in the bishopric of Arverna (Clermont). On the capture of that city by the Goths in 474 he was imprisoned, as he had taken an active part in its defence; but he was afterwards restored by Euric, king of the Goths, and continued to govern his bishopric as before. He died in A.D. 487 or 488. His extant works are his _Panegyrics_ on different emperors (in which he draws largely upon Statius, Ausonius and Claudian); and nine books of _Letters_ and _Poems_, whose chief value consists in the light they shed on the political and literary history of the 5th century. The _Letters_, which are very stilted, also reveal Apollinaris as a man of genial temper, fond of good living and of pleasure. The best edition is that in the _Monumenta Germaniae Historica_ (Berlin, 1887), which gives a survey of the manuscripts.

Apollinaris Sidonius (the names are commonly inverted by the French)
is the subject of numerous monographs, historical and literary. See,
for bibliography, A. Molinier, _Sources de l'histoire de France_, no.
136 (vol. i.). S. Dill, _Roman Society in the Fifth Century_, and T.
Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_ (vol. vii.), contain interesting
sections on Apollinaris. See also Teuffel and Ebert's histories of
Latin literature.

APOLLO (Gr. [Greek: Apollon, Apellon]), in Greek mythology, one of the most important and many-sided of the Olympian divinities. No satisfactory etymology of the name has been given, the least improbable perhaps being that which connects it with the Doric [Greek: apella] ("assembly")[1] so that Apollo would be the god of political life (for other suggested derivations, ancient and modern, see C. Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencyclopadie_). The derivation of all the functions assigned to him from the idea of a single original light- or sun-god, worked out in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_ by Roscher, who regards it as "one of the most certain facts in mythology," has not found general acceptance, although no doubt some features of his character can be readily explained on this assumption.

In the legend, as set forth in the Homeric hymn to Apollo and the ode of Callimachus to Delos, Apollo is the son of Zeus and Leto. The latter, pursued by the jealous Hera, after long wandering found shelter in Delos (originally Asteria), where she bore a son, Apollo, under a palm-tree at the foot of Mount Cynthus. Before this, Delos--like Rhodes, the centre of the worship of the sun-god Helios, with whom Apollo was wrongly identified in later times--had been a barren, floating rock, but now became stationary, being fastened down by chains to the bottom of the sea. Apollo was born on the 7th day ([Greek: Ebdomagenes]) of the month Thargelion according to Delian, of the month Bysios according to Delphian, tradition. The 7th and 20th, the days of the new and full moon, were ever afterwards held sacred to him. In Homer Apollo appears only as the god of prophecy, the sender of plagues, and sometimes as a warrior, but elsewhere as exercising the most varied functions. He is the god of agriculture, specially connected with Aristaeus (q.v.), which, originally a mere epithet, became an independent personality (see, however, Farnell, _Cults of the Greek States_, iv. 123). This side of his character is clearly expressed in the titles _Sitalcas_ ("protector of corn"); _Erythibius_ ("preventer of blight"); _Parnopius_ ("destroyer of locusts"); _Smintheus_ ("destroyer of mice"), in which, however, some modern inquirers see a totemistic significance (e.g. A. Lang, "Apollo and the Mouse," in _Custom and Myth_, p. 101; against this, W.W. Fowler, in _Classical Review_, November 1892); _Erithius_ ("god of reapers"); and _Pasparius_ ("god of meal"). He is further the god of vegetation generally--_Nomios_, "god of pastures" (explained, however, by Cicero, as "god of law"), _Hersos_, "sender of the fertilizing dew." Valleys and groves are under his protection, unless the epithets _Napaeus_ and _Hylates_ belong to a more primitive aspect of the god as supporting himself by the chase, and roaming the glades and forests in pursuit of prey. Certain trees and plants, especially the laurel, were sacred to him. As the god of agriculture and vegetation he is naturally connected with the course of the year and the arrangement of the seasons, so important in farming operations, and becomes the orderer of time (_Horomedon_, "ruler of the seasons"), and frequently appears on monuments in company with the Horae.

Apollo is also the protector of cattle and herds, hence _Poimnius_ ("god of flocks"), _Tragius_ ("of goats"), _Kereatas_ ("of horned animals"). _Carneius_ (probably "horned") is considered by some to be a pre-Dorian god of cattle, also connected with harvest operations, whose cult was grafted on to that of Apollo; by others, to have been originally an epithet of Apollo, afterwards detached as a separate personality (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 131). The epithet _Maleatas_, which, as the quantity of the first vowel (a) shows,[2] cannot mean god of "sheep" or "the apple-tree," is probably a local adjective derived from Malea (perhaps Cape Malea), and may refer to an originally distinct personality, subsequently merged in that of Apollo (see below). Apollo himself is spoken of as a keeper of flocks, and the legends of his service as a herdsman with Laomedon and Admetus point in the same direction. Here probably also is to be referred the epithet _Lyceius_, which, formerly connected with [Greek: luk-] ("shine") and used to support the conception of Apollo as a light-god, is now generally referred to [Greek: Lukos] ("wolf") and explained as he who keeps away the wolves from the flock (cf. [Greek: Lukoergos, Lukoktonos]). In accordance with this, the epithet [Greek: Lukogenes] will not mean "born of" or "begetting light," but rather "born from the she-wolf," in which form Leto herself was said to have been conducted by wolves to Delos. The consecration of the wolf to Apollo is probably the relic of an ancient totemistic religion (Farnell, _Cults_, i. 41; W. Robertson Smith, _Religion of the Semites_, new ed., 1894, p. 226).

With the care of the fruits of the earth and the lower animals is associated that of the highest animal, man, especially the youth on his passage to manhood. As such Apollo is [Greek: kourotrophos] ("rearer of boys") and patron of the palaestra. In many places gymnastic contests form a feature of his festivals, and he himself is proficient in athletic exercises ([Greek: enagonios]). Thus he was supposed to be the first victor at the Olympic games; he overcomes Hermes in the foot-race, and Ares in boxing.

The transition is easy to Apollo as a warlike god; in fact, the earlier legends represent him as engaged in strife with Python, Tityus, the Cyclopes and the Aloidae. He is _Boedromios_ ("the helper"), _Eleleus_ ("god of the war-cry"), and the Paean was said to have been originally a song of triumph composed by him after his victory over Python. In Homer he frequently appears on the field, like Ares and Athene, bearing the aegis to frighten the foe. This aspect is confirmed by the epithets _Argyrotoxos_ ("god of the silver bow"), _Hecatebolos_ ("the shooter from afar"), _Chrysaoros_ ("wearer of the golden sword"), and his statues are often equipped with the accoutrements of war.[3]

The fame of the Pythian oracle at Delphi, connected with the slaying of Python by the god immediately after his birth, gave especial prominence to the idea of Apollo as a god of prophecy. Python, always represented in the form of a snake, sometimes nameless, is the symbol of the old chthonian divinity whose home was the place of "enquiry" ([Greek: pythesthai]). When Apollo Delphinius with his worshippers from Crete took possession of the earth-oracle Python, he received in consequence the name Pythius. That Python was no fearful monster, symbolizing the darkness of winter which is scattered by the advent of spring, is shown by the fact that Apollo was considered to have been guilty of murder in slaying it, and compelled to wander for a term of years and expiate his crime by servitude and purification. Possibly at Delphi and other places there was an old serpent-worship ousted by that of Apollo, which may account for expiation for the slaying of Python being considered necessary. In the solar explanation, the serpent is the darkness driven away by the rays of the sun. (On the Delphian cult of Apollo and its political significance, see AMPHICTYONY, DELPHI, ORACLE; and Farnell, _Cults_, iv. pp. 179-218.) Oracular responses were also given at Claros near Colophon in Ionia by means of the water of a spring which inspired those who drank of it; at Patara in Lycia; and at Didyma near Miletus through the priestly family of the Branchidae. Apollo's oracles, which he did not deliver on his own initiative but as the mouthpiece of Zeus, were infallible, but the human mind was not always able to grasp their meaning; hence he is called _Loxias_ ("crooked," "ambiguous"). To certain favoured mortals he communicated the gift of prophecy (Cassandra, the Cumaean sibyl, Helenus, Melampus and Epimenides). Although his favourite method was by word of mouth, yet signs were sometimes used; thus Calchas interpreted the flight of birds; burning offerings, sacrificial barley, the arrow of the god, dreams and the lot, all played their part in communicating the will of the gods.

Closely connected with the god of oracles was the god of the healing art, the oracle being frequently consulted in cases of sickness. These two functions are indicated by the titles _Iatromantis_ ("physician and seer") and _Oulios_, probably meaning "health-giving" (so Suidas) rather than "destructive." This side of Apollo's character does not appear in Homer, where Paieon is mentioned as the physician of the gods. Here again, as in the case of Aristaeus and Carneius, the question arises whether Paean (or Paeon) was originally an epithet of Apollo, subsequently developed into an independent personality, or an independent deity merged in the later arrival (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 234). According to Wilamowitz-Mollendorff in his edition of Isyllus, the epithet Maleatas alluded to above is also connected with the functions of the healing god, imported into Athens in the 4th century B.C. with other well-known health divinities. In this connexion, it is said to mean the "gentle one," who gave his name to the rock Malion or Maleas (O. Gruppe, _Griechische Mythologie_, ii. 1442) on the Gortynian coast. Apollo is further supposed to be the father of Asclepius (Aesculapius), whose ritual is closely modelled upon his. The healing god could also prevent disease and misfortune of all kinds: hence he is [Greek: alexikakos] ("averter of evil") and [Greek: apotropaios]. Further, he is able to purify the guilty and to cleanse from sin (here some refer the epithet [Greek: iatromantis], in the sense of "physician of the soul"). Such a task can be fitly undertaken by Apollo, since he himself underwent purification after slaying Python. According to the Delphic legend, this took place in the laurel grove of Tempe, and after nine years of penance the god returned, as was represented in the festival called Stepterion or Septerion (see A. Mommsen, _Delphika_, 1878). Thus the old law of blood for blood, which only perpetuated the crime from generation to generation, gave way to the milder idea of the expiatory power of atonement for murder (cf. the court called [Greek: to epi Delphinio] at Athens, which retained jurisdiction in cases where justifiable homicide was pleaded).

The same element of enthusiasm that affects the priestess of the oracle at Delphi produces song and music. The close connexion between prophecy and song is indicated in Homer (_Odyssey_, viii. 488), where Odysseus suggests that the lay of the fall of Troy by Demodocus was inspired by Apollo or the Muse. The metrical form of the oracular responses at Delphi, the important part played by the paean and the Pythian nomos in his ritual, contributed to make Apollo a god of song and music, friend and leader of the Muses ([Greek: mousagetes]). He plays the lyre at the banquets of the gods, and causes Marsyas to be flayed alive because he had boasted of his superior skill in playing the flute, and the ears of Midas to grow long because he had declared in favour of Pan, who contended that the flute was a better instrument than Apollo's favourite, the lyre.

A less important aspect of Apollo is that of a marine deity, due to the spread of his cult to the Greek colonies and islands. As such, his commonest name is _Delphinius_, the "dolphin god," in whose honour the festival Delphinia was celebrated in Attica. This cult probably originated in Crete, whence the god in the form of a dolphin led his Cretan worshippers to the Delphian shore, where he bade them erect an altar in his honour. He is _Epibaterius_ and _Apobaterius_ ("embarker" and "disembarker"), _Nasiotas_ ("the islander"), _Euryalus_ ("god of the broad sea"). Like Poseidon, he looks forth over his watery kingdom from lofty cliffs and promontories ([Greek: aktaios], and perhaps [Greek: akritas]).

These maritime cults of Apollo are probably due to his importance as the god of colonization, who accompanied emigrants on their voyage. As such he is [Greek: agetor] ("leader"), [Greek: oikistes] ("founder"), [Greek: domatites] ("god of the home"). As _Agyieus_ ("god of streets and ways"), in the form of a stone pillar with painted head, placed before the doors of houses, he let in the good and kept out the evil (see Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 150, who takes Agyieus to mean "leader"); on the epithet _Prostaterius_, he who "stands before the house," hence "protector," see G.M. Hirst in _Journal of Hellenic Studies_, xxii. (1902). Lastly, as the originator and protector of civil order, Apollo was regarded as the founder of cities and legislation. Thus, at Athens, Apollo _Patroos_ was known as the protector of the lonians, and the Spartans referred the institutions of Lycurgus to the Delphic oracle.

It has been mentioned above that W.H. Roscher, in the article "Apollo" in his _Lexikon der Mythologie_, derives all the aspects and functions of Apollo from the conception of an original light-and sun-god. The chief objections to this are the following. It cannot be shown that on _Greek_ soil Apollo originally had the meaning of a sun-god; in Homer, Aeschylus and Plato, the sun-god Helios is distinctly separated from Phoebus Apollo; the constant epithet [Greek: Phoibos], usually explained as the brightness of the sun, may equally well refer to his physical beauty or moral purity; [Greek: lykegenes] has already been noticed. It is not until the beginning of the 5th century B.C. that the identification makes its appearance. The first literary evidence is a fragment of Euripides (_Phaethon_), in which it is especially characterized as an innovation. The idea was taken up by the Stoics, and in the Roman period generally accepted. But the fact of the gradual development of Apollo as a god of light and heaven, and his identification with foreign sun-gods, is no proof of an original Greek solar conception of him. Apollo-Helios must be regarded as "a late by-product of Greek religion" (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 136; Wernicke in Pauly-Wissowa's _Realencydopadie_). For the manner in which the solar theory is developed, reference must be made to Roscher's article, but one legend may here be mentioned, since it helps to trace the spread of the cult of the god. It was said that Apollo soon after his birth spent a year amongst the Hyperboreans, who dwelt in a land of perpetual sunshine, before his return to Delphi. This return is explained as the second birth of the god and his victory over the powers of winter; the name Hyperboreans is explained as the "dwellers beyond the north wind." This interpretation is now, however, generally rejected in favour of that of H.L. Ahrens,--that Hyperborei is identical with the Perpherees ("the carriers"), who are described as the servants of Apollo, carriers of cereal offerings from one community to another (Herodotus iv. 33). This would point to the fact that certain settlements of Apolline worship along the northernmost border of Greece (Illyria, Thrace, Macedonia) were in the habit of sending offerings to the god to a centre of his worship farther south (probably Delphi), advancing by the route from Tempe through Thessaly, Pherae and Doris to Delphi; while others adopted the route through Illyria, Epirus, Dodona, the Malian gulf, Carystus in Euboea, and Tenos to Delos (Farnell, _Cults_, iv. p. 100).

The most usual attributes of Apollo were the lyre and the bow; the tripod especially was dedicated to him as the god of prophecy. Among plants, the bay, used in expiatory sacrifices and also for making the crown of victory at the Pythian games, and the palm-tree, under which he was born in Delos, were sacred to him; among animals and birds, the wolf, the roe, the swan, the hawk, the raven, the crow, the snake, the mouse, the grasshopper and the griffin, a mixture of the eagle and the lion evidently of Eastern origin. The swan and grasshopper symbolize music and song; the hawk, raven, crow and snake have reference to his functions as the god of prophecy.

The chief festivals held in honour of Apollo were the Carneia, Daphnephoria, Delia, Hyacinthia, Pyanepsia, Pythia and Thargelia (see separate articles).