Chapter III: Front Matter (3)

MARC ANTOINE RENE DE VOYER, marquis de Paulmy d'Argenson (1722-1787), nephew of the preceding and son of Rene Louis, was born at Valenciennes on the 22nd of November 1722. Appointed councillor at the parlement (1744), and _maitre des requetes_ (1747), he was associated with his father in the ministry of foreign affairs and with his uncle in the ministry of war, and, in recognition of this experience, was commissioned to inspect the troops and fortifications and sent on embassy to Switzerland (1748). In 1751 his uncle recognized him as his deputy and made over to him the reversion of the secretariate of war. He then worked on the great reform of the army, and after the dismissal of his uncle became minister of war (February 1757). But the outbreak of the Seven Years' War made this post exceedingly difficult to hold, and he resigned on the 23rd of March 1758. He was ambassador to Poland from 1762 to 1764, but failed to procure the nomination of the French candidate to that throne. From 1766 to 1770 he was ambassador at Venice. Failing to obtain the embassy at Rome, he retired at the age of forty-eight and devoted the rest of his life to indulging his tastes for history and biography. He brought together a large library, very rich in French poetry and romance, and undertook various publications with the help of his librarian. In 1775 he began his _Bibliotheque universelle des romans_, of which forty volumes appeared within three years, but subsequently handed over the publication to other editors. His great work, _Melanges tires d'une grande bibliotheque_, was published in 65 volumes (Paris, 1779-1788). At his death he forbade his library to be dispersed: it was bought by the comte d'Artois (afterwards Charles X.) and formed the nucleus of the present Bibliotheque de l'Arsenal at Paris (the marquis having been governor of the arsenal). He died on the 13th of August 1787.

See contemporary memoirs; also Dacier's eulogium in the _Academie des
Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres_ (November 1788); and Sainte-Beuve,
_Causeries du lundi_ (vol. xii.).

MARC RENE, marquis de Voyer de Paulmy d'Argenson (1721-1782), known as the marquis de Voyer, son of Marc Pierre de Voyer, the minister of war, was born in Paris on the 20th of September 1721. He served in the army of Italy and the army of Flanders in the War of the Austrian Succession, and was _mestre de camp_ (proprietary colonel) of the regiment of Berry cavalry at the battle of Fontenoy (May 10, 1745), where he was promoted brigadier. He was associated with his father in his work of reorganizing the army, was made inspector of cavalry and dragoons (1749), and succeeded his father as master of the horse (1752). He introduced English horses into France. He was lieutenant-general of Upper Alsace in 1753 and governor of Vincennes in 1754, and served afterwards under Soubise in the Seven Years' War. He was wounded at Crefeld in 1758, and was promoted lieutenant-general (1759). He followed his father into exile at Les Ormes (1763), and in the last years of the reign of Louis XV. sided with the malcontents headed by Choiseul; but on the rupture with England he rejoined the service of the king (1775). He was appointed inspector of the sea-board, and put the roadstead of the island of Aix in a state of defence during the American War of Independence. He caught marsh-fever while attempting to drain the marshes of Rochefort, and died at Les Ormes on the 18th of September 1782.

MARC RENE MARIE DE VOYER DE PAULMY, marquis d'Argenson (1771-1842), son of the preceding, was born in Paris in September 1771. He was brought up by his father's cousin, the marquis de Paulmy, governor of the arsenal, and was made lieutenant of dragoons in 1789. Although, at the age of eighteen, he had succeeded to several estates and a large fortune, he embraced the revolutionary cause, joining the army of the North as Lafayette's aide-de-camp and remaining with it even after Lafayette's defection. Leaving France to take one of his sisters to England, he was denounced on his return as a royalist conspirator, on the charge of having in his possession portraits of the royal family. He then went to live in Touraine, married the widow of Prince Victor de Broglie, and saved her and her children from proscription. He introduced new agricultural instruments and processes on his estates, and installed machinery imported from England in his ironworks in Alsace. He was an enthusiastic adherent of Napoleon, by whom he was appointed in May 1809 prefect of Deux-Nethes. He helped to repel the English invasion of the islands of South Beveland and Walcheren (August 1809), and afterwards directed the defence works of Antwerp, but resigned this post (March 1813) in consequence of the complaints of the inhabitants and the exacting demands of the emperor. In May 1814 he refused the prefecture of Marseilles offered to him by the Bourbons, but was elected deputy from Belfort in 1815 during the Hundred Days. On the 5th of July 1815 he took part in the declaration protesting against any tampering with the immutable rights of the nation. He was a member of the _Chambre introuvable_, where he became one of the orators of the democratic party. He was one of the founders of the journal _Le censeur europeen_ and of the _Club de la liberte de la presse_, and was an uncompromising opponent of reaction. Not re-elected in 1824 on account of his liberal ideas, he returned to the chamber under the Martignac ministry (1828), and resolutely persisted in his championship of the liberty of the press and of public worship. On the death of his wife he voluntarily renounced his mandate (July 1829), and hailed the revolution of 1830 with great satisfaction. On the 3rd of November 1830 he was elected to the chamber as deputy from Chatellerault, and took the oath, adding, however, the reservation "subject to the progress of the public reason." His independent attitude resulted in his defeat in the following year at the Chatellerault election, but he was returned for Strassburg. He wished the incidence of the taxes to be arranged according to social condition, and advocated a single tax proportionate to income like the English income tax. He harped incessantly on this idea in his speeches and articles (see his letters in _La Tribune_ of June 20, 1832). Although he was a proprietor of ironworks he opposed the protectionist laws, which he considered injurious to the workmen. He became the mouthpiece of the advanced ideas; subsidized the opposition newspapers, especially the _National_; received into his house F.M. Buonarroti, who in 1796 had been implicated in the conspiracy of "Gracchus" Babeuf (q.v.); and became a member of the committee of the Society of the Rights of Man. He was even sued in the courts for a pamphlet called _Boutade d'un homme riche a sentiments populaires_, and delivered a speech to the jury in which he displayed very daring social theories. But he gradually grew discouraged and retired from public affairs, refusing even municipal office, and living in seclusion at La Grange in the forest of Guerche, where he devoted his inventive faculty to devising agricultural improvements. He subsequently returned to Paris, where he died on the 1st of August 1842.

CHARLES MARC RENE DE VOYER, marquis d'Argenson (1796-1862), son of the preceding, was born at Boulogne-sur-Spine on the 20th of April 1796. He concerned himself little with politics. He was, however, a member of the council-general of Vienne for six years, but was expelled from it in 1840 in consequence of his advanced ideas and his relations with the Opposition. In 1848 he was elected deputy from Vienne to the Constituent Assembly by 12,000 votes. He was an active member of the Archaeological Society of Touraine and the Society of Antiquaries of the West, and wrote learned works for these bodies. He collaborated in preparing the archives of the scientific congress at Tours in 1847; brought out two editions of the MSS. of his great-grand-uncle, the minister of foreign affairs under Louis XV., under the title _Memoires du marquis d'Argenson_, one in 1825, and the other, in 5 vols., in 1857-1858; and published _Discours et opinions de mon pere, M. Voyer d'Argenson_ (2 vols., 1845). He died on the 31st of July, 1862.

ARGENTAN, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Orne, 27 m. N.N.W. of Alencon on the railway from Le Mans to Caen. Pop. (1906) 5072. It is situated on the slope of a hill on the right bank of the Orne at its confluence with the Ure. The town has remains of old fortifications, among them the Tour Marguerite, and a chateau, now used as a law-court, dating from the 15th century. The church of St Germain (15th, 16th and 17th centuries) has several features of architectural beauty, notably the sculptured northern portal, and the central and western towers. The church of St Martin, dating from the 15th century, has good stained glass. The handsome modern town-hall contains among other institutions the tribunal of commerce, the museum and the library. Argentan is the seat of a sub-prefect, has a tribunal of first instance and a communal college. Leather-working and the manufacture of stained glass are leading industries. There are quarries of limestone in the vicinity. Argentan was a viscounty from the 11th century onwards; it was often taken and pillaged. During the Religious Wars it remained attached to the Catholic party. Francois Eudes de Mezeray, the historian, was born near the town, and a monument has been erected to his memory.

ARGENTEUIL, a town of northern France in the department of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 5 m. N.W. of the fortifications of Paris by the railway from Paris to Mantes. Pop. (1906) 17,330. Argenteuil grew up round a monastery, which, dating from A.D. 656, was by Charlemagne changed into a nunnery; it was afterwards famous for its connexion with Heloise (see ABELARD), and on her expulsion in 1129 was again turned into a monastery. Asparagus, figs, and wine of medium quality are grown in the district; and heavy iron goods, chemical products, clocks and plaster are among the manufactures.

ARGENTINA, or the ARGENTINE REPUBLIC (officially, _Republica Argentina_), a country occupying the greater part of the southern extremity of South America. It is of wedge shape, extending from 21 deg. 55' S. to the most southerly point of the island of Tierra del Fuego in 55 deg. 2' 30" S., while its extremes of longitude are 53 deg. 40' on the Brazilian frontier and 73 deg. 17' 30" W. on the Chilean frontier. Its length from north to south is 2285 statute miles, and its greatest width about 930 m. It is the second largest political division of the continent, having an area of 1,083,596 sq. m. (Gotha measurement). It is bounded N. by Bolivia and Paraguay, E. by Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay and the Atlantic, W. by Chile, and S. by the converging lines of the Atlantic and Chile.

_Boundaries._--At different times Argentina has been engaged in disputes over boundary lines with every one of her neighbours, that with Chile being only settled in 1902. Beginning at the estuary of the Rio de la Plata, the boundary line ascends the Uruguay river, on the eastern side of the strategically important island of Martin Garcia, to the mouth of the Pequiry, thence under the award of President Grover Cleveland in 1894 up that small river to its source and in a direct line to the source of the Santo Antonio, a small tributary of the Iguassu, thence down the Santo Antonio and Iguassu to the upper Parana, which forms the southern boundary of Paraguay. From the confluence of the upper Parana and Paraguay the line ascends the latter to the mouth of the Pilcomayo, which river, under the award of President R.B. Hayes in 1878, forms the boundary between Argentina and Paraguay from the Paraguay river north-west to the Bolivian frontier. In accordance with the Argentine-Bolivian treaty of 1889 the boundary line between these republics continues up the Pilcomayo to the 22nd parallel, thence west to the Tarija river, which it follows down to the Bermejo, thence up the latter to its source, and westerly through the Quiaca ravine and across to a point on the San Juan river opposite Esmoraca. From this point it ascends the San Juan south and west to the Cerro de Granadas, and thence south-west to Cerro Incahuasi and Cerro Zapalegui on the Chilean frontier. The boundary with Chile, extending across more than 32 deg. lat., had been the cause of disputes for many years, which at times led to costly preparations for war. The debts of the two nations resulted largely from this one cause. In 1881 a treaty was signed which provided that the boundary line should follow the highest crests of the Andes forming the watershed as far south as the 52nd parallel, thence east to the 70th meridian and south-east to Cape Dungeness at the eastern entrance to the Straits of Magellan. Crossing the Straits the line should follow the meridian of 68 deg. 44', south to Beagle Channel, and thence east to the Atlantic, giving Argentina the eastern part of the Tierra del Fuego and Staten Island. By this agreement Argentina was confirmed in the possession of the greater part of Patagonia, while Chile gained control of the Straits of Magellan, much adjacent territory on the north, the larger part of Tierra del Fuego and all the neighbouring islands south and west.

When the attempt was made to mark this boundary the commissioners were unable to agree on a line across the Puna de Atacama in the north, where parallel ranges enclosing a high arid plateau without any clearly defined drainage to the Atlantic or Pacific, gave an opportunity for conflicting claims. In the south the broken character of the Cordillera, pierced in places by large rivers flowing into the Pacific and having their upper drainage basins on the eastern side of the line of highest crests, gave rise to unforeseen and very difficult questions. Finally, under a convention of the 17th of April 1896, these conflicting claims were submitted to arbitration. In 1899 a mixed commission with Hon. W.I. Buchanan, United States minister at Buenos Aires, serving as arbitrator, reached a decision on the Atacama line north of 26 deg. 52' 45" S. lat., which was a compromise though it gave the greater part of the territory to Argentina. The line starts at the intersection of the 23rd parallel with the 67th meridian and runs south-westerly and southerly to the mountain and volcano summits of Rincon, Socompa, Llullaillaco, Azufre, Aguas Blancas and Sierra Nevada, thence to the initial point of the British award. (See _Geogr. Jour._, 1899, xiv. 322-323.) The line south of 26 deg. 52' 45" S. lat. had been located by the commissioners of the two republics with the exception of four sections. These were referred to the arbitration of Queen Victoria, and, after a careful survey under the direction of Sir Thomas H. Holdich, the award was rendered by King Edward VII. in 1902. (See _Geogr. Jour._, 1903, xxi. 45-50.) In the first section the line starts from a pillar erected in the San Francisco pass, about 26 deg. 50' S. lat., and follows the water-parting southward to the highest peak of the Tres Cruces mountains in 27 deg. 0' 45" S. lat., 68 deg. 49' 5" W. long. In the second, the line runs from 40 deg. 2' S. lat., 71 deg. 40' 36" W. long., along the water-parting to the southern termination of the Cerro Perihueico in the valley of the Huahum river, thence across that river, 71 deg. 40' 36" W. long., and along the water-parting around the upper basin of the Huahum to a junction with the line previously determined. In the third and longest section, the line starts from a pillar erected in the Perez Rosales pass, near Lake Nahuel-Huapi, and follows the water-parting southward to the highest point of Mt. Tronador, and thence in a very tortuous course along local water-partings and across the Chilean rivers Manso, Puelo, Fetaleufu, Palena, Pico and Aisen, and the lakes Buenos Aires, Pueyrredon and San Martin, to avoid the inclusion of Argentine settlements within Chilean territory, to the Cerro Fitzroy and continental water-parting north-west of Lake Viedma, between 49 deg. and 50 deg. S. lat. The northern half of this line does not run far from the 72nd meridian, except in 44 deg. 30' S. where it turns eastward nearly a degree to include the upper valley of the Frias river in Chilean territory, but south of the 49th parallel it curves westward to give Argentina sole possession of lakes Viedma and Argentino. The fourth section, which was made particularly difficult of solution by the extension inland of the Pacific coast inlets and sounds and by the Chilean colonies located there, was adjusted by running the line eastward from the point of divergence in 50 deg. 50' S. lat. along the Sierra Baguales, thence south and south-east to the 52nd parallel, crossing several streams and following the crests of the Cerro Cazador. The Chilean settlement of Ultima Esperanza (Last Hope), over which there had been much controversy, remains under Chilean jurisdiction.

_Physical Geography._--For purposes of surface description, Argentina
may be divided primarily into three great divisions--the mountainous
zone and tablelands of the west, extending the full length of the
republic; the great plains of the east, extending from the Pilcomayo
to the Rio Negro; and the desolate, arid steppes of Patagonia. The
first covers from one-third to one-fourth of the width of the country
between the Bolivian frontier and the Rio Negro, and comprises the
elevated Cordilleras and their plateaus, with flanking ranges and
spurs toward the east. In the extreme north, extending southward from
the great Bolivian highlands, there are several parallel ranges, the
most prominent of which are: the Sierra de Santa Catalina, from which
the detached Cachi, Gulumpaji and Famatina ranges project southward;
and the Sierra de Santa Victoria, south of which are the Zenta,
Aconquija, Ambato and Ancaste ranges. These minor ranges, excepting
the Zenta, are separated from the Andean masses by comparatively low
depressions and are usually described as distinct ranges;
topographically, however, they seem to form a continuation of the
ranges running southward from the Santa Victoria and forming the
eastern rampart of the great central plateau of which the Puna de
Atacama covers a large part. The elevated plateaus between these
ranges are semi-arid and inhospitable, and are covered with extensive
saline basins, which become lagoons in the wet season and morasses or
dry salt-pans in the dry season. These saline basins extend down to
the lower terraces of Cordoba, Mendoza and La Pampa. Flanking this
great widening of the Andes on the south-east are the three short
parallel ranges of Cordoba, belonging to another and older formation.
North of them is the great saline depression, known as the "salinas
grandes," 643 ft. above sea-level, where it is crossed by a railway;
north-east is another extensive saline basin enclosing the "Mar
Chiquita" (of Cordoba) and the morasses into which the waters of the
Rio Saladillo disappear; and on the north are the more elevated
plains, partly saline, of western Cordoba, which separate this
isolated group of mountains from the Andean spurs of Rioja and San
Luis. The eastern ranges parallel to the Andes are here broken into
detached extensions and spurs, which soon disappear in the elevated
western pampas, and the Andes contract south of Aconcagua to a single
range, which descends gradually to the great plains of La Pampa and
Neuquen. The lower terrace of this great mountainous region, with
elevations ranging from 1000 to 1500 ft., is in reality the western
margin of the great Argentine plain, and may be traced from Oran (1017
ft.) near the Bolivian frontier southward through Tucuman (1476 ft.),
Frias (1129 ft.), Cordoba (1279 ft.), Rio Cuarto (1358 ft.), Paunero
(1250 ft.), and thence westward and southward through still unsettled
regions to the Rio Negro at the confluence of the Neuquen and Limay.

The Argentine part of the great La Plata plain extends from the
Pilcomayo south to the Rio Negro, and from the lower terraces of the
Andes eastward to the Uruguay and Atlantic. In the north the plain is
known as the Gran Chaco, and includes the country between the
Pilcomayo and Salado del Norte and an extensive depression immediately
north of the latter river, believed to be the undisturbed bottom of
the ancient Pampean sea. The northern part of the Gran Chaco is partly
wooded and swampy, and as the slope eastward is very gentle and the
rivers much obstructed by sand bars, floating trees and vegetation,
large areas are regularly flooded during rainy seasons. South of the
Bermejo the land is more elevated and drier, though large depressions
covered with marshy lagoons are to be found, similar to those farther
north. The forests here are heavier. Still farther south and
south-west there are open grassy plains and large areas covered with
salt-pans. The general elevation of the Chaco varies from 600 to 800
ft. above sea-level. The Argentine "mesopotamia," between the Parana
and Uruguay rivers, belongs in great measure to this same region,
being partly wooded, flat and swampy in the north (Corrientes), but
higher and undulating in the south (Entre Rios). The Misiones
territory of the extreme north-east belongs to the older highlands of
Brazil, is densely wooded, and has ranges of hills sometimes rising to
a height of 1000 to 1300 ft.

The remainder of the great Argentine plain is the treeless, grassy
_pampa_ (Quichua for "level spaces"), apparently a dead level, but in
reality rising gradually from the Atlantic westward toward the Andes.
Evidence of this is to be found in the altitudes of the stations on
the Buenos Aires and Pacific railway running a little north of west
across the pampas to Mendoza. The average elevation of Buenos Aires is
about 65 ft.; of Mercedes, 70 m. westward, 132 ft.; of Junin (160 m.),
267 ft.; and of Paunero (400 m.) it is 1250 ft., showing an average
rise of about 3 ft. in a mile. The apparently uniform level of the
pampas is much broken along its southern margin by the Tandil and
Ventana sierras, and by ranges of hills and low mountains in the
southern and western parts of the territory of La Pampa. Extensive
depressions also are found, some of which are subject to inundations,
as along the lower Salado in Buenos Aires and along the lower courses
of the Colorado and Negro. In the extreme west, which is as yet but
slightly explored and settled, there is an extensive depressed area,
largely saline in character, which drains into lakes and morasses,
having no outlet to the ocean. The rainfall is under 6 in. annually,
but the drainage from the eastern slopes of the Andes is large enough
to meet the loss from evaporation and keep these inland lakes from
drying up. At an early period this depressed area drained southward to
the Colorado, and the bed of the old outlet can still be traced. The
rivers belonging to this inland drainage system are the Vermejo, San
Juan and Desaguadero, with their affluents, and their southward flow
can be traced from about 28 deg. S. lat. to the great lagoons and
morasses between 36 deg. and 37 deg. S. lat. in the western part of La
Pampa territory. Some of the principal affluents are the Vinchina and
Jachal, or Zanjon, which flow into the Vermejo, the Patos, which flows
into the San Juan, and the Mendoza, Tunuyan and Diamante which flow
into the Desaguadero, all of these being Andean snow-fed rivers. The
Desaguadero also receives the outflow of the Laguna Bebedero, an
intensely saline lake of western San Luis. The lower course of the
Desaguadero is known as the Salado because of the brackish character
of its water. Another considerable river flowing into the same great
morass is the Atuel, which rises in the Andes not far south of the
Diamante. (A description of the Patagonian part of Argentina will be
found under PATAGONIA.)

_Rivers and Lakes._--The hydrography of Argentina is of the simplest
character. The three great rivers that form the La Plata system--the
Paraguay, Parana and Uruguay--have their sources in the highlands of
Brazil and flow southward through a great continental depression, two
of them forming eastern boundary lines, and one of them, the Parana,
flowing across the eastern part of the republic. The northern part of
Argentina, therefore, drains eastward from the mountains to these
rivers, except where some great inland depression gives rise to a
drainage having no outlet to the sea, and except, also, in the
"mesopotamia" region, where small streams flow westward into the
Parana and eastward into the Uruguay. The largest of the rivers
through which Argentina drains into the Plata system are the
Pilcomayo, which rises in Bolivia and flows south-east along the
Argentine frontier for about 400 m.; the Bermejo, which rises on the
northern frontier and flows south-east into the Paraguay; and the
Salado del Norte (called Rio del Jura-mento in its upper course),
which rises on the high mountain slopes of western Salta and flows
south-east into the Parana. Another river of this class is the
Carcaranal, about 300 m. long, formed by the confluence of the Tercero
and Cuarto, whose sources are in the Sierra de Cordoba; it flows
eastward across the pampas, and discharges into the Parana at Gaboto,
about 40 m. above Rosario. Other small rivers rising in the Cordoba
sierras are the Primero and Segundo, which flow into the lagoons of
north-east Cordoba, and the Quinto, which flows south-easterly into
the lagoons and morasses of southern Cordoba. The Lujan rises near
Mercedes, province of Buenos Aires, is about 150 m. long, and flows
north-easterly into the Parana delta. Many smaller streams discharge
into the Paraguay and Parana from the west, some of them wholly
dependent upon the rains, and drying up during long droughts. The
Argentine "mesopotamia" is well watered by a large number of small
streams flowing north and west into the Parana, and east into the
Uruguay. The largest of these are the Corrientes, Feliciano and
Gualeguay of the western slope, and the Aguapey and Mirinay of the
eastern. None of the tributaries of the La Plata system thus far
mentioned is navigable except the lower Pilcomayo and Bermejo for a
few miles. These Chaco rivers are obstructed by sand bars and snags,
which could be removed only by an expenditure of money unwarranted by
the present population and traffic. In the southern pampa region there
are many small streams, flowing into the La Plata estuary and the
Atlantic; most of these are unknown by name outside the republic. The
largest and only important river is the Salado del Sud, which rises in
the north-west corner of the province of Buenos Aires and flows
south-east for a distance of 360 m. into the bay of Samborombon. On
the southern margin of the pampas are the Colorado and Negro, both
large, navigable rivers flowing entirely across the republic from the
Andes to the Atlantic. Many of the rivers of Argentina, as implied by
their names (Salado and Saladillo), are saline or brackish in
character, and are of slight use in the pastoral and agricultural
industries of the country. The lakes of Argentina are exceptionally
numerous, although comparatively few are large enough to merit a name
on the ordinary general map. They vary from shallow, saline lagoons in
the north-western plateaus, to great, picturesque, snow-fed lakes in
the Andean foothills of Patagonia. The province of Buenos Aires has
more than 600 lakes, the great majority small, and some brackish. The
La Pampa territory also is dotted with small lakes. The Bebedero, in
San Luis, and Porongos, in Cordoba, and others, are shallow, saline
lakes which receive the drainage of a considerable area and have no
outlet. The large saline Mar Chiquita, of Cordoba, is fed from the
Sierra de Cordoba and has no outlet. In the northern part of
Gorrientes there is a large area of swamps and shallow lagoons which
are believed to be slowly drying up.

_Harbours._--Although having a great extent of coast-line, Argentina
has but few really good harbours. The two most frequented by
ocean-going vessels are Buenos Aires and Ensenada (La Plata), both of
which have been constructed at great expense to overcome natural
disadvantages. Perhaps the best natural harbour of the republic is
that of Bahia Blanca, a large bay of good depth, sheltered by islands,
and 534 m. by sea south of Buenos Aires; here the government is
building a naval station and port called Puerto Militar or Puerto
Belgrano, and little dredging is needed to render the harbour
accessible to the largest ocean-going vessels. About 100 m. south of
Bahia Blanca is the sheltered bay of San Bias, which may become of
commercial importance, and between the 42nd and 43rd parallels are the
land-locked bays of San Jose and Nueva (Golfo Nuevo)--the first as yet
unused; on the latter is Puerto Madryn, 838 m. from Buenos Aires, the
outlet for the Welsh colony of Chubut. Other small harbours on the
lower Patagonian coast are not prominent, owing to lack of population.
An occasional Argentine steamer visits these ports in the interests of
colonists. The beet-known among them are Puerto Deseado (Port Desire)
at the mouth of the Deseado river (1253 m.), Santa Cruz, at the mouth
of the Santa Cruz river (1481 m.), and Ushuaia, on Beagle Channel,
Tierra del Fuego. North of Buenos Aires, on the Parana river, is the
port of Rosario, the outlet for a rich agricultural district, ranking
next to the federal capital in importance. Other river ports, of less
importance, are Concordia on the Uruguay river, San Nicolas and
Campana on the Parana river, Santa Fe on the Salado, a few miles from
the Parana, the city of Parana on the Parana river, and Gualeguay on
the Gualeguay river.

_Geology._--The Pampas of Argentina are generally covered by loess.
The Cordillera, which bounds them on the west, is formed of folded
beds, while the Sierras which rise in their midst, consist mainly of
gneiss, granite and schist. In the western Sierras, which are more or
less closely attached to the main chain of the Cordillera, Cambrian
and Silurian fossils have been found at several places. These older
beds are overlaid, especially in the western part of the country, by a
sandstone series which contains thin seams of coal and many remains of
plants. At Bajo de Velis, in San Luis, the plants belong to the
"Glossopteris flora," which is so widely spread in South Africa, India
and Australia, and the beds are correlated with the Karharbari series
of India (Permian or Permo-Carboni-ferous). Elsewhere the plants
generally indicate a higher horizon and are considered to correspond
with the Rhaetic of Europe. Jurassic beds are known only in the
Cordillera itself, and the Cretaceous beds, which occur in the west of
the country, are of fresh-water origin. As far west, therefore, as the
Cordillera, there is no evidence that any part of the region was ever
beneath the sea in Mesozoic times, and the plant-remains indicate a
land connexion with Africa. This view is supported by Neumayr's
comparison of Jurassic faunas throughout the world. The Lower Tertiary
consists largely of reddish sandstones resting upon the old rocks of
the Cordillera and of the Sierras. Towards the east they lie at a
lower level; but in the Andes they reach a height of nearly 10,000
ft., and are strongly folded, showing that the elevation of the chain
was not completed until after their deposition. The marine facies of
the later Tertiaries is confined to the neighbourhood of the coast,
and was probably formed after the elevation of the Andes; but inland,
fresh-water deposits of this period are met with, especially in
Patagonia. Contemporaneous volcanic rocks are associated with the
Ordovician beds and with the Rhaetic sandstones in several places.
During the Tertiary period the great volcanoes of the Andes were
formed, and there were smaller eruptions in the Sierras. The principal
rocks are andesites, but trachytes and basalts are also common. Great
masses of granite, syenite and diorite were intruded at this period,
and send tongues even into the andesitic tuffs.

Silver, gold, lead and copper ores occur in many localities. They are
found chiefly in the neighbourhood of the eruptive masses of the hilly
regions. (See also ANDES.)[1]

_Climate._--The great extent of Argentina in latitude--about 33
deg.--and its range in altitude from sea-level westward to the
permanently snow-covered peaks of the Andes, give it a highly
diversified climate, which is further modified by prevailing winds and
mountain barriers. The temperature and rainfall are governed by
conditions different from those in corresponding latitudes of the
northern hemisphere. Southern Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, for
instance, although they correspond in latitude to Labrador, are made
habitable and an excellent sheep-grazing country by the southerly
equatorial current along the continental coast. The climate, however,
is colder than the corresponding latitudes of western Europe, because
of the prevailing westerly winds, chilled in crossing the Andes. In
the extreme north-west an elevated region, whose aridity is caused by
the "blanketing" influence of the eastern Andean ranges, extends
southward to Mendoza. The northern part of the republic, east of the
mountains, is subject to the oscillatory movements of the south-east
trade winds, which cause a division of the year into wet and dry
seasons. Farther south, in Patagonia, the prevailing wind is westerly,
in which case the Andes again "blanket" an extensive region and
deprive it of rain, turning it into an arid desolate steppe. Below
this region, where the Andean barrier is low and broken, the moist
westerly winds sweep over the land freely and give it a large
rainfall, good pastures and a vigorous forest growth. If the republic
be divided into sections by east and west lines, diversities of
climate in the same latitude appear. In the extreme north a little
over a degree and a half of territory lies within the torrid zone,
extending from the Pilcomayo about 500 m. westward to the Chilean
frontier; its eastern end is in the low, wooded plain of the Gran
Chaco, where the mean annual temperature is 73 deg. F., and the annual
rainfall is 63 in.; but on the arid, elevated plateau at its western
extremity the temperature falls below 57 deg. F., and the rainfall has
diminished to 2 in. The character of the soil changes from the
alluvial lowlands of the Gran Chaco, covered with forests of palms and
other tropical vegetation, to the sandy, saline wastes of the Puna de
Atacama, almost barren of vegetation and overshadowed by permanently
snow-crowned peaks. Between the 30th and 31st parallels, a region
essentially sub-tropical in character, the temperature ranges from 66
deg. on the eastern plains to 62-5 deg. in Cordoba and 64 deg. F. on
the higher, arid, sun-parched tablelands of San Juan. The rainfall,
which varies between 39 and 47 in. in Entre Rios, decreases to 27 in.
in Cordoba and 2 in. in San Juan. The republic has a width of about
745 m. at this point, three-fourths of which is a comparatively level
alluvial plain, and the remainder an arid plateau broken by mountain
ranges. In the vicinity of Buenos Aires the climatic conditions vary
very little from those of the pampa region; the mean annual
temperature is about 63 deg. (maximum 104 deg.; minimum 32 deg.), and
the annual rainfall is 34 in.; snow is rarely seen. South of the pampa
region, on the 40th parallel, the mean temperature varies only
slightly in the 370 m. from the mouth of the Colorado to the Andes,
ranging from 57 deg. to 55 deg.; but the rainfall increases from 8 in.
on the coast to 16 in. on the east slope of the Cordillera. This
section is near the northern border of the arid Patagonian steppes. In
Tierra del Fuego (lat. 53 deg. to 55 deg.), the climatic conditions
are in strong contrast to those of the north. Here the mean
temperature is between 46 deg. and 48 deg. in summer and 36 deg. and
38 deg. in winter, rains are frequent, and snow falls every month in
the year. The central and southern parts of the island and the
neighbouring Staten Island are exceptionally rainy, the latter having
251-1/2 rainy days in the year. The precipitation of rain, snow and
hail is about 55

in.

The prevailing winds through this southern region are westerly, being
moist below the 52nd parallel, and dry between it and the 40th
parallel. In the north and on the pampas the north wind is hot and
depressing, while the south wind is cool and refreshing. The north
wind usually terminates with a thunderstorm or with a _pampero_, a
cold south-west wind from the Andes which blows with great violence,
causes a fall in temperature of 15 deg. to 20 deg., and is most
frequent from June to November--the southern winter and spring. In the
Andean region, a dry, hot wind from the north or north-west, called
the _Zonda_, blows with great intensity, especially in
September-October, and causes much discomfort and suffering. It is
followed by a cold south wind which often lowers the temperature 25
deg. The climate of the pampas is temperate and healthy, and is
admirably suited to agricultural and pastoral pursuits. Its greatest
defect is the cold southerly and westerly storms, which cause great
losses in cattle and sheep. The Patagonian coast-line and mountainous
region are also healthy, having a dry and bracing climate. In the
north, however, the hot lowlands are malarial and unsuited to north
European settlement, while the dry, elevated plateaus are celebrated
for their healthiness, those of Catamarca having an excellent
reputation as a sanatorium for sufferers from pulmonary and bronchial
diseases.

_Flora._--The flora of Argentina should be studied according to
natural zones corresponding to the physical divisions of the
country--the rich tropical and sub-tropical regions of the north, the
treeless pampas of the centre, the desert steppes of the south, and
the arid plateaus of the north-west. The vegetation of each region has
its distinctive character, modified here and there by elevation,
irrigation from mountain streams, and by the saline character of the
soil. In the extreme south, where an Arctic vegetation is found, the
pastures are rich, and the forests, largely of the Antarctic beech
(_Fagus antarctica_), are vigorous wherever the rainfall is heavy. The
greater part of Patagonia is comparatively barren and has no arboreal
growth, except in the well-watered valleys of the Andean foothills.
The water-courses and depressions of the shingly steppts afford
pasturage sufficient for the guanaco, and in places support a thorny
vegetation of low growth and starved appearance. The Antarctic beech
and Winter's bark (_Drimys Winteri_) are found at intervals along the
Andes to the northern limits of this zone. The pampas, which cover so
large a part of the republic, have no native trees whatever, and no
woods except the scrubby growth of the delta islands of the Parana,
and a fringe of low thorn-bushes along the Atlantic coast south to Mar
Chiquita and south of the Tandil sierra, which, strictly speaking,
does not belong to this region. The great plains are covered with
edible grasses, divided into two classes, _pasto duro_ (hard grass)
and _pasto blando_, or _tierno_ (soft grass)--the former tall, coarse,
nutritious and suitable for horses and cattle, and the latter tender
grasses and herbs, including clovers, suitable for sheep and cattle.
The so-called "pampas-grass" (_Gynerium argenteum_) is not found at
all on the dry lands, but in the wet grounds of the south and
south-west. The _pasto duro_ is largely composed of the genera _Stipa_
and _Melica_. In the dry, saline regions of the west and north-west,
where the rainfall is slight, there are large thickets of low-growing,
thorny bushes, poor in foliage. The predominating species is the
chanar (_Gurliaca decorticans_), which produces an edible berry, and
occurs from the Rio Negro to the northern limits of the republic. Huge
cacti are also characteristic of this region. On the lower slopes of
the Andes are found oak, beech, cedar, Winter's bark, pine (_Araucaria
imbricata_), laurel and calden (_Prosopis algarobilla_). The provinces
of Santa Fe, Cordoba and Santiago del Estero are only partially
wooded; large areas of plains are intermingled with scrubby forests of
algarrobo (_Prosopis_), quebracho-blanco (_Aspido-sperma quebracho_),
tala (_Celtis tola_, _Sellowiana_, _acuminata_), acacias and other
genera. In Tucuman and eastern Salta the same division into forests
and open plains exists, but the former are of denser growth and
contain walnut, cedar, laurel, tipa (_Machaerium fertile_) and
quebracho-colorado (_Loxopterygium Lorentzii_). The territories of the
Gran Chaco, however, are covered with a characteristic tropical
vegetation, in which the palm predominates, but intermingled south of
the Bermejo with heavy growths of algarrobo, quebracho-colorado,
urunday (_Astronium fraxinifolium_), lapacho (_Tecoma curialis_) and
palosanto (_Cuayacum officinalis_), all esteemed for hardness and
fineness of grain. Other palms abound, such as the pindo (_Cocos
australis_), mbocaya (_Cocos sclerocarpa_) and the yatai (_Cocos
yatai_), but the predominating species north of the Bermejo is the
caranday or Brazilian wax-palm (_Copernicia cerifera_), which has
varied uses. The forest habit in this region is close association of
species, and there are "palmares," "algarrobales," "chanarales," &c,,
and among these open pasture lands, giving to a distant landscape a
park-like appearance. In the "mesopotamia" region the flora is similar
to that of the southern Chaco, but in the Misiones it approximates
more to that of the neighbouring Brazilian highlands. Among the
marvellous changes wrought in Argentina by the advent of European
civilization, is the creation of a new flora by the introduction of
useful trees and plants from every part of the world. Indian corn,
quinoa, mandioca, possibly the potato, cotton and various fruits,
including the strawberry, were already known to the aborigines, but
with the conqueror came wheat, barley, oats, flax, many kinds of
vegetables, apples, peaches, apricots, pears, grapes, figs, oranges
and lemons, together with alfalfa and new grasses for the plains. The
Australian eucalyptus is now grown in many places, and there are
groves of the paradise or paraiso tree (_Melia azedarach_) on the
formerly treeless pampa. The cereals of Europe are a source of
increasing wealth to the nation, and alfalfa promises new prosperity
for pastoral industries.

_Fauna._--The Argentine fauna, like its flora, has been greatly
influenced by the character and position of the pampas. Whatever it
may have been in remote geological periods, it is now extremely
limited both in size and numbers. Of the indigenous fauna, the tapir
of the north and the guanaco of the west and south are the largest of
the animals. The pampas were almost destitute of animal life before
the horses and cattle of the Spanish invaders were there turned out to
graze, and the puma and jaguar never came there until the herds of
European cattle attracted them. The timid viscacha (_Lagostomus
trichodactylus_), living in colonies, often with the burrowing owl,
and digging deep under ground like the American prairie dog, was
almost the only quadruped to be seen upon these immense open plains.
The fox, of which several species exist, probably never ventured far
into the plain, for it afforded him no shelter. Immense flocks of
gulls were probably attracted to it then as now by its insect life,
and its lagoons and streams teemed with aquatic birds. The occupation
of this region by Europeans, and the introduction of horses, asses,
cattle, sheep, goats and swine, have completely changed its aspect and
character. On the Patagonian steppes there are comparatively few
species of animals. Among them are the puma (_Felis concolor_), a
smaller variety of the jaguar (_Felis onca_), the wolf, the fox, the
Patagonian hare (_Dolichotis patagonica_) and two species of wild cat.
The huge glyptodon once inhabited this region, which now possesses the
smallest armadillo known, the "quir-quincho" or _Dasypus minutus_. The
guanaco (_Auchenia_), which ranges from Tierra del Fuego to the
Bolivian highlands, finds comparative safety in these uninhabitable
solitudes, and is still numerous. The "nandu" or American ostrich
(_Rhea americana_), inhabiting the pampas and open plains of the
Chaco, has in Patagonia a smaller counterpart (_Rhea Darwinii_), which
is never seen north of the Rio Negro. On the arid plateaus of the
north-west, the guanaco and vicuna are still to be found, though less
frequently, together with a smaller species of viscacha (_Lagidium
cuvieri_). The greatest development of the Argentine fauna, however,
is in the warm, wooded regions of the north and north-east, where many
animals are of the same species as those in the neighbouring
territories of Brazil. Several species of monkeys inhabit the forests
from the Parana to the Bolivian frontier. Pumas, jaguars and one or
two species of wild cat are numerous, as also the Argentine wolf and
two of three species of fox. The coati, marten, skunk and otter
(_Lutra paranensis_) are widely distributed. Three species of deer are
common. In the Chaco the tapir or anta (_Tapir americanus_) still
finds a safe retreat, and the peccary (_Dycotyles torquatus_) ranges
from Cordoba north to the Bolivian frontier. The capybara
(_Hydrochoerus capybara_) is also numerous in this region. Of birds
the number of species greatly exceeds that of the mammals, including
the rhea of the pampas and condor of the Andes, and the tiny,
brilliant-hued humming-birds of the tropical North. Vultures and hawks
are well represented, but perhaps the most numerous of all are the
parrots, of which there are six or seven species. The reptilians are
represented in the Parana by the jacare (_Alligator sclerpos_), and on
land by the "iguana" (_Teius teguexim, Podinema teguixin_), and some
species of lizard. Serpents are numerous, but only two are described
as poisonous, the cascavel (rattlesnake) and the "vibora de la cruz"
(_Trigonocephalus alternatus_).[2]

_Population._--In population Argentina ranks second among the republics of South America, having outstripped, during the last quarter of the 19th century, the once more populous states of Colombia and Peru. During the first half of the 19th century civil war and despotic government seriously restricted the natural growth of the country, but since the definite organization of the republic in 1860 and the settlement of disturbing political controversies, the population had increased rapidly. Climate and a fertile soil have been important elements in this growth. According to the first national census of 1869 the population was 1,830,214. The census of 1895 increased this total to 3,954,911, exclusive of wild Indians and a percentage for omissions customarily used in South American census returns. In 1904 official estimates, based on immigration and emigration returns and upon registered births and deaths, both of which are admittedly defective, showed a population increased to 5,410,028, and a small diminution in the rate of annual increase from 1895 to 1904 as compared with 1860-1895. The birth-rate is exceptionally high, largely because of the immigrant population, the greater part of which is concentrated in or near the large cities. In the rural districts of the northern provinces, the increase in population is much less than in the central provinces, the conditions of life being less favourable. According to the official returns,[3] the over-sea immigration for the forty-seven years 1857-1903 aggregated 2,872,588, while the departure of emigrants during the same period was 1,066,480, showing a net addition to the population of 1,806,108. A considerable percentage of these arrivals and departures represents seasonal labourers, who come out from Europe solely for the Argentine wheat harvest and should not be classed as immigrants. Unfavourable political and economic conditions of a temporary character influence the emigration movement. During the years 1880-1889, when the country enjoyed exceptional prosperity, the arrivals numbered 1,020,907 and the departures only 175,038, but in 1890-1899, a period of financial depression following the extravagant Celman administration, the arrivals were 928,865 and the departures 532,175. Another disturbing influence has been the high protective tariffs, adopted during the closing years of the century, which increased the costs of living more rapidly than the wages for labour, and compelled thousands of immigrants to seek employment elsewhere. The influence of such legislation on unsettled immigrant labourers may be seen in the number of Italians who periodically migrate from Argentina to Brazil, and _vice versa_, seeking to better their condition. Of the immigrant arrivals for the forty-seven years given, 1,331,536 were Italians, 414,973 Spaniards, 170,293 French, 37,953 Austrians, 35,435 British, 30,699 Germans, 25,775 Swiss, 19,521 Belgians, and the others of diverse nationalities, so that Argentina is in no danger of losing her Latin character through immigration. This large influx of Europeans, however, is modifying the population by reducing the Indian and _mestizo_ elements to a minority, although they are still numerous in the mesopotamian, northern and north-western provinces. The language is Spanish.

_Science and Literature._--Though the university of Cordoba is the oldest but one in South America, it has made no conspicuous contribution to Argentine literature beyond the historical works of its famous rector, Gregorio Funes (1749-1830). This university was founded in 1621 and the university of Buenos Aires in 1821, but although Bonpland and some other European scientists were members of the faculty of Buenos Aires in its early years, neither there nor at Cordoba was any marked attention given to the natural sciences until President Sarmiento (official term, 1868-1874) initiated scientific instruction at the university of Cordoba under the eminent German naturalist, Dr Hermann Burmeister (1807-1892), and founded the National Observatory at Cordoba and placed it under the direction of the noted American astronomer, Benjamin Apthorp Gould (1824-1896). Both of these men made important contributions to science, and rendered an inestimable service to the country, not only through their publications but also through the interest they aroused in scientific research. A bureau of meteorology was afterwards created at Cordoba which has rendered valuable service. Dr Burmeister was afterwards placed in charge of the provincial museum of Buenos Aires, and devoted himself to the acquisition of a collection of fossil remains, now in the La Plata museum, which ranks among the best of the world. Not only has scientific study advanced at the university of Buenos Aires, but scientific research is promoting the development of the country; examples are the geographical explorations of the Andean frontier, and especially of the Patagonian Andes, by Francisco P. Moreno. In literature Argentina is still under the spell of Bohemianism and dilettanteism. Exceptions are the admirable biographies of Manuel Belgrano (d. 1820) and San Martin, important contributions to the history of the country and of the war of independence, by ex-President Bartolome Mitre (1821-1906). Buenos Aires has some excellent daily journals, but the tone of the press in general is sensational. The number of newspapers published is large, especially in Buenos Aires, where in 1902 the total, including sundry periodicals, was 183.

_Political Divisions and Towns._--The chief political divisions of the republic consist of one federal district, 14 provinces and 10 territories, the last in great part dating from the settlement of the territorial controversies with Chile. For purposes of local administration the provinces are divided into departments. The names, area and population of the provinces and territories are as follows:

+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| | Area | Pop. | Pop. est.|
| Administrative Divisions. | sq. m. | 1895. | for 1904.|
+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+
| _Provinces_-- | | | |
| Federal Capital | 72 | 663,854 | 979,235 |
| Buenos Aires | 117,778 | 921,168 |1,312,953 |
| Santa Fe | 50,916 | 397,188 | 640,755 |
| Entre Rios | 28,784 | 292,019 | 367,006 |
| Corrientes | 32,580 | 239,618 | 299,479 |
| Cordoba | 62,160 | 351,223 | 465,464 |
| San Luis | 28,535 | 81,450 | 97,458 |
| Santiago del Estero | 39,764 | 161,502 | 186,206 |
| Mendoza | 56,502 | 116,136 | 159,780 |
| San Juan | 33,715 | 84,251 | 99,933 |
| Rioja | 34,546 | 69,302 | 82,099 |
| Catamarca | 47,531 | 90,161 | 103,082 |
| Tucuman | 8,926 | 215,742 | 263,079 |
| Salta | 62,184 | 118,015 | 136,059 |
| Jujuy | 18,977 | 49,713 | 55,430 |
| | | | |
| _Territories_-- | | | |
| Misiones | 11,282 | 33,163 | 38,755 |
| Formosa | 41,402 | 4,829 | 6,094 |
| Chaco | 32,741 | 10,422 | 13,937 |
| Pampa | 56,320 | 25,914 | 52,150 |
| Neuquen | 42,345 | 14,517 | 18,022 |
| Rio Negro | 75,924 | 9,241 | 18,648 |
| Chobut | 93,427 | 3,748 | 9,000 |
| Santa Cruz | 109,142 | 1,058 | 1,793 |
| Tierra del Fuego | 8,299 | 477 | 1,411 |
| Los Andes | 21,989 | .. | 2,095 |
| +----------+----------+----------+
| Total |1,135,840 |3,954,911 |5,410,028 |
| Gotha computations of 1902| | | |
| with corrections for | | | |
| boundary changes. |1,083,596 | | |
+---------------------------+----------+----------+----------+

The principal towns, with estimated population for 1905, are as follows: Buenos Aires (1,025,653), Rosario (129,121), La Plata (85,000), Tucuman (55,000), Cordoba (43.000), Sante Fe (33,200), Mendoza (32,000), Parana (27,000), Salta (18,000), Corrientes (18,000), Chivilcoy (15,000), Gualeguaychu (13,300), San Nicolas (13,000), Concordia (11,700), San Juan (11,500), Rio Cuarto (10,800), San Luis (10,500), Barracas al Sud (10,200).