Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
inserted.

(5) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

ARTICLE BLEACHING: "Coal gas mixed with air is sent under pressure
through pipe a into the burners b, b, where the mixture burns with
an intense heat." 'into' amended from 'ino'.

ARTICLE BLUEBEARD: "BLUEBEARD, the monster of Charles Perrault's
tale of Barbe Bleue, who murdered his wives and hid their bodies in
a locked room. Perrault's tale was first printed in his Histoires
et contes du temps passe (1697)." 'temps' amended from 'tems'.

ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
AND GENERAL INFORMATION

ELEVENTH EDITION

VOLUME IV, SLICE I

Bisharin to Bohea

ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:

BISHARIN BLENDE
BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY BLENHEIM
BISHOP, ISABELLA BLENNERHASSETT, HARMAN
BISHOP BLERA
BISHOP AUCKLAND BLESSINGTON, MARGUERITE
BISHOP'S CASTLE BLIDA
BISHOP STORTFORD BLIGH, WILLIAM
BISKRA BLIND, MATHILDE
BISLEY BLIND HOOKEY
BISMARCK, OTTO LEOPOLD VON BLINDING
BISMARCK (North Dakota, U.S.A.) BLINDMAN'S-BUFF
BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO BLINDNESS
BISMILLAH BLISS, CORNELIUS NEWTON
BISMUTH BLISTER
BISMUTHITE BLIZZARD
BISMYA BLOCK, MARK ELIEZER
BISON BLOCK, MAURICE
BISQUE BLOCK
BISSELL, GEORGE EDWIN BLOCKADE
BISSEXT BLOCKHOUSE
BISTRE BLOEMAERT, ABRAHAM
BIT BLOEMEN, JAN FRANS VAN
BITHUR BLOEMFONTEIN
BITHYNIA BLOET, ROBERT
BITLIS BLOIS, LOUIS DE
BITONTO BLOIS
BITSCH BLOIS (Countship of)
BITTER, KARL THEODORE FRANCIS BLOMEFIELD, FRANCIS
BITTERFELD BLOMFIELD, SIR ARTHUR WILLIAM
BITTERLING BLOMFIELD, CHARLES JAMES
BITTERN (bird) BLOMFIELD, EDWARD VALENTINE
BITTERN (liquor) BLONDEL, DAVID
BITTERS BLONDEL, JACQUES FRANCOIS
BITUMEN BLONDIN
BITURIGES BLOOD
BITZIUS, ALBRECHT BLOOD-LETTING
BIVOUAC BLOOD-MONEY
BIWA BLOODSTONE
BIXIO, NINO BLOOM
BIZERTA BLOOMER, AMELIA JENKS
BIZET GEORGES BLOOMFIELD, MAURICE
BJORNEBORG BLOOMFIELD, ROBERT
BJORNSON, BJORNSTJERNE BLOOMFIELD
BLACHFORD, FREDERIC ROGERS BLOOMINGTON (Illinois, U.S.A.)
BLACK, ADAM BLOOMINGTON (Indiana, U.S.A.)
BLACK, JEREMIAH SULLIVAN BLOOMSBURG
BLACK, JOSEPH BLOUNT, CHARLES
BLACK, WILLIAM BLOUNT, EDWARD
BLACK APE BLOUNT, THOMAS
BLACKBALL BLOUNT, SIR THOMAS POPE
BLACKBERRY BLOUNT, WILLIAM
BLACKBIRD BLOUSE
BLACK BUCK BLOW, JOHN
BLACKBURN, COLIN BLACKBURN BLOW-GUN
BLACKBURN, JONATHAN BLOWITZ, HENRI GEORGES ADOLPHE DE
BLACKBURN BLOWPIPE
BLACKBURNE, FRANCIS BLUCHER, GEBHARD LEBERECHT VON
BLACKCOCK BLUE
BLACK COUNTRY, THE BLUEBEARD
BLACK DROP BLUE-BOOK
BLACKFOOT BLUESTOCKING
BLACK FOREST BLUFF
BLACK HAWK BLUM, ROBERT FREDERICK
BLACKHEATH BLUMENBACH, JOHANN FRIEDRICH
BLACK HILLS BLUMENTHAL, LEONHARD
BLACKIE, JOHN STUART BLUNDERBUSS
BLACK ISLE BLUNT, JOHN HENRY
BLACKLOCK, THOMAS BLUNT, JOHN JAMES
BLACKMAIL BLUNT, WILFRID SCAWEN
BLACKMORE, SIR RICHARD BLUNTSCHLI, JOHANN KASPAR
BLACKMORE, RICHARD DODDRIDGE BLYTH
BLACK MOUNTAIN B'NAI B'RITH, INDEPENDENT ORDER OF
BLACKPOOL BOA
BLACK ROD BOABDIL
BLACK SEA (body of water) BOADICEA
BLACK SEA (district of Russia) BOAR
BLACKSTONE, SIR WILLIAM BOARD
BLACK VEIL BOARDING-HOUSE
BLACKWATER BOARDING-OUT SYSTEM
BLACKWATER FEVER BOARDMAN, GEORGE DANA
BLACKWELL, THOMAS BOASE, HENRY SAMUEL
BLACKWOOD, WILLIAM BOAT
BLADDER BOATSWAIN
BLADDER AND PROSTATE DISEASES BOBBILI
BLADDER-WORT BOBBIO
BLADES, WILLIAM BOBER
BLAENAVON BOBRUISK
BLAGOVYESHCHENSK BOCAGE, MANUEL MARIA BARBOSA DE
BLAIKIE, WILLIAM GARDEN BOCAGE
BLAINE, JAMES GILLESPIE BOCCACCIO, GIOVANNI
BLAINVILLE, HENRI DUCROTAY DE BOCCALINI, TRAJANO
BLAIR, FRANCIS PRESTON BOCCHERINI, LUIGI
BLAIR, HUGH BOCCHUS
BLAIR, JAMES BOCHART, SAMUEL
BLAIR, ROBERT BOCHOLT
BLAIR ATHOLL BOCHUM
BLAIRGOWRIE BOCKH, PHILIPP AUGUST
BLAKE, EDWARD BOCKLIN, ARNOLD
BLAKE, ROBERT BOCLAND
BLAKE, WILLIAM BOCSKAY, STEPHEN
BLAKELOCK, RALPH ALBERT BODE, JOHANN ELERT
BLAKENEY, WILLIAM BLAKENEY BODEL, JEHAN
BLAKESLEY, JOSEPH WILLIAMS BODENBACH
BLAMIRE, SUSANNA BODENSTEDT, FRIEDRICH MARTIN VON
BLANC, LOUIS BODHI VAMSA
BLANC, MONT BODICHON, BARBARA LEIGH SMITH
BLANCHARD, SAMUEL LAMAN BODIN, JEAN
BLANCHE, JACQUES EMILE BODKIN
BLANCHE OF CASTILE BODLE
BLANCH FEE BODLEY, GEORGE FREDERICK
BLANDFORD BODLEY, SIR THOMAS
BLANDRATA, GIORGIO BODMER, JOHANN JAKOB
BLANE, SIR GILBERT BODMIN
BLANFORD, WILLIAM THOMAS BODO
BLANK BODONI, GIAMBATTISTA
BLANKENBERGHE BODY-SNATCHING
BLANKENBURG BOECE, HECTOR
BLANKETEERS BOEHM, SIR JOSEPH EDGAR
BLANK VERSE BOEHM VON BAWERK, EUGEN
BLANQUI, JEROME ADOLPHE BOEHME, JAKOB
BLANQUI, LOUIS AUGUSTE BOEOTIA
BLANTYRE (town of Central Africa) BOER
BLANTYRE (parish of Scotland) BOERHAAVE, HERMANN
BLARNEY BOETHUS
BLASHFIELD, EDWIN HOWLAND BOETIUS, ANICIUS MANLIUS SEVERINUS
BLASIUS, SAINT BOG
BLASPHEMY BOGATZKY, KARL HEINRICH VON
BLASS, FRIEDRICH BOGHAZ KEUI
BLASTING BOGIE
BLAUBEUREN BOGNOR
BLAVATSKY, HELENA PETROVNA BOGO
BLAYDES, FREDERICK HENRY MARVELL BOGODUKHOV
BLAYDON BOGOMILS
BLAYE-ET-STE LUCE BOGORODSK
BLAZE BOGOS
BLAZON BOGOTA
BLEACHING BOGRA
BLEAK BOGUE, DAVID
BLEEK, FRIEDRICH BOGUS
BLEEK, WILHELM HEINRICH IMMANUEL BOHEA

BISHARIN (the anc. _Ichthyophagi_), a nomad tribe of African "Arabs," of Hamitic origin, dwelling in the eastern part of the Nubian desert. In the middle ages they were known as Beja (q.v.), and they are the most characteristic of the Nubian "Arabs." With the Ababda and Hadendoa they represent the Blemmyes of classical writers. Linguistically and geographically the Bisharin form a connecting link between the Hamitic populations and the Egyptians. Nominally they are Mahommedans. They, however, preserve some non-Islamic religious practices, and exhibit traces of animal-worship in their rule of never killing the serpent or the partridge, which are regarded as sacred.

BISHOP, SIR HENRY ROWLEY (1786-1855), English musical composer, was born in London on the 18th of November 1786. He received his artistic training from Francisco Bianchi, and in 1804 wrote the music to a piece called _Angelina_, which was performed at Margate. His next composition was the music to the ballet of _Tamerlan et Bajazet_, produced in 1806 at the King's theatre. This proved successful, and was followed within two years by several others, of which _Caractacus_, a pantomimic ballet, written for Drury Lane, may be named. In 1809 his first opera, _The Circassian's Bride_, was produced at Drury Lane; but unfortunately the theatre was burned down after one performance, and the score of the work perished in the flames. His next work of importance, the opera of _The Maniac_, written for the Lyceum in 1810, established his reputation, and probably secured for him an appointment for three years as composer for Covent Garden theatre. The numerous works--operas, burlettas, cantatas, incidental music to Shakespeare's plays, &c.--which he composed while in this position, are in great part forgotten. The most successful were--_The Virgin of the Sun_ (1812), _The Miller and his Men_ (1813), _Guy Mannering_ and _The Slave_ (1816), _Maid Marian_ and _Clari_, introducing the well-known air of "Home, Sweet Home" (1822). In 1825 Bishop was induced by Elliston to transfer his services from Covent Garden to the rival house in Drury Lane, for which he wrote with unusual care the opera of _Aladdin_, intended to compete with Weber's _Oberon_, commissioned by the other house. The result was a failure, and with _Aladdin_ Bishop's career as an operatic composer may be said to close. On the formation of the Philharmonic Society (1813) Bishop was appointed one of the directors, and he took his turn as conductor of its concerts during the period when that office was held by different musicians in rotation. In 1830 he was appointed musical director at Vauxhall; and it was in the course of this engagement that he wrote the popular song "My Pretty Jane." His sacred cantata, _The Seventh Day_, was written for the Philharmonic Society and performed in 1833. In 1839 he was made bachelor in music at Oxford. In 1841 he was appointed to the Reid chair of music in the university of Edinburgh, but he resigned the office in 1843. He was knighted in 1842, being the first musician who ever received that honour. In 1848 he succeeded Dr Crotch in the chair of music at Oxford. The music for the ode on the occasion of the installation of Lord Derby as chancellor of the university (1853) proved to be his last work. He died on the 30th of April 1855 in impoverished circumstances, though few composers ever made more by their labours. Bishop was twice married: to Miss Lyon and Miss Anne Riviere. Both he and his wives were singers. His name lives in connexion with his numerous glees, songs and smaller compositions. His melodies are clear, flowing, appropriate and often charming; and his harmony is always pure, simple and sweet.

BISHOP, ISABELLA (1832-1904), English traveller and author, daughter of the Rev. Edward Bird, rector of Tattenhall, Cheshire, was born in Yorkshire on the 15th of October 1832. Isabella Bird began to travel when she was twenty-two. Her first book, _The Englishwoman in America_ (1856), consisted of her correspondence during a visit to Canada undertaken for her health. She visited the Rocky Mountains, the South Pacific, Australia and New Zealand, producing some brightly written books of travel. But her reputation was made by the records of her extensive travels in Asia: _Unbeaten Tracks in Japan_ (2 vols., 1880), _Journeys in Persia and Kurdistan_ (2 vols., 1891), _Among the Tibetans_ (1894), _Korea and her Neighbours_ (2 vols., 1898), _The Yangtze Valley and Beyond_ (1899), _Chinese Pictures_ (1900). She married in 1881 Dr John Bishop, an Edinburgh physician, and was left a widow in 1886. In 1892 she became the first lady fellow of the Royal Geographical Society, and in 1901 she rode a thousand miles in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains. She died in Edinburgh on the 7th of October 1904.

See Anna M. Stoddart, _The Life of Isabella Bird_ (1906).

BISHOP (A.S. _bisceop_, from Lat. _episcopus_, Gr. [Greek: episkopos], "overlooker" or "overseer"), in certain branches of the Christian Church, an ecclesiastic consecrated or set apart to perform certain spiritual functions, and to exercise oversight over the lower clergy (priests or presbyters, deacons, &c.). In the Catholic Church bishops take rank at the head of the sacerdotal hierarchy, and have certain spiritual powers peculiar to their office, but opinion has long been divided as to whether they constitute a separate order or form merely a higher degree of the order of priests (_ordo sacerdotium_).

Roman Catholic.

In the Roman Catholic Church the bishop belongs to the highest order of the hierarchy, and in this respect is the peer even of the pope, who addresses him as "venerable brother." By the decree of the council of Trent he must be thirty years of age, of legitimate birth, and of approved learning and virtue. The method of his selection varies in different countries. In France, under the Concordat, the sovereign--and under the republic the president--had the right of nomination. The same is true of Austria (except four sees), Bavaria, Spain and Portugal. In some countries the bishop is elected by the cathedral chapter (as in Wurttemberg), or by the bishops of the provinces (as in Ireland). In others, as in Great Britain, the United States of America and Belgium, the pope selects one out of a list submitted by the chapter. In all cases the nomination or election is subject to confirmation by the Holy See. Before this is granted the candidate is submitted to a double examination as to his fitness, first by a papal delegate at his place of residence (_processus informativus in partibus electi_), and afterwards by the Roman Congregation of Cardinals assigned for this purpose (_processus electionis definitivus in curia_). In the event of both processes proving satisfactory, the bishop-elect is confirmed, preconized, and so far promoted that he is allowed to exercise the rights of jurisdiction in his see. He cannot, however, exercise the functions proper to the episcopal _order_ (_potestas ordinis_) until his consecration, which ordinarily takes place within three months of his confirmation. The bishop is consecrated, after taking the oath of fidelity to the Holy See, and subscribing the profession of faith, by a bishop appointed by the pope for the purpose, assisted by at least two other bishops or prelates, the main features of the act being the laying on of hands, the anointing with oil, and the delivery of the pastoral staff and other symbols of the office. After consecration the new bishop is solemnly enthroned and blesses the assembled congregation.

The _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is not peculiar to the Roman Church, and, in general, is claimed by all bishops, whether Oriental or Anglican, belonging to churches which have retained the Catholic tradition in this respect. Besides the full functions of the presbyterate, or priesthood, bishops have the sole right (1) to confer holy orders, (2) to administer confirmation, (3) to prepare the holy oil, or chrism, (4) to consecrate sacred places or utensils (churches, churchyards, altars, &c.), (5) to give the benediction to abbots and abbesses, (6) to anoint kings. In the matter of their rights of jurisdiction, however, Roman Catholic bishops differ from others in their peculiar responsibility to the Holy See. Some of their powers of legislation and administration they possess _motu proprio_ in virtue of their position as diocesan bishops, others they enjoy under special faculties granted by the Holy See; but all bishops are bound, by an oath taken at the time of their consecration, to go to Rome at fixed intervals (_visitare sacra limina apostolorum_) to report in person, and in writing, on the state of their dioceses.

The Roman bishop ranks immediately after the cardinals; he is styled _reverendissimus_, _sanctissimus_ or _beatissimus_. In English the style is "Right Reverend"; the bishop being addressed as "my lord bishop."

The insignia (_pontificalia_ or pontificals) of the Roman Catholic bishop are (1) a ring with a jewel, symbolizing fidelity to the church, (2) the pastoral staff, (3) the pectoral cross, (4) the vestments, consisting of the caligae, stockings and sandals, the tunicle, and purple gloves, (5) the mitre, symbol of the royal priesthood, (6) the throne (cathedra), surmounted by a baldachin or canopy, on the gospel side of the choir in the cathedral church.

Anglican.

The spiritual function and character of the Anglican bishops, allowing for the doctrinal changes effected at the Reformation, are similar to those of the Roman. They alone can administer the rite of confirmation, ordain priests and deacons, and exercise a certain dispensing power. In the established Church of England the appointment of bishops is vested effectively in the crown, though the old form of election by the cathedral chapter is retained. They must be learned presbyters at least thirty years of age, born in lawful wedlock, and of good life and behaviour. The mode of appointment is regulated by 25 Henry VIII. c. 20, re-enacted in 1 Elizabeth c. 1 (Act of Supremacy 1558). On a vacancy occurring, the dean and chapter notify the king thereof in chancery, and pray leave to make election. A licence under the Great Seal to proceed to the election of a bishop, known as the _conge d'eslire_, together with a letter missive containing the name of the king's nominee, is thereupon sent to the dean and chapter, who are bound under the penalties of _Praemunire_ to proceed within twelve days to the election of the person named in it. In the event of their refusing obedience or neglecting to elect, the bishop may be appointed by letters patent under the Great Seal without the form of election. Upon the election being reported to the crown, a mandate issues from the crown to the archbishop and metropolitan, requesting him and commanding him to confirm the election, and to invest and consecrate the bishop-elect. Thereupon the archbishop issues a commission to his vicar-general to examine formally the process of the election of the bishop, and to supply by his authority all defects in matters of form, and to administer to the bishop-elect the oaths of allegiance, of supremacy and of canonical obedience (see CONFIRMATION OF BISHOPS). In the disestablished and daughter Churches the election is by the synod of the Church, as in Ireland, or by a diocesan convention, as in the United States of America.

In the Church of England the _potestas ordinis_ is conferred by consecration. This is usually carried out by an archbishop, who is assisted by two or more bishops. The essential "form" of the consecration is in the simultaneous "laying on of hands" by the consecrating prelates. After this the new bishop, who has so far been vested only in a rochet, retires and puts on the rest of the episcopal habit, viz. the chimere. After consecration the bishop is competent to exercise all the spiritual functions of his office; but a bishopric in the Established Church, being a barony, is under the guardianship of the crown during a vacancy, and has to be conferred afresh on each new holder. A bishop, then, cannot enter into the enjoyment of the temporalities of his see, including his rights of presentation to benefices, before doing homage to the king. This is done in the ancient feudal form, surviving elsewhere only in the conferring of the M.A. degree at Cambridge. The bishop kneels before the king, places his hands between his, and recites an oath of temporal allegiance; he then kisses hands.

Besides the functions exercised in virtue of their order, bishops are also empowered by law to exercise a certain jurisdiction over all consecrated places and over all ordained persons. This jurisdiction they exercise for the most part through their consistorial courts, or through commissioners appointed under the Church Discipline Act of 1840. By the Clergy Discipline Act of 1892 it was decreed that the trial of clerks accused of unfitness to exercise the cure of souls should be before the consistory court with five assessors. Under the Public Worship Regulation Act of 1874, which gave to churchwardens and aggrieved parishioners the right to institute proceedings against the clergy for breaches of the law in the conduct of divine service, a discretionary right was reserved to the bishop to stay proceedings.

The bishops also exercise a certain jurisdiction over marriages, inasmuch as they have by the canons of the Church of England a power of dispensing with the proclamation of banns before marriage. These dispensations are termed marriage licences, and their legal validity is recognised by the Marriage Act of 1823. The bishops had formerly jurisdiction over all questions touching the validity of marriages and the status of married persons, but this jurisdiction has been transferred from the consistorial courts of the bishops to a court of the crown by the Matrimonial Causes Act of 1857. They have in a similar manner been relieved of their jurisdiction in testamentary matters, and in matters of defamation and of brawling in churches; and the only jurisdiction which they continue to exercise over the general laity is with regard to their use of the churches and churchyards. The churchwardens, who are representative officers of the parishes, are also executive officers of the bishops in all matters touching the decency and order of the churches and of the churchyards, and they are responsible to the bishops for the due discharge of their duties; but the abolition of church rates has relieved the churchwardens of the most onerous part of their duties, which was connected with the stewardship of the church funds of their parishes.

The bishops are still authorized by law to dedicate and set apart buildings for the solemnization of divine service, and grounds for the performance of burials, according to the rites and ceremonies of the Church of England; and such buildings and grounds, after they have been duly consecrated according to law, cannot be diverted to any secular purpose except under the authority of an act of parliament.

The bishops of England have also jurisdiction to examine clerks who may be presented to benefices within their respective dioceses, and they are bound in each case by the 95th canon of 1604 to inquire and inform themselves of the sufficiency of each clerk within twenty-eight days, after which time, if they have not rejected him as insufficiently qualified, they are bound to institute him, or to license him, as the case may be, to the benefice, and thereupon to send their mandate to the archdeacon to induct him into the temporalities of the benefice. Where the bishop himself is patron of a benefice within his own diocese he is empowered to collate a clerk to it,--in other words, to confer it on the clerk without the latter being presented to him. Where the clerk himself is patron of the living, the bishop may institute him on his own petition. (See BENEFICE.)

As spiritual peers, bishops of the Church of England have (subject to the limitations stated below) seats in the House of Lords, though whether as barons or in their spiritual character has been a matter of dispute. The latter, however, would seem to be the case, since a bishop was entitled to his writ of summons after confirmation and before doing homage for his barony. Doubts having been raised whether a bishop of the Church of England, being a lord of parliament, could resign his seat in the Upper House, although several precedents to that effect are on record, a statute of the realm, which was confined to the case of the bishops of London and Durham, was passed in 1856, declaring that on the resignation of their sees being accepted by their respective metropolitans, those bishops should cease to sit as lords of parliament, and their sees should be filled up in the manner provided by law in the case of the avoidance of a bishopric. In 1869 the Bishops' Resignation Act was passed. It provided that, on any bishop desiring to retire on account of age or incapacity, the sovereign should be empowered to declare the see void by an order in council, the retiring bishop of archbishop to be secured the use of the episcopal residence for life and a pension of one-third of the revenues of the see, or L2000, whichever sum should prove the larger. Other sections defined the proceedings for proving, in case of need, the incapacity of a bishop, provided for the appointment of coadjutors and defined their status (Phillimore i. 82).

In view of the necessity for increasing the episcopate in the 19th century and the objection to the consequent increase of the spiritual peers in the Upper House, it was finally enacted by the Bishoprics Act of 1878 that only the archbishops and the bishops of London, Winchester and Durham should be always entitled to writs summoning them to the House of Lords. The rest of the twenty-five seats are filled up, as a vacancy occurs, according to seniority of consecration.

Bishops of the Church of England rank in order of precedency immediately above barons. They may marry, but their wives as such enjoy no title or precedence. Bishops are addressed as "Right Reverend" and have legally the style of "Lord," which, as in the case of Roman Catholic bishops in England, is extended to all, whether suffragans or holders of colonial bishoprics, by courtesy.

The insignia of the Anglican bishop are the rochet and the chimere, and the episcopal throne on the gospel side of the chancel of the cathedral church. The use of the mitre, pastoral staff and pectoral cross, which had fallen into complete disuse by the end of the 18th century, has been now very commonly, though not universally, revived; and, in some cases, the interpretation put upon the "Ornaments rubric" by the modern High Church school has led to a more complete revival of the pre-Reformation vestments.

Orthodox Eastern.

In the Orthodox Church of the East and the various communions springing from it, the _potestas ordinis_ of the bishop is the same as in the Western Church. Among his qualifications the most peculiar is that he must be unmarried, which, since the secular priests are compelled to marry, entails his belonging to the "black clergy" or monks. The insignia of an oriental bishop, with considerable variation in form, are essentially the same as those of the Catholic West.

Subordinate bishops.

Besides bishops presiding over definite sees, there have been from time immemorial in the Christian Church bishops holding their jurisdiction in subordination to the bishop of the diocese. (1) The oldest of these were the _chorepiscopi_ ([Greek: taes choras episkopoi]), i.e. country bishops, who were delegated by the bishops of the cities in the early church to exercise jurisdiction in the remote towns and villages as these were converted from paganism. Their functions varied in different times and places, and by some it has been held that they were originally only presbyters. In any case, this class of bishops, which had been greatly curtailed in the East in A.D. 343 by the council of Laodicea, was practically extinct everywhere by the 10th century. It survived longest in Ireland, where in 1152 a synod, presided over by the papal legate, decreed that, after the death of the existing holders of the office, no more should be consecrated. Their place was taken by arch-presbyters and rural deans. (2) The _Episcopi regionarii_, or _gentium_, were simply missionary bishops without definite sees. Such were, at the outset, Boniface, the apostle of Germany, and Willibrord, the apostle of the Frisians. (3) Bishops _in partibus infidelium_ were originally those who had been expelled from their sees by the pagans, and, while retaining their titles, were appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their work. In later times the custom arose of consecrating bishops for this purpose, or merely as an honorary distinction, with a title derived from some place once included within, but now beyond the bounds of Christendom. (4) _Coadjutor bishops_ are such as are appointed to assist the bishop of the diocese when incapacitated by infirmity or by other causes from fulfilling his functions alone. Coadjutors in the early church were appointed with a view to their succeeding to the see; but this, though common in practice, is no longer the rule. In the Church of England the appointment and rights of coadjutor bishops were regulated by the Bishops' Resignation Act of 1869. Under this act the coadjutor bishop has the right of succession to the see, or in the case of the archiepiscopal sees and those of London, Winchester and Durham, to the see vacated by the bishop, translated from another diocese to fill the vacancy. (5) _Suffragan bishops_ (_episcopi sufraganei_ or _auxiliares_) are those appointed to assist diocesan bishops in their pontifical functions when hindered by infirmity, public affairs or other causes. In the Roman Church the appointment of the suffragan rests with the pope, on the petition of the bishop, who must prove that such is the custom of the see, name a suitable priest and guarantee his maintenance. The suffragan is given a title _in partibus_, but never that of archbishop, and the same title is never given to two suffragans in succession. In the Church of England the status of suffragan bishops was regulated by the Act 26 Henry VIII. c. 14. Under this statute, which, after long remaining inoperative, was amended and again put into force by the Suffragans' Nomination Act of 1888, every archbishop and bishop, being disposed to have a suffragan to assist him, may name two honest and discreet spiritual persons for the crown to give to one of them the title, name, style and dignity of a bishop of any one of twenty-six sees enumerated in the statute, as the crown may think convenient. The crown, having made choice of one of such persons, is empowered to present him by letters patent under the great seal to the metropolitan, requiring him to consecrate him to the same name, title, style and dignity of a bishop; and the person so consecrated is thereupon entitled to exercise, under a commission from the bishop who has nominated him, such authority and jurisdiction, within the diocese of such bishop, as shall be given to him by the commission, and no other.

Lutheran churches.

The title of bishop survived the Reformation in certain of the Lutheran churches of the continent, in Denmark, Norway, Finland, Sweden and Transylvania; it was temporarily restored in Prussia in 1701, for the coronation of King Frederick I., again between 1816 and 1840 by Frederick William III., and in Nassau in 1818. In these latter cases, however, the title bishop is equivalent to that of "superintendent," the form most generally employed. The Lutheran bishops, as a rule, do not possess or claim unbroken "apostolic succession"; those of Finland and Sweden are, however, an exception. The Lutheran bishops of Transylvania sit, with the Roman and Orthodox bishops, in the Hungarian Upper House. In some cases the secularization of episcopal principalities at the Reformation led to the survival of the title of bishop as a purely secular distinction. Thus the see of Osnabruck (Osnaburgh) was occupied, from the peace of Westphalia to 1802, alternately by a Catholic and a Protestant prince. From 1762 to 1802 it was held by Frederick, duke of York, the last prince-bishop. Similarly, the bishopric of Schwerin survived as a Protestant prince-bishopric until 1648, when it was finally secularized and annexed to Mecklenburg, and the see of Lubeck was held by Protestant "bishops" from 1530 till its annexation to Oldenburg in 1803.[1]

In other Protestant communities, e.g. the Moravians, the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Mormons, the office and title of bishop have survived, or been created. Their functions and status will be found described in the accounts of the several churches.

See Wetzer and Welte, _Kirchenlexikon_, s. "Bischof" and "Weihen";
Hinschius, _Kirchenrecht_, vol. ii.; Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_,
s. "Bischof" (the author rather arbitrarily classes Anglican with
Lutheran bishops as not bishops in any proper sense at all);
Phillimore's _Ecclesiastical Law_; the articles ORDER, HOLY;
VESTMENTS; ECCLESIASTICAL JURISDICTION; EPISCOPACY. (W. A. P.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The title prince-bishop, attached in Austria to the sees of
Laibach, Seckau, Gurk, Brixen, Trent and Lavant, and in Prussia to
that of Breslau, no longer implies any secular jurisdiction, but is
merely a title of honour recognized by the state, owing either to the
importance of the sees or for reasons purely historical.

BISHOP AUCKLAND, a market town in the Bishop Auckland parliamentary division of Durham, England, 11 m. S.S.W. of the city of Durham, the junction of several branches of the North Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 11,969. It is beautifully situated on an eminence near the confluence of the Wear and the Gaunless. The parish church is 1 m. distant, at Auckland St Andrews, a fine cruciform structure, formerly collegiate, in style mainly Early English, but with earlier portions. The palace of the bishops of Durham, which stands at the north-east end of the town, is a spacious and splendid, though irregular pile The site of the palace was first chosen by Bishop Anthony Beck, in the time of Edward I. The present building covers about 5 acres, and is surrounded by a park of 800 acres. On the Wear 1-1/2 m. above Bishop Auckland there is a small and very ancient church at Escomb, massively built and tapering from the bottom upward. It is believed to date from the 7th century, and some of the stones are evidently from a Roman building, one bearing an inscription. These, no doubt, came from Binchester, a short distance up stream, where remains of a Roman fort (_Vinovia_) are traceable. It guarded the great Roman north road from York to Hadrian's wall. The industrial population of Bishop Auckland is principally employed in the neighbouring collieries and iron works.

BISHOP'S CASTLE, a market town and municipal borough in the southern parliamentary division of Shropshire, England; the terminus of the Bishop's Castle light railway from Craven Arms. Pop. (1901) 1378. It is pleasantly situated in a hilly district to the east of Clun Forest, climbing the flank and occupying the summit of an eminence. Of the castle of the bishops of Hereford, which gave the town its name, there are only the slightest fragments remaining. The town has some agricultural trade. It is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 1867 acres.

Bishop's Castle was included in the manor of Lydbury, which belonged
to the church of Hereford before the Conquest. The castle, at first
called Lydbury Castle, was built by one of the bishops of Hereford
between 1085 and 1154, to protect his manor from the Welsh, and the
town which sprang up round the castle walls acquired the name of
Bishop's Castle in the 13th century. In 1292 the bishop claimed to
have a market every Friday, a fair on the eve, day and morrow of the
Decollation of St John, and assize of bread and ale in Bishop's
Castle, which his predecessors had held from time immemorial. Ten
years later he received a grant from Richard II. of a market every
Wednesday and a fair on the 2nd of November and two days following.
Although the town was evidently a borough by the 13th century, since
the burgesses are mentioned as early as 1292, it has no charter
earlier than the incorporation charter granted by Queen Elizabeth in
1572. This was confirmed by James I. in 1617 and by James II. in 1688.
In 1584 Bishop's Castle returned two members to parliament, and was
represented until 1832, when it was disfranchised.

BISHOP STORTFORD, a market town in the Hertford parliamentary division of Hertfordshire, England; 30-1/2 m. N.N.E. from London by the Cambridge line of the Great Eastern railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 7143. It lies on the river Stort, close to the county boundary with Essex, and has water-communication with London through the Lea and Stort Navigation. The church of St Michael, standing high above the valley, is a fine embattled Perpendicular building with western tower and spire. The high school, formerly the grammar school, was founded in the time of Elizabeth. Here were educated Sir Henry Chauncy, an early historian of Hertfordshire (d. 1719), and Cecil Rhodes, who was born at Bishop Stortford in 1853. There are a Nonconformist grammar school, a diocesan training college for mistresses, and other educational establishments. The industries include brewing and malting, coach-building, lime-burning and founding, and there are important horse and cattle markets.

Before the Conquest the manor of Bishop Stortford is said to have
belonged to Eddeva the Fair, wife of Harold, who sold it to the bishop
of London, from whom it was taken by William the Conqueror. William
restored it after a few years, and with it gave the bishop a small
castle called Waytemore, of which there are scanty remains. The
dungeon of this castle, called "Bishop's Hole" or "Bishop's Prison,"
was used as an ecclesiastical prison until the 16th century. The town
now possesses no early incorporation charters, and although both
Chauncy and Salmon in their histories of Hertfordshire state that it
was created a borough by charter of King John in 1206, the charter
cannot now be found. The first mention of Bishop Stortford as a
borough occurs in 1311, in which year the burgesses returned two
members to parliament. The town was represented from that date until
1332, and again in 1335-1336, but the privilege was then allowed to
lapse and has never been revived.

BISKRA, a town of Algeria, in the arrondissement of Batna, department of Constantine, 150 m. S.W. of the city of Constantine and connected with it and with Philippeville by rail. It lies in the Sahara 360 ft. above the sea, on the right bank of the Wad Biskra, a river which, often nearly dry for many months in the year, becomes a mighty torrent after one or two days' rain in winter. The name Biskra applies to a union of five or six villages of the usual Saharan type, scattered through an oasis 3 m. in length by less than 1 m. broad, and separated by huge gardens full of palm and olive trees. The houses are built of hardened mud, with doors and roof of palm wood. The foreign settlement is on the north of the oasis; it consists of a broad main street, the rue Berthe (from which a few side streets branch at right angles), lined with European houses, the whole in the style of a typical French winter resort, a beautiful public garden, with the church in the centre, an arcade, a pretentious _mairie_ in pseudo-Moorish style with entrance guarded by terra-cotta lions, some good shops, a number of excellent hotels and cafes, a casino, clubs, and, near by, a street of dancing and singing girls of the tribe of Walad-Nail. East of the public garden is Fort St Germain, named after an officer killed in the insurrection of the Zaatcha in 1849; it is capable of resisting any attack of the Arabs, and extensive enough to shelter the whole of the civil population, who took refuge therein during the rebellion of 1871. It contains barracks, hospital and government offices. To the south-east lies the Villa Landon with magnificent gardens filled with tropical plants. The population (1906) of the chief settlement was 4218, of the whole oasis 10,413.

From November to April the climate of Biskra is delightful. Nowhere in Algeria can be found more genial temperature or clearer skies, and while in summer the thermometer often registers 110 deg. F. in the shade, and 90 deg. at night, the pure dryness of the air in this practically rainless region makes the heat endurable. The only drawback to the climat is the prevalence of high cold winds in winter. These winds cause temperatures as low as 36 deg., but the mean reading, on an average of ten years, is 73 deg.

In the oasis are some 200,000 fruit trees, of which about 150,000 are date-palms, the rest being olives, pomegranates and apricots. In the centre of the oasis is the old kasbah or citadel.

In 1844 the duc d'Aumale occupied this fort, and here, on the night of the 12th of May of that year, the 68 men who formed the French garrison were, with one exception, massacred by Arabs. In the fort are a few fragments of Roman work--all that remains of the Roman post Ad Piscinam.

Biskra is the capital of the Ziban (plural of Zab), a race of mixed Berber and Arab origin, whose villages extend from the southern slopes of the Aures to the Shat Melrir. These villages, built in oases dotted over the desert, nestle in groves of date-palms and fruit trees and waving fields of barley. The most interesting village is that of Sidi Okba, 12 m. south-east of Biskra. It is built of houses of one story made of sun-dried bricks. The mosque is square, with a flat roof supported on clay columns, and crowned by a minaret. In the north-west corner of the mosque is the tomb of Sidi Okba, the leader of the Arabs who in the 1st century of the Hegira conquered Africa for Islam from Egypt to Tangier. Sidi Okba was killed by the Berbers near this place in A.D. 682. On his tomb is the inscription in Cufic characters, "This is the tomb of Okba, son of Nafi. May God have mercy upon him." No older Arabic inscription is known to exist in Africa.

BISLEY, a village of Surrey, England, 3-1/2 m. N.W. of Woking. The ranges of the National Rifle Association were transferred from Wimbledon here in 1890. (See RIFLE.)

BISMARCK, OTTO EDUARD LEOPOLD VON, PRINCE, duke of Lauenburg (1815-1898), German statesman, was born on the 1st of April 1815, at the manor-house of Schonhausen, his father's seat in the mark of Brandenburg. The family has, since the 14th century, belonged to the landed gentry, and many members had held high office in the kingdom of Prussia. His father (d. 1845), of whom he always spoke with much affection, was a quiet, unassuming man, who retired from the army in early life with the rank of captain of cavalry (_Rittmeister_). His mother, a daughter of Mencken, cabinet secretary to the king, was a woman of strong character and ability, who had been brought up at Berlin under the "Aufklarung." Her ambition was centred in her sons, but Bismarck in his recollections of his childhood missed the influences of maternal tenderness. There were several children of the marriage, which took place in 1806, but all died in childhood except Bernhard (1810-1893), Otto, and one sister, Malvina (b. 1827), who married in 1845 Oscar von Arnim. Young Bismarck was educated in Berlin, first at a private school, then at the gymnasium of the Graue Kloster (Grey Friars). At the age of seventeen he went to the university of Gottingen, where he spent a little over a year; he joined the corps of the Hannoverana and took a leading part in the social life of the students. He completed his studies at Berlin, and in 1835 passed the examinations which admitted him to the public service. He was intended for the diplomatic service, but spent some months at Aix-la-Chapelle in administrative work, and then was transferred to Potsdam and the judicial side. He soon retired from the public service; he conceived a great distaste for it, and had shown himself defective in discipline and regularity. In 1839, after his mother's death, he undertook, with his brother, the management of the family estates in Pomerania; at this time most of the estate attached to Schonhausen had to be sold. In 1844, after the marriage of his sister, he went to live with his father at Schonhausen. He and his brother took an active part in local affairs, and in 1846 he was appointed _Deichhauptmann_, an office in which he was responsible for the care of the dykes by which the country, in the neighbourhood of the Elbe, was preserved from inundation. During these years he travelled in England, France and Switzerland. The influence of his mother, and his own wide reading and critical character, made him at one time inclined to hold liberal opinions on government and religion, but he was strongly affected by the religious revival of the early years of the reign of Frederick William IV.; his opinions underwent a great change, and under the influence of the neighbouring country gentlemen he acquired those strong principles in favour of monarchical government as the expression of the Christian state, of which he was to become the most celebrated exponent. His religious convictions were strengthened by his marriage to Johanna von Puttkamer, which took place in 1847.

Parliamentary career.

In the same year he entered public life, being chosen as substitute for the representative of the lower nobility of his district in the estates-general, which were in that year summoned to Berlin. He took his seat with extreme right, and distinguished himself by the vigour and originality with which he defended the rights of the king and the Christian monarchy against the Liberals. When the revolution broke out in the following year he offered to bring the peasants of Schonhausen to Berlin in order to defend the king against the revolutionary party, and in the last meeting of the estates voted in a minority of two against the address thanking the king for granting a constitution. He did not sit in any of the assemblies summoned during the revolutionary year, but took a very active part in the formation of a union of the Conservative party, and was one of the founders of the _Kreuzzeitung_, which has since then been the organ of the Monarchical party in Prussia. In the new parliament which was elected at the beginning of 1849, he sat for Brandenburg, and was one of the most frequent and most incisive speakers of what was called the Junker party. He took a prominent part in the discussions on the new Prussian constitution, always defending the power of the king. His speeches of this period show great debating skill, combined with strong originality and imagination. His constant theme was, that the party disputes were a struggle for power between the forces of revolution, which derived their strength from the fighters on the barricades, and the Christian monarchy, and that between these opposed principles no compromise was possible. He took also a considerable part in the debates on the foreign policy of the Prussian government; he defended the government for not accepting the Frankfort constitution, and opposed the policy of Radowitz, on the ground that the Prussian king would be subjected to the control of a non-Prussian parliament. The only thing, he said, that had come out of the revolutionary year unharmed, and had saved Prussia from dissolution and Germany from anarchy, was the Prussian army and the Prussian civil service; and in the debates on foreign policy he opposed the numerous plans for bringing about the union of Germany, by subjecting the crown and Prussia to a common German parliament. He had a seat in the parliament of Erfurt, but only went there in order to oppose the constitution which the parliament had framed. He foresaw that the policy of the government would lead it into a position when it would have to fight against Austria on behalf of a constitution by which Prussia itself would be dissolved, and he was, therefore, one of the few prominent politicians who defended the complete change of front which followed the surrender of Olmutz.

Diplomatic career.

It was probably his speeches on German policy which induced the king to appoint him Prussian representative at the restored diet of Frankfort in 1851. The appointment was a bold one, as he was entirely without diplomatic experience, but he justified the confidence placed in him. During the eight years he spent at Frankfort he acquired an unrivalled knowledge of German politics. He was often used for important missions, as in 1852, when he was sent to Vienna. He was entrusted with the negotiations by which the duke of Augustenburg was persuaded to assent to the arrangements by which he resigned his claims to Schleswig and Holstein. The period he spent at Frankfort, however, was of most importance because of the change it brought about in his own political opinions. When he went to Frankfort he was still under the influence of the extreme Prussian Conservatives, men like the Gerlachs, who regarded the maintenance of the principle of the Christian monarchy against the revolution as the chief duty of the Prussian government. He was prepared on this ground for a close alliance with Austria. He found, however, a deliberate intention on the part of Austria to humble Prussia, and to degrade her from the position of an equal power, and also great jealousy of Prussia among the smaller German princes, many of whom owed their thrones to the Prussian soldiers, who, as in Saxony and Baden, had crushed the insurgents. He therefore came to the conclusion that if Prussia was to regain the position she had lost she must be prepared for the opposition of Austria, and must strengthen herself by alliances with other powers. The solidarity of Conservative interests appeared to him now a dangerous fiction. At the time of the Crimean War he advocated alliance with Russia, and it was to a great extent owing to his advice that Prussia did not join the western powers. Afterwards he urged a good understanding with Napoleon, but his advice was met by the insuperable objection of King Frederick William IV. to any alliance with a ruler of revolutionary origin.

The change of ministry which followed the establishment of a regency in 1857 made it desirable to appoint a new envoy at Frankfort, and in 1858 Bismarck was appointed ambassador at St Petersburg, where he remained for four years. During this period he acquired some knowledge of Russian, and gained the warm regard of the tsar, as well as of the dowager-empress, herself a Prussian princess. During the first two years he had little influence on the Prussian government; the Liberal ministers distrusted his known opinions on parliamentary government, and the monarchical feeling of the prince regent was offended by Bismarck's avowed readiness for alliance with the Italians and his disregard of the rights of other princes. The failure of the ministry, and the estrangement between King William and the Liberal party, opened to him the way to power. Roon, who was appointed minister of war in 1861, was an old friend of his, and through him Bismarck was thenceforward kept closely informed of the condition of affairs in Berlin. On several occasions the prospect of entering the ministry was open to him, but nothing came of it, apparently because he required a free hand in foreign affairs, and this the king was not prepared to give him. When an acute crisis arose out of the refusal of parliament, in 1862, to vote the money required for the reorganization of the army, which the king and Roon had carried through, he was summoned to Berlin; but the king was still unable to make up his mind to appoint him, although he felt that Bismarck was the only man who had the courage and capacity for conducting the struggle with parliament. He was, therefore, in June, made ambassador at Paris as a temporary expedient. There he had the opportunity for renewing the good understanding with Napoleon which had been begun in 1857. He also paid a short visit to England, but it does not appear that this had any political results. In September the parliament, by a large majority, threw out the budget, and the king, having nowhere else to turn for help, at Roon's advice summoned Bismarck to Berlin and appointed him minister president and foreign minister.

Ministry.

Bismarck's duty as minister was to carry on the government against the wishes of the lower house, so as to enable the king to complete and maintain the reorganized army. The opposition of the House was supported by the country and by a large party at court, including the queen and crown prince. The indignation which his appointment caused was intense; he was known only by the reputation which in his early years he had won as a violent ultra-Conservative, and the apprehensions were increased by his first speech, in which he said that the German question could not be settled by speeches and parliamentary decrees, but only by blood and iron. His early fall was predicted, and it was feared that he might bring down the monarchy with him. Standing almost alone he succeeded in the task he had undertaken. For four years he ruled without a budget, taking advantage of an omission in the constitution which did not specify what was to happen in case the crown and the two Houses could not agree on a budget. The conflict of the ministers and the House assumed at times the form of bitter personality hostility; in 1863 the ministers refused any longer to attend the sittings, and Bismarck challenged Virchow, one of his strongest opponents, to a duel, which, however, did not take place. In 1852 he had fought a duel with pistols against Georg von Vindre, a political opponent. In June 1863, as soon as parliament had risen, Bismarck published ordinances controlling the liberty of the press, which, though in accordance with the letter, seemed opposed to the intentions of the constitution, and it was on this occasion that the crown prince, hitherto a silent opponent, publicly dissociated himself from the policy of his father's ministers. Bismarck depended for his position solely on the confidence of the king, and the necessity for defending himself against the attempts to destroy this confidence added greatly to the suspiciousness of his nature. He was, however, really indispensable, for his resignation must be followed by a Liberal ministry, parliamentary control over the army, and probably the abdication of the king. Not only, therefore, was he secure in the continuance of the king's support, but he had also the complete control of foreign affairs. Thus he could afford to ignore the criticism of the House, and the king was obliged to acquiesce in the policy of a minister to whom he owed so much.

Foreign policy.