Chapter V: BRETON LITERATURE.--Unlike the literature of Wales, the literature of

Brittany is destitute of originality, and we find nothing to compare with the _Mabinogion_. Till the 19th century all the monuments which have come down to us are copies of French models, though the retention down to the 17th century of that intricate system of versification found in Welsh and Cornish may indicate that what was really Breton in spirit has not been preserved (v. J. Loth, _La Metrique galloise_, ii. 177-203). It is usual to divide the literature into three periods in conformity with the language in which the monuments are written--Old, Middle, and Modern Breton. No connected monuments of the first period (8th to 11th centuries) have come down to us. For our knowledge of the language of this period we must have recourse to the manuscripts containing glosses and the names occurring in ancient documents. The chief collections of glosses are (1) the Oxford glosses on Eutychius; (2) the Luxemburg glosses; (3) the Bern glosses on Virgil; (4) the glosses on Amalarius (Corpus Christi, Cambridge); (5) five _Collationes Canonum_, the chief manuscripts being at Paris and Orleans. All these glosses have been published in one volume by J. Loth (_Vocabulaire Vieux-Breton_, Paris, 1884). From a linguistic point of view the Breton names in the Latin lives of saints are very important, particularly those of St Samson, St Paul, Aurelian, St Winwaloe, St Ninnoc, St Gildas and St Brieuc. Of even greater value are the names in the Charter of Redon, which was written in the 11th century, but dates largely from the 9th (published by A. de Courson, 1865); we may also mention the Charter of Landevennec (11th century). In the Middle Breton period, which extends from the 11th to the 17th centuries, we are obliged, down to the 15th century, to rely on official documents such as the Charter of Quimperle. French seems to have been the language of the aristocracy and the medium of culture. Hence the oldest connected texts are either translated or imitated from French, and are full of French words. We might mention a Book of Hours belonging to the 16th century, published by Whitley Stokes, and three religious poems bound up with the _Grand Mystere de Jesus_; further, the _Life of St Catherine_ (1576) in prose (published by Ernault, _Revue celtique_, viii. 76), translated from the _Golden Legend_, the _Mirror of Death_, containing 3360 verses, which was composed in 1519 and printed in 1576, the _Mirror of Confession_, a translation from the French in prose (1621), the _Christian Doctrine_, a translation in verse (1622), a collection of carols (_An Nouelou ancien_, 1650, _Rev. celt._ vols. x.-xiii.) and the _Christian Meditations_ of J. Cadec, 1651 (_Rev. Celt._ xx. 56). The earliest Breton printed work is the _Catholicon_ of Jean Lagadeuc, a Breton-Latin-French dictionary, dated 1464 but printed first in 1499 (reprinted by R.F. Le Men, Lorient, 1867). Modern Breton begins with the orthographical reforms of the Jesuit, Julien Maunoir, whose grammar (_Le Sacre College de Jesus_) and dictionary appeared in 1659. Throughout the modern period we find numerous collections of religious poems and manuals of devotion in prose and verse, which we cannot here attempt to enumerate. But the bulk of Breton literature before the 19th century consists of mysteries and miracle plays. This class of literature had a tremendous vogue in Brittany, and the native stage was only killed about 1850. It is stated, for instance, that no less than 15,000 copies were sold of the _Tragedy of the Four Sons of Aymon_, first published in 1815. It is impossible to give the titles of all the dramas which have come down to us (about 120). The manuscript collection of the Bibliotheque Nationale in Paris is described in the _Revue celtique_, xi. 389-423 (many since published) and Le Braz gives a useful list of other manuscripts in the bibliographical appendix to his _Theatre celtique_. A few of these plays belong to the Middle Breton period. The _Life of St Nonn_, the mother of St David, belongs to the end of the 15th century, and follows the Latin life (published by Ernault in the _Revue celtique_, viii. 230 ff., 405 ff.). _Le Grand Mystere de Jesus_ (1513) follows the French play of Arnoul Gresban and Jean Michel (published by H. de la Villemarque, Paris, 1865). A French original is also followed in the _Mystere de Sainte Barbe_ (1st ed., 1557, 2nd ed., 1647, reprinted by Ernault, Nantes, 1885). These mystery plays may be divided into four categories according to the subjects with which they deal: (1) Old Testament subjects; (2) New Testament subjects; (3) lives of saints; (4) romances of chivalry. There is occasionally a dash of local colouring in these plays; but the subject matter is taken from French sources or, in the case of the third category, from Latin lives. Even when the life of a Breton saint, e.g. St Gwennole, is dramatized, the treatment is the traditional one accorded to all saints of whatever origin. Amongst the most favourite subjects in addition to those already mentioned we may note the following: _Vie des quatre fils Aymon_, _Ste Tryphine et le roi Arthur_, _Huon de Bordeaux_, _Vie de Louis Eunius_, _Robert le Diable_. These mysteries commonly contain from 5000 to 9000 lines of either 12 or 8 syllables apiece. For the sake of completeness we may add the names of three farces, described by Le Braz: _Ar Farvel goapaer_ (_Le bouffon moqueur_), _Ian Melarge_ (_Mardi-gras_), _La Vie de Mardi-gras, de triste Mine, sa femme, et de ses enfants_. The actors, who were always peasants, came to be regarded with an unfavourable eye by the clergy, who finally succeeded in killing the Breton stage.

We look in vain for any manifestation of originality in Breton literature until we reach the 19th century. The consciousness of nationality then awakened and found expression in verse.

The movement led by Le Gonidec (described above in the section on Breton language) caused ardent patriots to endeavour to create a national literature, more especially when the attention of the whole world of letters was directed to Brittany after the publication of the _Barzas Breiz_. The most prominent of these pioneers were Auguste Brizeux, F.M. Luzel and Prosper Proux. Brizeux (1803-1858), better known as a French poet, wrote a collection of lyrics entitled _Telen Arvor_, or the _Armorican Harp_ (Lorient, 1844, reprinted Paris, 1903). Luzel's original compositions were published under the title of _Bepred Breizad, Toujours Breton_ (Morlaix, 1865), and Prosper Proux is known as the author of _Canaouenno gret gant eur C'hernewod_ (1838) and _Ar Bombard Kerne_, or _The Hautboy of Cornouailles_ (Guingamp, 1866). Dottin also mentions _Telenn Remengol_, by J. Lescour (Brest, 1867); _Telenn Gwengam_, by the same writer (Brest, 1869), a volume of _Chansoniou_ by Y.M. Thomas (Lannion, 1870), and another by C. Rannou. This was a very creditable beginning, but the themes of these writers are apt to be somewhat conventional and the constant recurrence of the same situation or the same idea grows monotonous. An anthology of poems connected with this movement appeared at Quimperle in 1862 under the title of _Bleuniou Breiz, Poesies anciennes et modernes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (reprinted, Paris, 1905). Several of La Fontaine's fables were published in a Breton dress by P.D. de Goesbriand (Morlaix, 1836), and a collection of fables in verse which is thought very highly of by cultivated Bretons appeared under the title of _Marvaillou Grac'h koz_ by G. Milin (Brest, 1867). A book of Georgics in the dialect of Vannes appeared under the title of _Levr al labourer_ (The Farmer's Book) by l'Abbe Guillome (Vannes, 1849), and Le Gonidec prepared a translation of the Scriptures, which was revised by Troude and Milin, and published at St Brieuc in 1868. But the real literature of Brittany consists of legends, folk-tales and ballads. The first to tap this source was Hersart de la Villemarque (1815-1895), who issued in 1839 his famous collection of ballads entitled _Barzas Breiz_, but which cannot be regarded as an anthology of Breton popular poetry. The publication of this work gave rise to a controversy which is almost as famous as that caused by Macpherson's forgeries. De la Villemarque was endowed with considerable poetic gifts, and, coming as he did at a time when folk-poetry was the fashion, he determined to collect the popular literature of his own country. However, he was not content to publish the poems as he found them circulating in Brittany. With the aid of several collaborators he transformed his material, eliminating anything that was crude and gross. The poems included in his collection may be divided into three classes: (1) Poems rearranged by himself or others. These consist mainly of love-songs and ballads. (2) Modern poems transferred to medieval times. (3) Spurious poems dealing with such personages as Nominoe and Merlin. The compiler of the _Barzas Breiz_ unfortunately laboured under the delusion that these Breton folk-songs were in the first instance the work of medieval bards corresponding to Taliessin and Llywarch Hen in Wales, and that it was possible to make them appear in their primitive dress. The very title of the collection indicates the artificial nature of the contents. For _Barzas_ (in the 2nd edition of 1867 spelt _Barzaz_) is not a Breton word at all but is formed on Welsh _barddas_ (bardic poems). For the whole controversy the reader may consult H. Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, "Bibliographie des traditions et de la litterature populaire de la Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277 ff., and G. Dottin in the _Revue de synthese historique_, viii. 95 ff.). In Brittany it is usual to divide the popular poetry into _gwerziou_ and _soniou_. The _gwerziou_ (complaintes) deal with local history, folk-lore, religious legends and superstitions, and are in general much more original than the other class. The _soniou_ consist of love-songs, satires, carols and marriage-lays, as well as others dealing with professional occupations, and seem in many cases to show traces of French influence. The first scholar who published the genuine ballad literature of Brittany was F.M. Luzel, who issued two volumes under the title of _Gwerziou Breiz-Izel, chants populaires de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Lorient and Paris, 1868, 1874). This collection contains several of the originals of poems in the _Barzas Breiz_. Luzel is also the author of a collection of Breton tales in French translation, _Contes bretons recueillis et traduits par F.M. Luzel_ (Quimperle, 1870). The same author published _Les Legendes chretiennes de la Basse-Bretagne_ (Paris, 1881) and _Veillees bretonnes, moeurs, chants, contes et recits populaires des Bretons-Armoricains_ (Morlaix, 1879). Another indefatigable collector of Breton legends is Anatole le Braz, who was commissioned by the minister of public instruction to investigate the stories current with reference to _An Ankou_ (death). Le Braz's results are to be found in his _La Legende de la mort_ (1902[2]). A well-known collection of stories with a French translation was issued by the lexicographer Troude under the title of _Ar marvailler brezounek_ (Brest, 1870), and one of the most popular books at the present day is _Pipi Gonto_, by A. le Moal (St Brieuc, vol. i. 1902, vol. ii. 1908). A recent collection of stories with a religious tendency is C.M. le Prat's _Marvailhou ar Vretoned_ (Brest, 1907). The modern movement, which started in the 'nineties of last century, has already produced numerous dramas and volumes of lyrics, and it may now be affirmed in all seriousness that Brittany is producing something really national. The scope of the writers of the earlier movement was very limited and little originality was displayed in their productions. The literary output of the last ten years in Brittany may truly be termed prodigious, and much of it reaches quite a high level. The dramas which are being produced are mainly propagandist in the interests either of the _Union Regionaliste Bretonne_ or of temperance reform. These are for the most part very crude, but they have been received with great enthusiasm, and this has led to the revival of the old mysteries, though in a somewhat modified form. The foremost living writer is Fanch Jaffrennou, who writes under the name of "_Taldir_" (Brow of Steel) and is the author of two very striking volumes of lyrics--_An Hirvoudou_ or _Sighs_ (St Brieuc, 1899) and _An Delen Dir_ or _The Harp of Steel_ (St Brieuc, 1900). The latter is the most interesting outcome of the modern movement. Among other poets we may mention N. Quellien (_Annaik_, Paris, 1880; _Breiz, Poesies bretonnes_, Paris, 1898), Erwan Berthou (_Dre an Delen hag ar c'horn-boud, Par la harpe et par le cor de guerre_, St Brieuc, 1904), C.M. le Prat, who writes under the name of Klaoda (_Mouez Reier Plougastel_, "The Voice of the Cliffs of Plougastel," St Brieuc, 1905), J. Cuillandre (_Mouez an Aochou, La Voix des greves_, Rennes, 1903), abbe Lec'hvien, _Gwerziou ha soniou_ (St Brieuc, 1900), and, further, two anonymous volumes of verse, _An Tremener, Gwerziou ha soniou_ (Brest, 1900), and _Kanaouennou Kerne_ (Brest, 1900). Two older collections are mentioned by Dottin--J. Cadiou, _En Breiz-Izel_ (Morlaix, 1885) and _Ivona_ (Morlaix, 1886). An anthology of latter-day lyrics appeared at Rennes in 1902 under the title of _Bleuniou Breiz-Izel, Dibab Barzoniezou_. Of the numerous plays those most deserving of mention from a literary point of view are perhaps _Ar Vezventi_ by T. le Garrec; the comedy _Alanik al Louarn_ by J.M. Perrot (Brest, 1905) based on the farce of Pathelin; Tanguy Malmanche, _Le Conte de l'ame qui a faim_, in which Breton superstitions connected with the spirits of the dead are introduced with strange effect; J. le Bayon, _En Eutru Keriolet_ (Vannes, 1902), which deals with the life and death of a blaspheming Breton nobleman of the early part of the 17th century; F. Jaffrennou, _Pontkallek_ (Brest, 1903), which tells of the betrayal of a noble Breton who was put to death by the French in 1720; and the farce _Eur Pesk-Ebrel_ by L. Rennadis (Morlaix, 1900).

AUTHORITIES.--A history of Breton literature does not exist, though we
possess ample materials for such a work. The following works and
articles may be consulted: G. Dottin. _Revue de synthese historique_,
viii, 93-104, contains a full bibliography; J. Loth, _Chrestomathie
bretonne_ (Paris, 1890); L.C. Stern in _Die Kultur d. Gegenwart_, i.
xi. 1, pp. 132-137; A. le Braz, _Le Theatre celtique_ (Paris, 1904);
H. Gaidoz and P. Sebillot, "Bibliographie des traditions et de la
litterature populaire de la Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, v. 277-338;
supplement by P. Sebillot_, Revue de Bretagne, de Vendee, et d'Anjou_,
1894); F.M. Luzel, "Formules initiates et finales des conteurs en
Basse-Bretagne" (_Revue celtique_, iii. 336 ff.); L.F. Sauve,
"Formulettes et traditions diverses de la Basse-Bretagne" (_Revue
celtique_, v. 157 ff.); _Charmes_, "Oraisons et conjurations
magiques," ib vi. 66 ff.; "Devinettes bretonnes," _ib._ iv 60 ff.;
"Proverbes et dictons de la Basse-Bretagne," _ib._ i-iii. For Breton
proverbs see also A. Brizeux, "Furnez Breiz," in _Oeuvres de A.
Brizeux_ (Paris, 1903); J. Loth, "Chansons en bas-vannetais" (_Revue
celtique_, vii. 171 ff.); N. Quellien, _Chansons et danses des
Bretons_ (Paris, 1889); E. Ernault, "Chansons populaires" (_Revue
celtique_, xxiii. 121 ff.); P. le Roux, "Une Chanson bretonne du
xviii^e siecle" (_Revue celtique_, xix. 1). Since 1901 a complete
bibliography of modern works pertaining to Breton language and
literature appears from time to time in the _Annales de Bretagne._
(E. C. Q.)