Chapter XXI: Act 1899: are other codes of law designed for incorporation in special (7)

But it is in the design of steel concrete _beams_ that the greatest ingenuity has been shown, and almost every patentee of a "system" has some new device for arranging the steel reinforcement to the best advantage. Concrete by itself, though strong in compression, can offer but little resistance to tensile and shearing stresses, and as these stresses always occur in beams the problem arises how best to arrange the steel so as to assist the concrete in bearing them. To meet tensile stresses the steel is nearly always inserted in the form of bars running along the beam. Figs. 6 to 9 show how they are arranged for different loading. In each case the object is to place the bars as nearly as possible where the tensile stresses occur. In cases where all the stresses are heavy, that portion of the beam which is under compression is similarly reinforced, though with smaller bars (figs. 10 and 11). But as these tension and compression bars are generally placed near the under and upper surface of the beam they are of little use in helping to resist the shearing stresses which are greatest at its neutral axis. (See BRIDGES.) These shearing stresses in a heavily loaded beam would cause it to split horizontally at or near the centre. To prevent this many ingenious devices have been introduced. (1) Perhaps one of the most efficient is a diagonal bracing of steel wire passing to and fro between the upper and lower bars and firmly secured to each by lapping or otherwise (fig. 12); this device is used in the Coignet and other French systems. (2) In the Hennebique system (which has found great favour in England) vertical bands or "stirrups," as they are generally called, of hoop steel are used (fig. 13). They are of U shape, and passing round the tension bars extend to the top of the beam (figs. 14 and 3). They are exceedingly thin, but being buried in concrete no danger of their perishing from rust is to be feared. (3) In the Boussiron system a similar stirrup is used, but instead of being vertical the two parts are spread so that each is slightly inclined. (4) In the Coularon system, the stirrups are inclined as in fig. 15, and consist of rods, the ends of which are hooked over the tension and compression bars. (5) In the Kahn system the stirrups are similarly arranged, but instead of being merely secured to the tension bar, they form an integral part of it like branches on a stem, the bar being rolled to a special section to admit of this. (6) In many systems such as the "expanded metal" system, the tension and compression rods together with the stirrups are all abandoned in favour of a single rolled steel joist of I section, buried in concrete (see fig. 16). Probably the weight of steel used in this way is excessive, but the joists are cheap, readily procurable and easy to handle.

Floor _slabs_ may be regarded as wide and shallow beams, and the remarks made about the stresses in the one apply to the other also; accordingly, the various devices which are used for strengthening beams recur in the slabs. But in a thin slab, with its comparatively small span and light load, the concrete is generally strong enough to bear the shearing stresses unaided, and the reinforcement is devoted to assisting it where the tensile stresses occur. For this purpose many designers simply use the modification of the Monier system, consisting of a horizontal network of crossed steel rods buried in the concrete. "Expanded metal" too is admirably adapted for the purpose (fig. 1). In the Matrai system thin wires are used instead of rods, and are securely fastened to rolled steel joists, which form the beams on which the slabs rest; moreover, the wires instead of being stretched tight from side to side of the slab are allowed to sag as much as the thickness of the concrete will allow. In the Williams system small flat bars are used, which are not quite horizontal, but pass alternately over and under the rolled joists which support the slabs.

A concrete _arch_ is reinforced in much the same way as a wall, the stresses being somewhat similar. The reinforcing rods are generally laid both longitudinally and circumferentially. In the case of a culvert the circumferential rods are sometimes laid continuously in the form of a spiral as in the Bordenave system.

To those wishing to pursue the subject further, the following books
among others may be suggested:--Sabin, _Cement and Concrete_ (New
York); Taylor and Thompson, _Concrete, Plain and Reinforced_ (London);
Sutcliffe, _Concrete, Nature and Uses_ (London); Marsh and Dunn,
_Reinforced Concrete_ (London); Twelvetrees, _Concrete Steel_
(London); Paul Christophe, _Le Beton arme_ (Paris); Buel and Hill,
_Reinforced Concrete Construction_ (London). (F. E. W.-S.)

CONCRETION, in petrology, a name applied to nodular or irregularly shaped masses of various size occurring in a great variety of sedimentary rocks, differing in composition from the main mass of the rock, and in most cases obviously formed by some chemical process which ensued after the rock was deposited. As these bodies present so many variations in composition and in structure, it will conduce to clearness if some of the commonest be briefly adverted to. In sandstones there are often hard rounded lumps, which separate out when the rock is broken or weathered. They are mostly siliceous, but sometimes calcareous, and may differ very little in general appearance from the bulk of the sandstone. Through them the bedding passes uninterrupted, thus showing that they are not pebbles; often in their centres shells or fragments of plants are found. Argillaceous sandstones and flagstones very frequently contain "clay galls" or concretionary lumps richer in clay than the remainder of the rock. Nodules of pyrites and of marcasite are common in many clays, sandstones and marls. Their outer surfaces are tuberculate; internally they commonly have a radiate fibrous structure. Usually they are covered with a dark brown crust of limonite produced by weathering; occasionally imperfect crystalline faces may bound them. Not infrequently (e.g. in the Gault) these pyritous nodules contain altered fossils. In clays also siliceous and calcareous concretions are often found. They present an extraordinary variety of shapes, often grotesquely resembling figures of men or animals, fruits, &c, and have in many countries excited popular wonder, being regarded as of supernatural origin ("fairy-stones," &c.), and used as charms.

Another type of concretion, very abundant in many clays and shales, is the "septarian nodule." These are usually flattened disk-shaped or ovoid, often lobulate externally like the surface of a kidney. When split open they prove to be traversed by a network of cracks, which are usually filled with calcite and other minerals. These white infillings of the fissures resemble partitions; hence the name from the Latin _septum_, a partition. Sometimes the cracks are partly empty. They vary up to half an inch in breadth, and are best seen when the nodule is cut through with a saw. These concretions may be calcareous or may consist of carbonate of iron. The former are common in some beds of the London Clay, and were formerly used for making cement. The clay-ironstone nodules or sphaerosiderites are very abundant in some Carboniferous shales, and have served in some places as iron ores. Some of the largest specimens are 3 ft. in diameter. In the centre of these nodules fossils are often found, e.g. coprolites, pieces of plants, fish teeth and scales. Phosphatic concretions are often present in certain limestones, clays, shelly sands and marls. They occur, for example, in the Cambridge Greensand, and at the base of certain of the Pliocene beds in the east of England. In many places they have been worked, under the name of "coprolite-beds," as sources of artificial manures. Bones of animals more or less completely mineralized are frequent in these phosphatic concretions, the commonest being fragments of extinct reptilia. Their presence points to a source for the phosphate of lime.

Another very important series of concretionary structures are the flint nodules which occur in chalk, and the patches and bands of chert which are found in limestones. Flints consist of dark-coloured cryptocrystalline silica. They weather grey or white by the removal of their more soluble portions by percolating water. Their shapes are exceedingly varied, and often they are studded with tubercules and nodosities. Sometimes they have internal cavities, and very frequently they contain shells of echinoderms, molluscs, &c., partly or entirely replaced by silica, but preserving their original forms. Chert occurs in bands and tabular masses rather than in nodules; it often replaces considerable portions of a bed of limestone (as in the Carboniferous Limestones of Ireland). Corals and other fossils frequently occur in chert, and when sliced and microscopically examined both flint and chert often show silicified foraminifera, polyzoa &c., and sponge spicules. Flints in chalk frequently lie along joints which may be vertical or may be nearly horizontal and parallel to the bedding. Hence they increase the stratified appearance of natural exposures of chalk.

It will be seen from the details given above that concretions may be calcareous, siliceous, argillaceous and phosphatic, and they may consist of carbonate or sulphide of iron. In the red clay of the deep sea bottom concretionary masses rich in manganese dioxide are being formed, and are sometimes brought up by the dredge. In clays large crystals of gypsum, having the shape of an arrow-head, are occasionally found in some numbers. They bear a considerable resemblance to some concretions, e.g. crystalline marcasite and pyrite nodules. These examples will indicate the great variety of substances which may give rise to concretionary structures.

Some concretions are amorphous, e.g. phosphatic nodules; others are cryptocrystalline, e.g. flint and chert; others finely crystalline, e.g. pyrites, sphaerosiderite; others consist of large crystals, e.g. gypsum, barytes, pyrites and marcasite. From this it is clear that the formation of concretions is not closely dependent on any single inorganic substance, or on any type of crystalline structure. Concretions seem to arise from the tendency of chemical compounds to be slowly dissolved by interstitial water, either while the deposit is unconsolidated or at a later period. Certain nuclei, present in the rock, then determine reprecipitation of these solutions, and the deposit once begun goes on till either the supply of material for growth is exhausted, or the physical character of the bed is changed by pressure and consolidation till it is no longer favourable to further accretion. The process resembles the growth of a crystal in a solution by slowly attracting to itself molecules of suitable nature from the surrounding medium. But in the majority of cases it is not the crystalline forces, or not these alone, which attract the particles. The structure of a flint, for example, shows that the material had so little tendency to crystallize that it remained permanently in cryptocrystalline or sub-crystalline state. That the concretions grew in the solid sediment is proved by the manner in which lines of bedding pass through them and not round them. This is beautifully shown by many siliceous and calcareous nodules out of recent clays. That the sediment was in a soft condition may be inferred from the purity and perfect crystalline form of some of these bodies, e.g. gypsum, pyrites, marcasite. The crystals must have pushed aside the yielding matrix as they gradually enlarged. In deep-sea dredgings concretions of phosphate of lime and manganese dioxide are frequently brought up; this shows that concretionary action operates on the sea floor in muddy sediments, which have only recently been laid down. The phosphatic nodules seem to originate around the dead bodies of fishes, and manganese incrustations frequently enclose teeth of sharks, ear-bones of whales, &c. This recalls the occurrence of fossils in septarian nodules, flints, phosphatic concretions, &c., in the older strata. Probably the decomposing organic matter partly supplied substances for the growth of the nodules (phosphates, carbonates, &c.), partly acted as reducing agents, or otherwise determined mineral precipitation in those places where organic remains were mingled with the sediment. (J. S. F.)

CONCUBINAGE (Lat. _concubina_, a concubine; from _con-_, with, and _cubare_, to lie), the state of a man and woman cohabiting as married persons without the full sanctions of legal marriage. In early historical times, when marriage laws had scarcely advanced beyond the purely customary stage, the concubine was definitely recognized as a sort of inferior wife, differing from those of the first rank mainly by the absence of permanent guarantees. The history of Abraham's family shows us clearly that the concubine might be dismissed at any time, and her children were liable to be cast off equally summarily with gifts, in order to leave the inheritance free for the wife's sons (Genesis xxi. 9 ff., xxv. 5 ff.).

The Roman law recognized two classes of legal marriage: (1) with the definite public ceremonies of _confarreatio_ or _coemptio_, and (2) without any public form whatever and resting merely on the _affectio maritalis_, i.e. the fixed intention of taking a particular woman as a permanent spouse.[1] Next to these strictly lawful marriages came concubinage as a recognized legal status, so long as the two parties were not married and had no other concubines. It differed from the formless marriage in the absence (1) of _affectio maritalis_, and therefore (2) of full conjugal rights. For instance, the concubine was not raised, like the wife, to her husband's rank, nor were her children legitimate, though they enjoyed legal rights forbidden to mere bastards, e.g. the father was bound to maintain them and to leave them (in the absence of legitimate children) one-sixth of his property; moreover, they might be fully legitimated by the subsequent marriage of their parents.

In the East, the emperor Leo the Philosopher (d. 911) insisted on formal marriage as the only legal status; but in the Western Empire concubinage was still recognized even by the Christian emperors. The early Christians had naturally preferred the formless marriage of the Roman law as being free from all taint of pagan idolatry; and the ecclesiastical authorities recognized concubinage also. The first council of Toledo (398) bids the faithful restrict himself "to a single wife or concubine, as it shall please him";[2] and there is a similar canon of the Roman synod held by Pope Eugenius II. in 826. Even as late as the Roman councils of 1052 and 1063, the suspension from communion of laymen who had a wife and a concubine _at the same time_ implies that mere concubinage was tolerated. It was also recognized by many early civil codes. In Germany "left-handed" or "morganatic" marriages were allowed by the Salic law between nobles and women of lower rank. In different states of Spain the laws of the later middle ages recognized concubinage under the name of _barragania_, the contract being lifelong, the woman obtaining by it a right to maintenance during life, and sometimes also to part of the succession, and the sons ranking as nobles if their father was a noble. In Iceland, the concubine was recognized in addition to the lawful wife, though it was forbidden that they should dwell in the same house. The Norwegian law of the later middle ages provided definitely that in default of legitimate sons, the kingdom should descend to illegitimates. In the Danish code of Valdemar II., which was in force from 1280 to 1683, it was provided that a concubine kept openly for three years shall thereby become a legal wife; this was the custom of _hand vesten_, the "handfasting" of the English and Scottish borders, which appears in Scott's _Monastery_. In Scotland, the laws of William the Lion (d. 1214) speak of concubinage as a recognized institution; and, in the same century, the great English legist Bracton treats the "concubina _legitima_" as entitled to certain rights.[3] There seems to have been at times a pardonable confusion between some quasi-legitimate unions and those marriages by mere word of mouth, without ecclesiastical or other ceremonies, which the church, after some natural hesitation, pronounced to be valid.[4] Another and more serious confusion between concubinage and marriage was caused by the gradual enforcement of clerical celibacy (see CELIBACY). During the bitter conflict between laws which forbade sacerdotal marriages and long custom which had permitted them, it was natural that the legislators and the ascetic party generally should studiously speak of the priests' wives as concubines, and do all in their power to reduce them to this position. This very naturally resulted in a too frequent substitution of clerical concubinage for marriage; and the resultant evils form one of the commonest themes of complaint in church councils of the later middle ages.[5] Concubinage in general was struck at by the concordat between the Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France in 1516; and the council of Trent, while insisting on far more stringent conditions for lawful marriage than those which had prevailed in the middle ages, imposed at last heavy ecclesiastical penalties on concubinage and appealed to the secular arm for help against contumacious offenders (Sessio xxiv. cap. 8).

AUTHORITIES.--Besides those quoted in the notes, the reader may
consult with advantage Du Cange's _Glossarium, s.v. Concubina_, the
article "Concubinat" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_ (2nd ed.,
Freiburg i/B., 1884), and Dr H. C. Lea's _History of Sacerdotal
Celibacy_ (3rd ed., London, 1907). (G. G. Co.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] The difference between English and Scottish law, which once made
"Gretna Green marriages" so frequent, is due to the fact that Scotland
adopted the Roman law (which on this particular point was followed by
the whole medieval church).

[2] Gratian, in the 12th century, tried to explain this away by
assuming that concubinage here referred to meant a formless marriage;
but in 398 a church council can scarcely so have misused the technical
terms of the then current civil law (Gratian, _Decretum_, pars i.
dist. xxiv. c. 4).

[3] Bracton, _De Legibus_, lib. iii. tract. ii. c. 28, S I, and lib.
iv. tract. vi. c. 8, S 4.

[4] F. Pollock and F. W. Maitland, _Hist. of English Law_, 2nd ed.
vol. ii. p. 370. In the case of Richard de Anesty, decided by papal
rescript in 1143, "a marriage solemnly celebrated in church, a
marriage of which a child had been born, was set aside as null in
favour of an earlier marriage constituted by a mere exchange of
consenting words" (ibid. p. 367; cf. the similar decretal of Alexander
III. on p. 371). The great medieval canon lawyer Lyndwood illustrates
the difficulty of distinguishing, even as late as the middle of the
15th century, between concubinage and a clandestine, though legal,
marriage. He falls back on the definition of an earlier canonist that
if the woman eats out of the same dish with the man, and if he takes
her to church, she may be presumed to be his wife; if, however, he
sends her to draw water and dresses her in vile clothing, she is
probably a concubine (_Provinciale_, ed. Oxon. 1679, p. 10, _s.v.
concubinarios_).

[5] It may be gathered from the Dominican C. L. Richard's _Analysis
Conciliorum_ (vol. ii., 1778) that there were more than 110 such
complaints in councils and synods between the years 1009 and 1528. Dr
Rashdall (_Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages_, vol. ii. p.
691, note) points out that a master of the university of Prague, in
1499, complained openly to the authorities against a bachelor for
assaulting his concubine.

CONDE, PRINCES OF. The French title of prince of Conde, assumed from the ancient town of Conde-sur-l'Escaut, was borne by a branch of the house of Bourbon. The first who assumed it was the famous Huguenot leader, Louis de Bourbon (see below), the fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendome. His son, Henry, prince of Conde (1552-1588), also belonged to the Huguenot party. Fleeing to Germany he raised a small army with which in 1575 he joined Alencon. He became leader of the Huguenots, but after several years' fighting was taken prisoner of war. Not long after he died of poison, administered, according to the belief of his contemporaries, by his wife, Catherine de la Tremouille. This event, among others, awoke strong suspicions as to the legitimacy of his heir and namesake, Henry, prince of Conde (1588-1646). King Henry IV., however, did not take advantage of the scandal. In 1609 he caused the prince of Conde to marry Charlotte de Montmorency, whom shortly after Conde was obliged to save from the king's persistent gallantry by a hasty flight, first to Spain and then to Italy. On the death of Henry, Conde returned to France, and intrigued against the regent, Marie de' Medici; but he was seized, and imprisoned for three years (1616-1619). There was at that time before the court a plea for his divorce from his wife, but she now devoted herself to enliven his captivity at the cost of her own liberty. During the rest of his life Conde was a faithful servant of the king. He strove to blot out the memory of the Huguenot connexions of his house by affecting the greatest zeal against Protestants. His old ambition changed into a desire for the safe aggrandizement of his family, which he magnificently achieved, and with that end he bowed before Richelieu, whose niece he forced his son to marry. His son Louis, the great Conde, is separately noticed below.

The next in succession was Henry Jules, prince of Conde (1643-1709), the son of the great Conde and of Clemence de Maille, niece of Richelieu. He fought with distinction under his father in Franche-Comte and the Low Countries; but he was heartless, avaricious and undoubtedly insane. The end of his life was marked by singular hypochondriacal fancies. He believed at one time that he was dead, and refused to eat till some of his attendants dressed in sheets set him the example. His grandson, Louis Henry, duke of Bourbon (1692-1740), Louis XV.'s minister, did not assume the title of prince of Conde which properly belonged to him.

The son of the duke of Bourbon, Louis Joseph, prince of Conde (1736-1818), after receiving a good education, distinguished himself in the Seven Years' War, and most of all by his victory at Johannisberg. As governor of Burgundy he did much to improve the industries and means of communication of that province. At the Revolution he took up arms in behalf of the king, became commander of the "army of Conde," and fought in conjunction with the Austrians till the peace of Campo Formio in 1797, being during the last year in the pay of England. He then served the emperor of Russia in Poland, and after that (1800) returned into the pay of England, and fought in Bavaria. In 1800 Conde arrived in England, where he resided for several years. On the restoration of Louis XVIII. he returned to France. He died in Paris in 1818. He wrote _Essai sur la vie du grand Conde_ (1798).

LOUIS HENRY JOSEPH, duke of Bourbon (1756-1830), son of the last named, was the last prince of Conde. Several of the earlier events of his life, especially his marriage with the princess Louise of Orleans, and the duel that the comte d'Artois provoked by raising the veil of the princess at a masked ball, caused much scandal. At the Revolution he fought with the army of the _emigres_ in Liege. Between the return of Napoleon from Elba and the battle of Waterloo, he headed with no success a royalist rising in La Vendee. In 1829 he made a will by which he appointed as his heir the due d'Aumale, and made some considerable bequests to his mistress, the baronne de Feucheres (q.v.). On the 27th of August 1830 he was found hanged on the fastening of his window. A crime was generally suspected, and the princes de Rohan, who were relatives of the deceased, disputed the will. Their petition, however, was dismissed by the courts.

Two cadet branches of the house of Conde played an important part: those of Soissons and Conti. The first, sprung from Charles of Bourbon (b. 1566), son of Louis I., prince of Conde, became extinct in the legitimate male line in 1641. The second took its origin from Armand of Bourbon, born in 1629, son of Henry II., prince of Conde, and survived up to 1814.

See Muret, _L'Histoire de l'armee de Conde_; Chamballand, _Vie de
Louis Joseph, prince de Conde_; Cretineau-Joly, _Histoire des trois
derniers princes de la maison de Conde_; and _Histoire des princes de
Conde_, by the due d'Aumale (translated by R. B. Borthwick, 1872).

CONDE, LOUIS DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1530-1569), fifth son of Charles de Bourbon, duke of Vendome, younger brother of Antoine, king of Navarre (1518-1562), was the first of the famous house of Conde (see above). After his father's death in 1537 Louis was educated in the principles of the reformed religion. Brave though deformed, gay but extremely poor for his rank, Conde was led by his ambition to a military career. He fought with distinction in Piedmont under Marshal de Brissac; in 1552 he forced his way with reinforcements into Metz, then besieged by Charles V.; he led several brilliant sorties from that town; and in 1554 commanded the light cavalry on the Meuse against Charles. In 1557 he was present at the battle of St Quentin, and did further good service at the head of the light horse. But the descendants of the constable de Bourbon were still looked upon with suspicion in the French court, and Conde's services were ignored. The court designed to reduce his narrow means still further by despatching him upon a costly mission to Philip II. of Spain. His personal griefs thus combined with his religious views to force upon him a role of political opposition. He was concerned in the conspiracy of Amboise, which aimed at forcing from the king the recognition of the reformed religion. He was consequently condemned to death, and was only saved by the decease of Francis II. At the accession of the boy-king Charles IX., the policy of the court was changed, and Conde received from Catherine de' Medici the government of Picardy. But the struggle between the Catholics and the Huguenots soon began once more, and henceforward the career of Conde is the story of the wars of religion (see FRANCE: _HISTORY_). He was the military as well as the political chief of the Huguenot party, and displayed the highest generalship on many occasions, and notably at the battle of St Denis. At the battle of Jarnac, with only 400 horsemen, Conde rashly charged the whole Catholic army. Worn out with fighting, he at last gave up his sword, and a Catholic officer named Montesquiou treacherously shot him through the head on the 13th of March 1569.

CONDE, LOUIS II. DE BOURBON, PRINCE OF (1621-1686), called the Great Conde, was the son of Henry, prince of Conde, and Charlotte Marguerite de Montmorency, and was born at Paris on the 8th of September 1621. As a boy, under his father's careful supervision, he studied diligently at the Jesuits' College at Bourges, and at seventeen, in the absence of his father, he governed Burgundy. The duc d'Enghien, as he was styled during his father's lifetime, took part with distinction in the campaigns of 1640 and 1641 in northern France while yet under twenty years of age.

During the youth of Enghien all power in France was in the hands of Richelieu; to him even the princes of the blood had to yield; and Henry of Conde sought with the rest to win the cardinal's favour. Enghien was forced to conform. He was already deeply in love with Mlle. Marthe du Vigean, who in return was passionately devoted to him, yet, to flatter the cardinal, he was compelled by his father, at the age of twenty, to give his hand to Richelieu's niece, Claire Clemence de Maille-Breze, a child of thirteen. He was present with Richelieu during the dangerous plot of Cinq Mars, and afterwards fought in the siege of Perpignan (1642).

In 1643 Enghien was appointed to command against the Spaniards in northern France. He was opposed by experienced generals, and the veterans of the Spanish army were accounted the finest soldiers in Europe; on the other hand, the strength of the French army was placed at his command, and under him were the best generals of the service. The great battle of Rocroy (May 18) put an end to the supremacy of the Spanish army and inaugurated the long period of French military predominance. Enghien himself conceived and directed the decisive attack, and at the age of twenty-two won his place amongst the great captains of modern times. After a campaign of uninterrupted success, Enghien returned to Paris in triumph, and in gallantry and intrigues strove to forget his enforced and hateful marriage. In 1644 he was sent with reinforcements into Germany to the assistance of Turenne, who was hard pressed, and took command of the whole army. The battle of Freiburg (Aug.) was desperately contested, but in the end the French army won a great victory over the Bavarians and Imperialists commanded by Count Mercy. As after Rocroy, numerous fortresses opened their gates to the duke. The next winter Enghien spent, like every other winter during the war, amid the gaieties of Paris. The summer campaign of 1645 opened with the defeat of Turenne by Mercy, but this was retrieved in the brilliant victory of Nordlingen, in which Mercy was killed, and Enghien himself received several serious wounds. The capture of Philipsburg was the most important of his other achievements during this campaign. In 1646 Enghien served under the duke of Orleans in Flanders, and when, after the capture of Mardyck, Orleans returned to Paris, Enghien, left in command, captured Dunkirk (October 11th).

It was in this year that the old prince of Conde died. The enormous power that fell into the hands of his successor was naturally looked upon with serious alarm by the regent and her minister. Conde's birth and military renown placed him at the head of the French nobility; but, added to that, the family of which he was chief was both enormously rich and master of no small portion of France. Conde himself held Burgundy, Berry and the marches of Lorraine, as well as other less important territory; his brother Conti held Champagne, his brother-in-law, Longueville, Normandy. The government, therefore, determined to permit no increase of his already overgrown authority, and Mazarin made an attempt, which for the moment proved successful, at once to find him employment and to tarnish his fame as a general. He was sent to lead the revolted Catalans. Ill-supported, he was unable to achieve anything, and, being forced to raise the siege of Lerida, he returned home in bitter indignation. In 1648, however, he received the command in the important field of the Low Countries; and at Lens (Aug. 19th) a battle took place, which, beginning with a panic in his own regiment, was retrieved by Conde's coolness and bravery, and ended in a victory that fully restored his prestige.

In September of the same year Conde was recalled to court, for the regent Anne of Austria required his support. Influenced by the fact of his royal birth and by his arrogant scorn for the bourgeois, Conde lent himself to the court party, and finally, after much hesitation, he consented to lead the army which was to reduce Paris (Jan. 1649).

On his side, insufficient as were his forces, the war was carried on with vigour, and after several minor combats their substantial losses and a threatening of scarcity of food made the Parisians weary of the war. The political situation inclined both parties to peace, which was made at Rueil on the 20th of March (see Fronde, The). It was not long, however, before Conde became estranged from the court. His pride and ambition earned for him universal distrust and dislike, and the personal resentment of Anne in addition to motives of policy caused the sudden arrest of Conde, Conti and Longueville on the 18th of January 1650. But others, including Turenne and his brother the duke of Bouillon, made their escape. Vigorous attempts for the release of the princes began to be made. The women of the family were now its heroes. The dowager princess claimed from the parlement of Paris the fulfilment of the reformed law of arrest, which forbade imprisonment without trial. The duchess of Longueville entered into negotiations with Spain; and the young princess of Conde, having gathered an army around her, obtained entrance into Bordeaux and the support of the parlement of that town. She alone, among the nobles who took part in the folly of the Fronde, gains our respect and sympathy. Faithful to a faithless husband, she came forth from the retirement to which he had condemned her, and gathered an army to fight for him. But the delivery of the princes was brought about in the end by the junction of the old Fronde (the party of the parlement and of Cardinal de Retz) and the new Fronde (the party of the Condes); and Anne was at last, in February 1651, forced to liberate them from their prison at Havre. Soon afterwards, however, another shifting of parties left Conde and the new Fronde isolated. With the court and the old Fronde in alliance against him, Conde found no resource but that of making common cause with the Spaniards, who were at war with France. The confused civil war which followed this step (Sept. 1651) was memorable chiefly for the battle of the Faubourg St Antoine, in which Conde and Turenne, two of the foremost captains of the age, measured their strength (July 2, 1652), and the army of the prince was only saved by being admitted within the gates of Paris. La Grande Mademoiselle, daughter of the duke of Orleans, persuaded the Parisians to act thus, and turned the cannon of the Bastille on Turenne's army. Thus Conde, who as usual had fought with the most desperate bravery, was saved, and Paris underwent a new investment. This ended in the flight of Conde to the Spanish army (Sept. 1652), and thenceforward, up to the peace, he was in open arms against France, and held high command in the army of Spain. But his now fully developed genius as a commander found little scope in the cumbrous and antiquated system of war practised by the Spaniards, and though he gained a few successes, and man[oe]uvred with the highest possible skill against Turenne, his disastrous defeat at the Dunes near Dunkirk (14th of June 1658), in which an English contingent of Cromwell's veterans took part on the side of Turenne, led Spain to open negotiations for peace. After the peace of the Pyrenees in 1659, Conde obtained his pardon (January 1660) from Louis, who thought him less dangerous as a subject than as possessor of the independent sovereignty of Luxemburg, which had been offered him by Spain as a reward for his services.

Conde now realized that the period of agitation and party warfare was at an end, and he accepted, and loyally maintained henceforward, the position of a chief subordinate to a masterful sovereign. Even so, some years passed before he was recalled to active employment, and these years he spent on his estate at Chantilly. Here he gathered round him a brilliant company, which included many men of genius--Moliere, Racine, Boileau, La Fontaine, Nicole, Bourdaloue and Bossuet. About this time negotiations between the Poles, Conde and Louis were carried on with a view to the election, at first of Conde's son Enghien, and afterwards of Conde himself, to the throne of Poland. These, after a long series of curious intrigues, were finally closed in 1674 by the veto of Louis XIV. and the election of John Sobieski. The prince's retirement, which was only broken by the Polish question and by his personal intercession on behalf of Fouquet in 1664, ended in 1668. In that year he proposed to Louvois, the minister of war, a plan for seizing Franche-Comte, the execution of which was entrusted to him and successfully carried out. He was now completely re-established in the favour of Louis, and with Turenne was the principal French commander in the celebrated campaign of 1672 against the Dutch. At the forcing of the Rhine passage at Tollhuis (June 12) he received a severe wound, after which he commanded in Alsace against the Imperialists. In 1673 he was again engaged in the Low Countries, and in 1674 he fought his last great battle at Seneff against the prince of Orange (afterwards William III. of England). This battle, fought on the 11th of August, was one of the hardest of the century, and Conde, who displayed the reckless bravery of his youth, had three horses killed under him. His last campaign was that of 1675 on the Rhine, where the army had been deprived of its general by the death of Turenne; and where by his careful and methodical strategy he repelled the invasion of the Imperial army of Montecucculi. After this campaign, prematurely worn out by the toils and excesses of his life, and tortured by the gout, he returned to Chantilly, where he spent the eleven years that remained to him in quiet retirement. In the end of his life he specially sought the companionship of Bourdaloue, Nicole and Bossuet, and devoted himself to religious exercises. He died on the 11th of November 1686 at the age of sixty-five. Bourdaloue attended him at his death-bed, and Bossuet pronounced his _eloge_.

The earlier political career of Conde was typical of the great French noble of his day. Success in love and war, predominant influence over his sovereign and universal homage to his own exaggerated pride, were the objects of his ambition. Even as an exile he asserted the precedence of the royal house of France over the princes of Spain and Austria, with whom he was allied for the moment. But the Conde of 1668 was no longer a politician and a marplot; to be first in war and in gallantry was still his aim, but for the rest he was a submissive, even a subservient, minister of the royal will. It is on his military character, however, that his fame rests. This changed but little. Unlike his great rival Turenne, Conde was equally brilliant in his first battle and in his last. The one failure of his generalship was in the Spanish Fronde, and in this everything united to thwart his genius; only on the battlefield itself was his personal leadership as conspicuous as ever. That he was capable of waging a methodical war of positions may be assumed from his campaigns against Turenne and Montecucculi, the greatest generals of the predominant school. But it was in his eagerness for battle, his quick decision in action, and the stern will which sent his regiments to face the heaviest loss, that Conde is distinguished above all the generals of his time. In private life he was harsh and unamiable, seeking only the gratification of his own pleasures and desires. His enforced and loveless marriage embittered his life, and it was only in his last years, when he had done with ambition, that the more humane side of his character appeared in his devotion to literature.

Conde's unhappy wife had some years before been banished to Chateauroux. An accident brought about her ruin. Her contemporaries, greedy as they were of scandal, refused to believe any evil of her, but the prince declared himself convinced of her unfaithfulness, placed her in confinement, and carried his resentment so far that his last letter to the king was to request him never to allow her to be released.

AUTHORITIES.--See, besides the numerous _Memoires_ of the time, Puget
de la Serre, _Les Sieges, les batailles, &c., de Mr. le prince de
Conde_ (Paris, 1651); J. de la Brune, _Histoire de la vie, &c., de
Louis de Bourbon, prince de Conde_ (Cologne, 1694); P. Coste,
_Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Hague, 1748); Desormeaux,
_Histoire de Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris, 1768); Turpin, _Vie de
Louis de Bourbon, &c._ (Paris and Amsterdam, 1767); _Eloge militaire
de Louis de Bourbon_ (Dijon, 1772); _Histoire du grand Conde_, by A.
Lemercier (Tours, 1862); J. J. E. Roy (Lille, 1859); L. de Voivreuil
(Tours, 1846); Fitzpatrick, _The Great Conde_, and Lord Mahon, _Life
of Louis, prince of Conde_ (London, 1845). Works on the Conde family
by the prince de Conde and de Sevilinges (Paris, 1820), the due
d'Aumale, and Guibout (Rouen, 1856), should also be consulted.

CONDE, the name of some twenty villages in France and of two towns of some importance. Of the villages, Conde-en-Brie (Lat. _Condetum_) is a place of great antiquity and was in the middle ages the seat of a principality, a sub-fief of that of Montmirail; Conde-sur-Aisne (_Condatus_) was given in 870 by Charles the Bald to the abbey of St Ouen at Rouen, gave its name to a seigniory during the middle ages, and possessed a priory of which the church and a 12th-century chapel remain; Conde-sur-Marne (_Condate_), once a place of some importance, preserves one of its parish churches, with a fine Romanesque tower. The two towns are:--

1. CONDE-SUR-L'ESCAUT, in the department of Nord, at the junction of the canals of the Scheldt and of Conde-Mons. Pop. (1906) town, 2701; commune, 5310. It lies 7 m. N. by E. of Valenciennes and 2 m. from the Belgian frontier. It has a church dating from the middle of the 18th century. Trade is in coal and cattle. The industries include brewing, rope-making and boat-building, and there is a communal college. Conde (_Condate_) is of considerable antiquity, dating at least from the later Roman period. Taken in 1676 by Louis XIV., it definitely passed into the possession of France by the treaty of Nijmwegen two years later, and was afterwards fortified by Vauban. During the revolutionary war it was besieged and taken by the Austrians (1793); and in 1815 it again fell to the allies. It was from this place that the princes of Conde (q.v.) took their title. See Perron-Gelineau, _Conde ancien et moderne_ (Nantes, 1887).

2. CONDE-SUR-NOIREAU, in the department of Calvados, at the confluence of the Noireau and the Drouance, 33 m. S.S.W. of Caen on the Ouest-Etat railway. Pop. (1906) 5709. The town is the seat of a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration and a chamber of arts and manufactures, and has a communal college. It is important for its cotton-spinning and weaving, and carries on dyeing, printing and machine-construction; there are numerous nursery-gardens in the vicinity. Important fairs are held in the town. The church of St Martin has a choir of the 12th and 15th centuries, and a stained-glass window (15th century) representing the Crucifixion. There is a statue to Dumont d'Urville, the navigator (b. 1790), a native of the town. Throughout the middle ages Conde (_Condatum_, _Condetum_) was the seat of an important castellany, which was held by a long succession of powerful nobles and kings, including Robert, count of Mortain, Henry II. and John of England, Philip Augustus of France, Charles II. (the Bad) and Charles III. of Navarre. The place was held by the English from 1417 to 1449. Of the castle some ruins of the keep survive. See L. Huet, _Hist. de Conde-sur-Noireau, ses seigneurs, son industrie, &c._ (Caen, 1883).

CONDE, JOSE ANTONIO (1766-1820), Spanish Orientalist, was born at Peraleja (Cuenca) on the 28th of October 1766, and was educated at the university of Alcala. His translation of Anacreon (1791) obtained him a post in the royal library in 1795, and in 1796-1797 he published paraphrases from Theocritus, Bion, Moschus, Sappho and Meleager. These were followed by a mediocre edition of the Arabic text of Edrisi's _Description of Spain_ (1799), with notes and a translation. Conde became a member of the Spanish Academy in 1802 and of the Academy of History in 1804, but his appointment as interpreter to Joseph Bonaparte led to his expulsion from both bodies in 1814. He escaped to France in February 1813, and returned to Spain in 1814, but was not allowed to reside at Madrid till 1816. Two years later he was re-elected by both academies; he died in poverty on the 12th of June 1820. His _Historia de la Dominacion de los Arabes en Espana_ was published in 1820-1821. Only the first volume was corrected by the author, the other two being compiled from his manuscript by Juan Tineo. This work was translated into German (1824-1825), French (1825) and English (1854). Conde's pretensions to scholarship have been severely criticized by Dozy, and his history is now discredited. It had, however, the merit of stimulating abler workers in the same field.

CONDENSATION OF GASES.

Critical temperature.

If the volume of a gas continually decreases at a constant temperature, for which an increasing pressure is required, two cases may occur:--(1) The volume may continue to be homogeneously filled. (2) If the substance is contained in a certain volume, and if the pressure has a certain value, the substance may divide into two different phases, each of which is again homogeneous. The value of the temperature T decides which case will occur. The temperature which is the limit above which the space will always be homogeneously filled, and below which the substance divides into two phases, is called the _critical temperature_ of the substance. It differs greatly for different substances, and if we represent it by Tc, the condition for the condensation of a gas is that T must be below Tc. If the substance is divided into two phases, two different cases may occur. The denser phase may be either a liquid or a solid. The limiting temperature for these two cases, at which the division into three phases may occur, is called the _triple point_. Let us represent it by T3; if the term "condensation of gases" is taken in the sense of "liquefaction of gases"--which is usually done--the condition for condensation is Tc > T > T3. The opinion sometimes held that for all substances T3 is the same fraction of Tc (the value being about 1/2) has decidedly not been rigorously confirmed. Nor is this to be expected on account of the very different form of crystallization which the solid state presents. Thus for carbon dioxide, CO2, for which Tc = 304 deg. on the absolute scale, and for which we may put T3 = 216 deg., this fraction is about 0.7; for water it descends down to 0.42, and for other substances it may be still lower.

If we confine ourselves to temperatures between Tc and T3, the gas will pass into a liquid if the pressure is sufficiently increased. When the formation of liquid sets in we call the gas a _saturated vapour_. If the decrease of volume is continued, the gas pressure remains constant till all the vapour has passed into liquid. The invariability of the properties of the phases is in close connexion with the invariability of the pressure (called _maximum tension_). Throughout the course of the process of condensation these properties remain unchanged, provided the temperature remain constant; only the relative quantity of the two phases changes. Until all the gas has passed into liquid a further decrease of volume will not require increase of pressure. But as soon as the liquefaction is complete a slight decrease of volume will require a great increase of pressure, liquids being but slightly compressible.

Critical pressure.

The pressure required to condense a gas varies with the temperature, becoming higher as the temperature rises. The highest pressure will therefore be found at Tc and the lowest at T3. We shall represent the pressure at Tc by pc. It is called the _critical pressure_. The pressure at T3 we shall represent by p3. It is called the _pressure of the triple point_. The values of Tc and pc for different substances will be found at the end of this article. The values of T3 and p3 are accurately known only for a few substances. As a rule p3 is small, though occasionally it is greater than 1 atmosphere. This is the case with CO2, and we may in general expect it if the value of T3/Tc is large. In this case there can only be a question of a real boiling-point (under the normal pressure) if the liquid can be supercooled.

We may find the value of the pressure of the saturated vapour for each T in a geometrical way by drawing in the theoretical isothermal a straight line parallel to the v-axis in such a way that [int] v1 to v2 pdv will have the same value whether the straight line or the theoretical isothermal is followed. This construction, given by James Clerk Maxwell, may be considered as a result of the application of the general rules for coexisting equilibrium, which we owe to J. Willard Gibbs. The construction derived from the rules of Gibbs is as follows:--Construe the free energy at a constant temperature, i.e. the quantity - [int]pdv as ordinate, if the abscissa represents v, and determine the inclination of the double tangent. Another construction derived from the rules of Gibbs might be expressed as follows:--Construe the value of pv - [int]pdv as ordinate, the abscissa representing p, and determine the point of intersection of two of the three branches of this curve.

As an approximate half-empirical formula for the calculation of the pressure,

p /Tc-T\
-log10 --- = f( ---- )
pc \ T /

may be used. It would follow from the law of corresponding states that in this formula the value of [int] is the same for all substances, the molecules of which do not associate to form larger molecule-complexes. In fact, for a great many substances, we find a value for f, which differs but little from 3, e.g. ether, carbon dioxide, benzene, benzene derivatives, ethyl chloride, ethane, &c. As the chemical structure of these substances differs greatly, and association, if it takes place, must largely depend upon the structure of the molecule, we conclude from this approximate equality that the fact of this value of [int] being equal to about 3 is characteristic for normal substances in which, consequently, association is excluded. Substances known to associate, such as organic acids and alcohols, have a sensibly higher value of f. Thus T. Estreicher (Cracow, 1896) calculates that for fluor-benzene f varies between 3.07 and 2.94; for ether between 3.0 and 3.1; but for water between 3.2 and 3.33, and for methyl alcohol between 3.65 and 3.84, &c. For isobutyl alcohol [int] even rises above 4. It is, however, remarkable that for oxygen [int] has been found almost invariably equal to 2.47 from K. Olszewski's observations, a value which is appreciably smaller than 3. This fact makes us again seriously doubt the correctness of the supposition that [int] = 3 is a characteristic for non-association.

Critical volume.

It is a general rule that the volume of saturated vapour decreases when the temperature is raised, while that of the coexisting liquid increases. We know only one exception to this rule, and that is the volume of water below 4 deg. C. If we call the liquid volume v_l, and the vapour v_v, v_v - v_l decreases if the temperature rises, and becomes zero at Tc. The limiting value, to which vl and vv converge at Tc, is called the _critical volume_, and we shall represent it by v_c. According to the law of corresponding states the values both of v_l/v_c and vv/vc must be the same for all substances, if T/Tc has been taken equal for them all. According to the investigations of Sydney Young, this holds good with a high degree of approximation for a long series of substances. Important deviations from this rule for the values of vv/vl are only found for those substances in which the existence of association has already been discovered by other methods. Since the lowest value of T, for which investigations on v_l and v_v may be made, is the value of T3; and since T3/Tc, as has been observed above, is not the same for all substances, we cannot expect the smallest value of v_l/v_c to be the same for all substances. But for low values of T, viz. such as are near T3, the influence of the temperature on the volume is but slight, and therefore we are not far from the truth if we assume the minimum value of the ratio v_l/v_c as being identical for all normal substances, and put it at about 1/3. Moreover, the influence of the polymerization (association) on the liquid volume appears to be small, so that we may even attribute the value 1/3 to substances which are not normal. The value of v_v/v_c at T = T3 differs widely for different substances. If we take p3 so low that the law of Boyle-Gay Lussac may be applied, we can calculate v3/v_c by means of the formula p3.v3/T3 = k.p_c.v_c/Tc provided k be known. According to the observations of Sydney Young, this factor has proved to be 3.77 for normal substances. In consequence

v3 p_c T3
--- = 3.77 --- --.
v_c p3 Tc

A similar formula, but with another value of k, may be given for associating substances, provided the saturated vapour does not contain any complex molecules. But if it does, as is the case with acetic acid, we must also know the degree of association. It can, however, only be found by measuring the volume itself.

Rule of the rectilinear diameter.

E. Mathias has remarked that the following relation exists between the densities of the saturated vapour and of the coexisting liquid:--