Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Constantine Pavlovich" to "Convention"

Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

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For all intents and purposes, Constantinople is now the collection of towns and villages situated on both sides of the Golden Horn and along the shores of the Bosporus, including Scutari and Kadikeui. But the principal parts of this great agglomeration are Stamboul (from Gr. [Greek: eis ten polin], "into the city"), the name specially applied to the portion of the city upon the promontory, Galata and Pera. Galata has a long history, which becomes of general interest after 1265, when it was assigned to the Genoese merchants in the city by Michael Palaeologus, in return for the friendly services of Genoa in the overthrow of the Latin empire of Constantinople. In the course of time, notwithstanding stipulations to the contrary, the town was strongly fortified and proved a troublesome neighbour During the siege of 1453 the inhabitants maintained on the whole a neutral attitude, but on the fall of the capital they surrendered to the Turkish conqueror, who granted them liberal terms. The walls have for the most part been removed. The noble tower, however, which formed the citadel of the colony, still remains, and is a striking feature in the scenery of Constantinople. There are also churches and houses dating from Genoese days. Galata is the chief business centre of the city, the seat of banks, post-offices, steamship offices, &c. Pera is the principal residential quarter of the European communities settled in Constantinople, where the foreign embassies congregate, and the fashionable shops and hotels are found.

Since the middle of the 19th century the city has yielded more and more to western influences, and is fast losing its oriental character. The sultan's palaces, and the residences of all classes of the community, adopt with more or less success a European style of building. The streets have been widened and named. They are in many instances better paved, and are lighted at night. The houses are numbered. Cabs and tramways have been introduced. Public gardens have been opened. For some distance outside the Galata bridge, both shores of the Golden Horn have been provided with a quay at which large steamers can moor to discharge or embark their passengers and cargo. The Galata quay, completed in 1889, is 756 metres long and 20 metres wide; the Stamboul quay, completed in 1900, is 378 metres in length. The harbour, quays and facilities for handling merchandise, which have been established at the head of the Anatolian railway, at Haidar Pasha, under German auspices, would be a credit to any city. It is true that most of these improvements are due to foreign enterprise and serve largely foreign interests; still they have also benefited the city, and added much to the convenience and comfort of local life. There has been likewise progress in other than material respects. The growth of the imperial museum of antiquities, under the direction of Hamdy Bey, within the grounds of the Seraglio, has been remarkable; and while the collection of the sarcophagi discovered at Sidon constitutes the chief treasure of the museum, the institution has become a rich storehouse of many other valuable relics of the past. The existence of a school of art, where painting and architecture are taught, is also a sign of new times. A school of handicrafts flourishes on the Sphendone of the Hippodrome. The fine medical school between Scutari and Haidar Pasha, the Hamidieh hospital for children, and the asylum for the poor, tell of the advance of science and humanity in the place.

Considerable attention is now given to the subject of education throughout the empire, a result due in great measure to the influence of the American and French schools and colleges established in the provinces and at the capital. More than thirty foreign educational institutions flourish in Constantinople itself, and they are largely attended by the youth belonging to the native communities of the country. The Greek population is provided with excellent schools and gymnasia, and the Armenians also maintain schools of a high grade. The Turkish government itself became, moreover, impressed with the importance of education, and as a consequence the whole system of public instruction for the Moslem portion of the population was, during the reign of Sultan Abd-ul-Hamid II., more widely extended and improved. Beside the schools of the old type attached to the mosques, schools of a better class were established under the direct control of the minister of education, which, although open to improvement, certainly aimed at a higher standard than that reached in former days. The progress of education became noticeable even among Moslem girls. The social and political influence of this intellectual improvement among the various communities of the empire soon made itself felt, and had much to do with the startling success of the constitutional revolution carried out, under the direction of the Committee of Union and Progress, in the autumn of 1908.

_Climate._--The climate of the city is healthy, but relaxing. It is damp and liable to sudden and great changes of temperature. The winds from the north and those from the south are at constant feud, and blow cold or hot in the most capricious manner, often in the course of the same day. "There are two climates at Constantinople, that of the north and that of the south wind." The winters may be severe, but when mild they are wet and not invigorating. In summer the heat is tempered by the prevalence of a north-east wind that blows down the channel of the Bosporus. Observations at Constantinople and at Scutari give the following results, for a period of twenty years.

+------------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| | Constantinople. | Scutari. |
+------------------------+-----------------+--------------+
| Mean temperature | 57 deg. 7' | 58 deg. 1' |
| Maximum | 99 deg. 1' | 103 deg. 6' |
| Minimum | 17 deg. 2' | 13 deg. 0' |
| Rain | 28.3 in. | 29.29 in. |
| Number of rainy days | 112 | 128.6 |
+------------------------+-----------------+--------------+

The sanitation of the city has been improved, although much remains to be done in that respect. No great epidemic has visited the city since the outbreak of cholera in 1866. Typhoid and pulmonary diseases are common.

_Population._--The number of the population of the city is an uncertain figure, as no accurate statistics can be obtained. It is generally estimated between 800,000 and 1,000,000. The inhabitants present a remarkable conglomeration of different races, various nationalities, divers languages, distinctive costumes and conflicting faiths, giving, it is true, a singular interest to what may be termed the human scenery of the city, but rendering impossible any close social cohesion, or the development of a common civic life. Constantinople has well been described as "a city not of one nation but of many, and hardly more of one than of another." The following figures are given as an approximate estimate of the size of the communities which compose the population.

Moslems 384,910
Greeks 152,741
Greek Latins 1,082
Armenians 149,590
Roman Catholics (native) 6,442
Protestants (native) 819
Bulgarians 4,377
Jews 44,361
Foreigners 129,243
--------
873,565

_Water-Supply._--Under the rule of the sultans, the water-supply of the city has been greatly extended. The reservoirs in the forest of Belgrade have been enlarged and increased in number, and new aqueducts have been added to those erected by the Byzantine emperors. The use of the old cisterns within the walls has been almost entirely abandoned, and the water is led to basins in vaulted chambers (_Taxim_), from which it is distributed by underground conduits to the fountains situated in the different quarters of the city. From these fountains the water is taken to a house by water-carriers, or, in the case of the humbler classes, by members of the household itself.

For the supply of Pera, Galata and Beshiktash, Sultan Mahmud I. constructed, in 1732, four bends in the forest of Belgrade, N.N.W. and N.E. of the village of Bagchekeui, and the fine aqueduct which spans the head of the valley of Buyukdere. Since 1885, a French company, La Compagnie des Eaux, has rendered a great service by bringing water to Stamboul, Pera, and the villages on the European side of the Bosporus, from Lake Dercos, which lies close to the shore of the Black Sea some 29 m. distant from the city. The Dercos water is laid on in many houses. Since 1893 a German company has supplied Scutari and Kadikeui with water from the valley of the Sweet Waters of Asia.

_Trade._--The trade of the city has been unfavourably affected by the political events which have converted former provinces of the Turkish empire into autonomous states, by the development of business at other ports of the empire, owing to the opening up of the interior country through the construction of railroads, and by the difficulties which the government, with the view of preventing political agitation, has put in the way of easy intercourse by natives between the capital and the provinces. Most of the commerce of the city is in hands of foreigners and of Armenian and Greek merchants. Turks have little if anything to do with trade on a large scale. "The capital," says a writer in the _Konstantinopler Handelsblatt_ of November 1904, "produces very little for export, and its hinterland is small, extending on the European side only a few kilometres--the outlet for the fertile Eastern Rumelia is Dedeagach--and on the Asiatic side embracing the Sea of Marmora and the Anatolian railway district. Even part of this will be lost to Constantinople when the Anatolian railway is connected with the port of Mersina and with the Kassaba-Smyrna railway. Some 750 tons of the sweetmeat known as 'Turkish delight' are annually exported to the United Kingdom, America and Rumelia; embroideries, &c., are sold in fair quantities to tourists. Otherwise the chief articles of Constantinople's export trade consist of refuse and waste materials, sheep's wool (called _Kassab bashi_) and skins from the slaughter-houses (in 1903 about 3,000,000 skins were exported, mostly to America), horns, hoofs, goat and horse hair, guts, bones, rags, bran, old iron, &c., and finally dogs' excrements, called in trade 'pure,' a Constantinople speciality, which is used in preparing leather for ladies' gloves. From the hinterland comes mostly raw produce such as grain, drugs, wool, silk, ores and also carpets. The chief article is grain."

The average value of the goods passing through the port of Constantinople at the opening of the 20th century was estimated at about LT 11,000,000. From the imperfect statistics available, the following tables of the class of goods imported and exported, and their respective values, were drawn up in 1901 by the late Mr Whittaker, _The Times_ correspondent.

_Imports._

Manufactured goods (cotton,
woollen, silk, &c.) LT[2] 3,500,000
Haberdashery, ironmongery 90,000
Sugar 500,000
Petroleum 400,000
Flour 400,000
Coffee 300,000
Rice 250,000
Cattle 100,000
Various 850,000
---------
Total LT 7,000,000

_Exports._

Cereals LT 1,000,000
Mohair 800,000
Carpets 700,000
Silk and cocoons 500,000
Opium 400,000
Gum tragacanth 150,000
Wool 100,000
Hides 100,000
Various 250,000
---------
Total LT 4,100,000

About 40% of the import trade of Constantinople is British. According to the trade report of the British consulate, the share of the United Kingdom in the value of L7,142,000 on the total imports to Constantinople during the year 1900-1901 was L1,811,000; while the share of the United Kingdom in the value of L2,669,000 on the total exports during the same year was L998,000. But it is worthy of note that while British commerce still led the way in Turkey, the trade of some other countries with Turkey, especially that of Germany, was increasing more rapidly. Comparing the average of the period 1896-1900 with the total for 1904, British trade showed an increase of 33%, Austro-Hungarian of nearly 60%, Germany of 130%, Italian of 98%, French of 8%, and Belgian of nearly 33%. The shipping visiting the port of Constantinople during the year 1905, excluding sailing and small coasting vessels, was 9796, representing a total of 14,785,080 tons. The percentage of steamers under the British flag was 37.1; of tonnage, 45.9.

_Administration._--For the preservation of order and security, the city is divided into four divisions (Belad-i-Selassi), viz. Stamboul, Pera-Galata, Beshiktash and Scutari. The minister of police is at the head of the administration of the affairs of these divisions, and is _ex-officio_ governor of Stamboul. The governors of the other divisions are subordinate to him, but are appointed by the sultan. Each governor has a special staff of police and gendarmery and his own police-court. In each division is a military commander, having a part of the garrison of the city under his orders, but subordinate to the commander-in-chief of the troops guarding the capital.

The municipal government of the four divisions of the city is in the hands of a prefect, appointed by the sultan, and subordinate to the minister of the interior. He is officially styled the prefect of Stamboul, and is assisted by a council of twenty-four members, appointed by the sultan or the minister of the interior. All matters concerning the streets, the markets, the bazaars, the street-porters (_hamals_), public weighers, baths and hospitals come under his jurisdiction. He is charged also with the collection of the city dues, and the taxes on property. The city is furthermore divided into ten municipal circles as follows. In Stamboul: (1) Sultan Bayezid, (2) Sultan Mehemet, (3) Djerah Pasha (Psamatia); on the European side of the Bosporus and the northern side of the Golden Horn: (4) Beshiktash, (5) Yenikeui, (6) Pera, (7) Buyukdere; on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus: (8) Anadol Hissar, (9) Scutari, (10) Kadikeui. Each circle is subdivided into several wards (_mahalleh_). "The outlying parts of the city are divided into six districts (_Cazas_), namely, Princes' Islands, Guebzeh, Beicos, Kartal, Kuchuk-Chekmedje and Shile, each having its governor (_kaimakam_), who is usually chosen by the palace. These districts are dependencies of the ministry of the interior, and their municipal affairs are directed by agents of the prefecture."

In virtue of old treaties, known as the Capitulations (q.v.), foreigners enjoy to a large extent the rights of exterritoriality. In disputes with one another, they are judged before their own courts of justice. In litigation between a foreigner and a native, the case is taken to a native court, but a representative of the foreigner's consulate attends the proceedings. Foreigners have a right to establish their own schools and hospitals, to hold their special religious services, and even to maintain their respective national post-offices. No Turkish policeman may enter the premises of a foreigner without the sanction of the consular authorities to whose jurisdiction the latter belongs. A certain measure of self-government is likewise granted to the native Christian communities under their ecclesiastical chiefs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--On Constantinople generally, besides the regular
guide-books and works already mentioned, see P. Gyllius, _De
topographia Constantinopoleos, De Bosporo Thracio_ (1632); Du Cange,
_Constantinopolis Christiana_ (1680); J. von Hammer,
_Constantinopolis und der Bosporos_ (1822); Mordtmann, _Esquisse
topographique de Constantinople_ (1892); E. A. Grosvenor,
_Constantinople_ (1895); van Millingen, _Byzantine Constantinople_
(1899); Paspates, [Greek: Byzantinai Meletai] (1877); Scarlatos
Byzantios, [Greek: He Konstantinou polis] (1851); E. Pears, _Fall of
Constantinople_ (1885), _The Destruction of the Greek Empire_ (1903);
Gibbon, _The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_; Salzenberg,
_Altchristliche Baudenkmale von Konstantinopel_; Lethaby and
Swainson, _The Church of Sancta Sophia_; Pulgher, _Les Anciennes
Eglises byzantines de Constantinople_; Labarte, _Le Palais imperial
de Constantinople et ses abords_. (A. van M.)

FOOTNOTES:

[1] For full information on the subject of the ancient water-supply
see Count A. F. Andreossy, _Constantinople et le Bosphore_;
Tchikatchev, _Le Bosphore et Constantinople_ (2nd ed., Paris, 1865);
Forchheimer and Strzygowski, _Die byzantinischen Wasserbehaelter_;
also article AQUEDUCT.

[2] A Turkish lira = 18 shillings (English).

CONSTANTINOPLE, COUNCILS OF. Of the numerous ecclesiastical councils held at Constantinople the most important are the following:

1. The second ecumenical council, 381, which was in reality only a synod of bishops from Thrace, Asia and Syria, convened by Theodosius with a view to uniting the church upon the basis of the Orthodox faith. No Western bishop was present, nor any Roman legate; from Egypt came only a few bishops, and these tardily. The first president was Meletius of Antioch, whom Rome regarded as schismatic. Yet, despite its sectional character, the council came in time to be regarded as ecumenical alike in the West and in the East.

The council reaffirmed the Nicene faith and denounced all opposing doctrines. The so-called "Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed," which has almost universally been ascribed to this council, is certainly not the Nicene creed nor even a recension of it, but most likely a Jerusalem baptismal formula revised by the interpolation of a few Nicene test-words. More recently its claim to be called "Constantinopolitan" has been challenged. It is not found in the earliest records of the acts of the council, nor was it referred to by the council of Ephesus (431), nor by the "Robber Synod" (449), although these both confirmed the Nicene faith. It also lacks the definiteness one would expect in a creed composed by an anti-Arian, anti-Pneumatomachian council. Harnack (Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopaedie_, 3rd ed., s.v. "Konstantinopolit. Symbol.") conjectures that it was ascribed to the council of Constantinople just before the council of Chalcedon in order to prove the orthodoxy of the Fathers of the second ecumenical council. At all events, it became the creed of the universal church, and has been retained without change. Save for the addition of _filioque_.

Of the seven reputed canons of the council only the first four are unquestionably genuine. The fifth and the sixth probably belong to a synod of 382, and the seventh is properly not a canon. The most important enactments of the council were the granting of metropolitan rights to the bishops of Alexandria, Antioch, Thrace, Pontus and Ephesus; and according to Constantinople the place of honour after Rome, against which Rome protested. Not until 150 years later, and then only under compulsion of the emperor Justinian, did Rome acknowledge the ecumenicity of the council, and that merely as regarded its doctrinal decrees.

See Mansi iii. pp. 521-599; Hardouin i. pp. 807-826; Hefele, 2nd ed.,
ii. pp. 1 sqq. (English translation, ii. pp. 340 sqq.); Hort, _Two
Dissertations_ (Cambridge, 1876); and the article Creeds.

2. The council of 553, the fifth ecumenical, grew out of the controversy of the "Three Chapters," an adequate account of which, up to the time of the council, may be found in the articles JUSTINIAN and VIGILIUS. The council convened, in response to the imperial summons, on the 4th of May 553. Of the 165 bishops who subscribed the acts all but the five or six from Egypt were Oriental; the pope, Vigilius, refused to attend (he had made his escape from Constantinople, and from his retreat in Chalcedon sent forth a vain protest against the council). The synod was utterly subservient to the emperor. The "Three Chapters" were condemned, and their authors, long dead, anathematized, without, however, derogating from the authority of the council of Chalcedon, which had given them a clean bill of orthodoxy. Vigilius was excommunicated, and his name erased from the diptychs. The Orthodox faith was set forth in fourteen anathemas. Opinion is divided as to whether Origen was condemned. His name occurs in the eleventh anathema, but some consider it an interpolation; Hefele defends the genuineness of the text, but finds no evidence for a special session against Origen, as some have conjectured.

The council was confirmed by the emperor, and was generally received in the East. Vigilius was soon coerced into submission, but the West repudiated his pusillanimous surrender, and rejected the council. A schism ensued which lasted half a century and was not fully healed until the synod of Aquileia, about 700. But the ecumenicity of the council was generally acknowledged by 680.

See Mansi ix. pp. 24-106, 149-658, 712-730; Hardouin iii. pp. 1-328,
331, 414, 524; Hefele, 2nd ed., ii. pp. 798-924 (English translation,
iv. pp. 229-365).

3. The sixth ecumenical council, 680-681, which was convened by the emperor Constantine Pogonatus to terminate the Monothelitic controversy (see Monothelites). All the patriarchates were represented, Constantinople and Antioch by their bishops in person, the others by legates. The number of bishops present varied from 150 to 300. The council approved the first five ecumenical councils and reaffirmed the Nicene and "Niceno-Constantinopolitan" creeds. Monothelitism was unequivocally condemned; Christ was declared to have had "two natural wills and two natural operations, without division, conversion, separation or confusion." Prominent Monothelites, living or dead, were anathematized, in particular Sergius and his successors in the see of Constantinople, the former pope, Honorius, and Macarius, the patriarch of Antioch. An imperial decree confirmed the council, and commanded the acceptance of its doctrines under pain of severe punishment. The Monothelites took fright and fled to Syria, where they gradually formed the sect of the Maronites (q.v.).

The anathematizing of Honorius as heterodox has occasioned no slight embarrassment to the supporters of the doctrine of papal infallibility. It is not within the scope of this article to pass judgment upon the various proposed solutions of the difficulty, e.g. that Honorius was not really a Monothelite; that in acknowledging one will he was not speaking _ex cathedra_; that, at the time of condemning him, the council was no longer ecumenical; &c. One thing is certain, however, he was anathematized; and the notion of interpolation in the acts of the council (Baronius) may be dismissed as groundless.

See Mansi xi. pp. 190-922; Hardouin iii. pp. 1043-1644; Hefele, 2nd
ed. iii. pp. 121-313.

4. The "Quinisext Synod" (692), so-called because it was regarded by the Greeks as supplementing the fifth and sixth ecumenical councils, was held in the dome of the Imperial Palace ("In Trullo," whence the synod is called also "Trullan"). Its work was purely legislative and its decisions were set forth in 102 canons. The sole authoritative standards of discipline were declared to be the "eighty-five apostolic canons," the canons of the first four ecumenical councils and of the synods of Ancyra, Neo-Caesarea, Antioch, Changra, Laodicea, Sardica and Carthage, and the canonical writings of some twelve Fathers,--all canons, synods and Fathers, Eastern with one exception, viz. Cyprian and the synod of Carthage; the bishops of Rome and the occidental synods were utterly ignored.

The canons of the second and fourth ecumenical councils respecting the rank of Constantinople were confirmed; the rank of a see was declared to follow the civil rank of its city; unenthroned bishops were guaranteed against diminution of their rights; metropolitans were forbidden to alienate the property of vacant suffragan sees.

The provisions respecting clerical marriage were avowedly more lenient than the Roman practice. Ordination was denied to any one who after baptism had contracted a second marriage, kept a concubine, or married a widow or a woman of ill-repute. Lectors and cantors might marry after ordination; presbyters, deacons and sub-deacons, if already married, should retain their wives; a bishop, however, while not dissolving his marriage, should keep his wife at a distance, making suitable provision for her. An illegally married cleric could not perform sacerdotal functions. Monks and nuns were to be carefully separated, and were not to leave their houses without permission.

It was forbidden to celebrate baptism or the eucharist in private oratories; neither might laymen give the elements to themselves, nor approach the altar, nor teach. Offerings for the dead were authorized, and the mixed chalice made obligatory. Contrary to the occidental custom, fasting on Saturday was forbidden. The mutilation of the Scriptures and the desecration of sacred places were severely condemned; likewise the use of the lamb as the symbol for Christ (a favourite symbol in the West).

The synod legislated also concerning marriage, bigamy, adultery, rape, abortion, seductive arts and obscenity. The theatre, the circus and gambling were unsparingly denounced, and soothsayers and jugglers, pagan festivals and customs, and pagan oaths were placed under the ban.

The council was confirmed by the emperor and accepted in the East; but the pope protested against various canons, chiefly those respecting the rank of Constantinople, clerical marriage, the Saturday fast, and the use of the symbol of lamb; and refused, despite express imperial command and threat, to accept the "Pseudo-Sexta." So that while the synod adopted a body of legislation that has continued to be authoritative for the Eastern Church, it did so at the cost of aggravating the irritation of the West, and by so much hastening the inevitable rupture of the church.

See Mansi xi. pp. 921-1024; Hardouin iii. pp. 1645-1716; Hefele, 2nd
ed., iii. pp. 328-348.

5. The iconoclastic synods of 754 and 815, both of which promulgated harsh decrees against images and neither of which is recognized by the Latin Church, and the synod of 842, which repudiated the synod of 815, approved the second council of Nicaea, and restored the images, are all adequately treated in the article Iconoclasts.

See Mansi xii. pp. 575 sqq., xiii. pp. 210 sqq., xiv. pp. 111 sqq.,
787 sqq.; Hardouin iv. pp. 330 sqq., 1045 sqq., 1457 sqq.; Hefele,
2nd ed. iv. pp. 1 sqq., 104 sqq.

6. The synods of 869 and 879, of which the former, regarded by the Latin Church as the eighth ecumenical council, condemned Photius as an usurper and restored Ignatius to the see of Constantinople; the latter, which the Greeks consider to have been the true eighth ecumenical council, held after the death of Ignatius and the reconciliation of Photius with the emperor, repudiated the synod of 869, restored Photius, and condemned all who would not recognize him. (For further details of these two synods see Photius.)

See Mansi xv. pp. 143-476 et passim, xvi. pp. 1-550, xvii. pp.
66-186, 365-530; Hardouin v. pp. 119-390, 749-1210, et passim, vi.
pp. 19-87, 209-334; Hefele, 2nd ed., iv. pp. 228 sqq., 333 sqq., 435
sqq.; Hergenroether, _Photius_ (Regensburg, 1867-1869). (T. F. C.)

CONSTANTINUS, pope from 708 to 715, was a Syrian by birth and was consecrated pope in March 708. He was eager to assert the supremacy of the papal see; at the command of the emperor Justinian II. he visited Constantinople; and he died on the 9th of April 715.

CONSTANTIUS, FLAVIUS VALERIUS, commonly called CHLORUS (the Pale), an epithet due to the Byzantine historians, Roman emperor and father of Constantine the Great, was born about A.D. 250. He was of Illyrian origin; a fictitious connexion with the family of Claudius Gothicus was attributed to him by Constantine. Having distinguished himself by his military ability and his able and gentle rule of Dalmatia, he was, on the 1st of March 293, adopted and appointed Caesar by Maximian, whose step-daughter, Flavia Maximiana Theodora, he had married in 289 after renouncing his wife Helena (the mother of Constantine). In the distribution of the provinces Gaul and Britain were allotted to Constantius. In Britain Carausius and subsequently Allectus had declared themselves independent, and it was not till 296 that, by the defeat of Allectus, it was re-united with the empire. In 298 Constantius overthrew the Alamanni in the territory of the Lingones (Langres) and strengthened the Rhine frontier. During the persecution of the Christians in 303 he behaved with great humanity. He obtained the title of Augustus on the 1st of May 305, and died the following year shortly before the 25th of July at Eboracum (York) during an expedition against the Picts and Scots.

See Aurelius Victor, _De Caesaribus_, 39; Eutropius ix. 14-23;
Zosimus ii. 7.

CONSTANTZA (_Constanta_), formerly known as Kustendji or Kustendje, a seaport on the Black Sea, and capital of the department of Constantza, Rumania; 140 m. E. by S. from Bucharest by rail. Pop. (1900) 12,725. When the Dobrudja was ceded to Rumania in 1878, Constantza was partly rebuilt. In its clean and broad streets there are many synagogues, mosques and churches, for half the inhabitants are Roman Catholics, Moslems, Armenians or Jews; the remainder being Orthodox Rumans and Greeks. In the vicinity there are mineral springs, and the sea-bathing also attracts many visitors in summer. The chief local industries are tanning and the manufacture of petroleum drums. The opening, in 1895, of the railway to Bucharest, which crosses the Danube by a bridge at Cerna Voda, brought Constantza a considerable transit trade in grain and petroleum, which are largely exported; coal and coke head the list of imports, followed by machinery, iron goods, and cotton and woollen fabrics. The harbour, protected by breakwaters, with a lighthouse at the entrance, is well defended from the north winds, but those from the south, south-east, and south-west prove sometimes highly dangerous. In 1902 it afforded 10 alongside berths for shipping. It had a depth of 22 ft. in the old or inner basin, and of 26 ft. in the new or outer basin, beside the quays. The railway runs along the quays. A weekly service between Constantza and Constantinople is conducted by state-owned steamers, including the fast mail and passenger boats in connexion with the Ostend and Orient expresses. In 1902, 576 vessels entered at Constantza, with a net registered tonnage of 641,737. The Black Sea squadron of the Rumanian fleet is stationed here.

Constantza is the Constantiana which was founded in honour of Constantia, sister of Constantine the Great (A.D. 274-337). It lies at the seaward end of the Great Wall of Trajan, and has evidently been surrounded by fortifications of its own. In spite of damage done by railway contractors (see Henry C. Barkley, _Between the Danube and the Black Sea_, 1876) there are considerable remains of ancient masonry--walls, pillars, &c. A number of inscriptions found in the town and its vicinity show that close by was Tomi, where the Roman poet Ovid (43 B.C.-A.D. 17) spent his last eight years in exile. A statue of Ovid stands in the main square of Constantza.

In regard to the Constantza inscriptions in general, see Allard, _La
Bulgarie orientale_ (Paris, 1866); Desjardins in _Ann. dell' istit.
di corr. arch._ (1868); and a paper on Weickum's collection in
_Sitzungsbericht_ of the Munich Academy (1875).

CONSTELLATION (from the Lat. _constellatus_, studded with stars; _con_, with, and _stella_, a star), in astronomy, the name given to certain groupings of stars. The partition of the stellar expanse into areas characterized by specified stars can be traced back to a very remote antiquity. It is believed that the ultimate origin of the constellation figures and names is to be found in the corresponding systems in vogue among the primitive civilizations of the Euphrates valley--the Sumerians, Accadians and Babylonians; that these were carried westward into ancient Greece by the Phoenicians, and to the lands of Asia Minor by the Hittites, and that Hellenic culture in its turn introduced them into Arabia, Persia and India. From the earliest times the star-groups known as constellations, the smaller groups (parts of constellations) known as asterisms, and also individual stars, have received names connoting some meteorological phenomena, or symbolizing religious or mythological beliefs. At one time it was held that the constellation names and myths were of Greek origin; this view has now been disproved, and an examination of the Hellenic myths associated with the stars and star-groups in the light of the records revealed by the decipherment of Euphratean cuneiforms leads to the conclusion that in many, if not all, cases the Greek myth has a Euphratean parallel, and so renders it probable that the Greek constellation system and the cognate legends are primarily of Semitic or even pre-Semitic origin.

The origin and development of the grouping of the stars into constellations is more a matter of archaeological than of astronomical interest. It demands a careful study of the myths and religious thought of primitive peoples; and the tracing of the names from one language to another belongs to comparative philology.

The Sumerians and Accadians, the non-Semitic inhabitants of the Euphrates valley prior to the Babylonians, described the stars collectively as a "heavenly flock"; the sun was the "old sheep"; the seven planets were the "old-sheep stars"; the whole of the stars had certain "shepherds," and _Sibzianna_ (which, according to Sayce and Bosanquet, is the modern Arcturus, the brightest star in the northern sky) was the "star of the shepherds of the heavenly herds." The Accadians bequeathed their system to the Babylonians, and cuneiform tablets and cylinders, boundary stones, and Euphratean art generally, point to the existence of a well-defined system of star names in their early history. From a detailed study of such records, in their nature of rather speculative value, R. Brown, junr. (_Primitive Constellations_, 1899) has compiled a Euphratean planisphere, which he regards as the mother of all others. The tablets examined range in date from 3000-500 B.C., and hence the system must be anterior to the earlier date. Of great importance is the _Creation Legend_, a cuneiform compiled from older records during the reign of Assur-bani-pal, c. 650 B.C., in which there occurs a passage interpretable as pointing to the acceptance of 36 constellations: 12 northern, 12 zodiacal and 12 southern. These constellations were arranged in three concentric annuli, the northern ones in an inner annulus subdivided into 60 degrees, the zodiacal ones into a medial annulus of 120 degrees, and the southern ones into an outer annulus of 240 degrees. Brown has suggested a correlation of the Euphratean names with those of the Greeks and moderns. His results may be exhibited in the following form:--the central line gives the modern equivalents of the names in the Euphratean zodiac; the upper line the modern equivalents of the northern paranatellons; and the lower line those of the southern paranatellons. The zodiacal constellations have an interest peculiarly their own; placed in or about the plane of the ecliptic, their rising and setting with the sun was observed with relation to weather changes and the more general subject of chronology, the twelve subdivisions of the year being correlated with the twelve divisions of the ecliptic (see Zodiac).

The Phoenicians--a race dominated by the spirit of commercial enterprise--appear to have studied the stars more especially with respect to their service to navigators; according to Homer "the stars were sent by Zeus as portents for mariners." But all their truly astronomical writings are lost, and only by a somewhat speculative piecing together of scattered evidences can an estimate of their knowledge be formed. The inter-relations of the Phoenicians with the early Hellenes were frequent and far-reaching, and in the Greek presentation of the legends concerning constellations a distinct Phoenician, and in turn Euphratean, element appears. One of the earliest examples of Greek literature extant, the _Theogonia_ of Hesiod (c. 800 B.C.), appears to be a curious blending of Hellenic and Phoenician thought. Although not an astronomical work, several constellation subjects are introduced. In the same author's _Works and Days_, a treatise which is a sort of shepherd's calendar, there are distinct references to the Pleiades, Hyades, Orion, Sirius and Arcturus. It cannot be argued, however, that these were the only stars and constellations named in his time; the omission proves nothing. The same is true of the Homeric epics wherein the Pleiades, Hyades, Ursa major, Orion and Booetes are mentioned, and also of the stars and constellations mentioned in Job. Further support is given to the view that, in the main, the constellations were transmitted to the Greeks by the Phoenicians from Euphratean sources in the fact that Thales, the earliest Greek astronomer of any note, was of Phoenician descent. According to Callimachus he taught the Greeks to steer by Ursa minor instead of Ursa major; and other astronomical observations are assigned to him. But his writings are lost, as is also the case with those of Phocus the Samian, and the history of astronomy by Eudemus, the pupil of Aristotle; hence the paucity of our knowledge of Thales's astronomical learning.

From the 6th century B.C. onwards, legends concerning the constellation subjects were frequently treated by the historians and poets. Aglaosthenes or Agaosthenes, an early writer, knew Ursa minor as [Greek: Kynosoura], Cynosura, and recorded the translation of Aquila; Epimenides the Cretan (c. 600 B.C.) recorded the translation of Capricornus and the star Capella; Pherecydes of Athens (c. 500-450 B.C.) recorded the legend of Orion, and stated the astronomical fact that when Orion sets Scorpio rises; Aeschylus (525-456 B.C.) and Hellanicus of Mytilene (c. 496-411 B.C.) narrate the legend of the seven Pleiades--the daughters of Atlas; and the latter states that the Hyades are named either from their orientation, which resembles [upsilon] (upsilon), "or because at their rising or setting Zeus rains"; and Hecataeus of Miletus (c. 470 B.C.) treated the legend of the Hydra.

In the 5th century B.C. the Athenian astronomer Euctemon, according to Geminus of Rhodes, compiled a weather calendar in which Aquarius, Aquila, Canis major, Corona, Cygnus, Delphinus, Lyra, Orion, Pegasus, Sagitta and the asterisms Hyades and Pleiades are mentioned, always, however, in relation to weather changes. The earliest Greek work which purported to treat the constellations _qua_ constellations, of which we have certain knowledge, is the [Greek: Phainomena] of Eudoxus of Cnidus (c. 403-350 B.C.). The original is lost, but a versification by Aratus (c. 270 B.C.), a poet at the court of Antigonus Gonatas, king of Macedonia, and an [Greek: Exegesis] or commentary by Hipparchus, are extant. In the [Greek: Phainomena] of Aratus 44 constellations are enumerated, viz. 19 northern:--Ursa major, Ursa minor, Booetes, Draco, Cepheus, Cassiopeia, Andromeda, Perseus, Triangulum, Pegasus, Delphinus, Auriga, Hercules, Lyra, Cygnus, Aquila, Sagitta, Corona and Serpentarius; 13 central or zodiacal:--Aries, Taurus, Gemini, Cancer, Leo, Virgo, Libra, Scorpio, Sagittarius, Capricornus, Aquarius, Pisces and the Pleiades; and 12 southern:--Orion, Canis, Lepus, Argo, Cetus, Eridanus, Piscis australis, Ara, Centaurus, Hydra, Crater and Corvus. In this enumeration Serpens is included in Serpentarius and Lupus in Centaurus; these two constellations were separated by Hipparchus and, later, by Ptolemy. On the other hand, Aratus kept the Pleiades distinct from Taurus, but Hipparchus reduced these stars to an asterism. Aratus was no astronomer, while Hipparchus was; and from the fact that the latter adopted, with but trifling exceptions, the constellation system portrayed by Aratus, it may be concluded that the system was already familiar in Greek thought. And three hundred years after Hipparchus, the Alexandrian astronomer Ptolemy adopted a very similar scheme in his uranometria, which appears in the seventh and eighth books of his _Almagest_, the catalogue being styled the [Greek: Ekthesis kanonike] or "accepted version."

The _Almagest_ has a dual interest: first, being the work of one primarily a commentator, it presents a crystallized epitome of all earlier knowledge; and secondly, it has served as a basis of subsequent star-catalogues.[1] The Ptolemaic catalogue embraces only those stars which were visible at Rhodes in the time of Hipparchus (c. 150 B.C.), the results being corrected for precession "by increasing the longitudes by 2 deg. 40', and leaving the latitudes undisturbed" (Francis Baily, _Mem. R.A.S._, 1843). The names and orientation of the constellations therein adopted are, with but few exceptions, identical with those used at the present day; and as it cannot be doubted that Ptolemy made only very few modifications in the system of Hipparchus, the names were adopted at least three centuries before the _Almagest_ was compiled. The names in which Ptolemy differs from modern usage are:--Hercules ([Greek: en gonasin]), Cygnus ([Greek: Hornis]), Eridanus ([Greek: Potamos]), Lupus ([Greek: Therion]), Pegasus ([Greek: Hippos]), Equuleus ([Greek: Hippou protome]), Canis minor ([Greek: Prokyon]), and Libra ([Greek: Chelai], although [Greek: zygos] is used for the same constellation in other parts of the _Almagest_). The following table gives the names of the constellations as they occur in (1) modern catalogues; (2) Ptolemy (A.D. 150); (3) Ulugh Beg (1437); (4) Tycho Brahe (1628); the last column gives the English equivalent of the modern name.

The reverence and authority which was accorded the famous compilation of the Alexandrian astronomer is well evidenced by the catalogue of the Tatar Ulugh Beg, the Arabian names there adopted being equivalent to the Ptolemaic names in nearly every case; this is also shown in the Latin translations given below. Tycho Brahe, when compiling his catalogue of stars, was unable to observe Lupus, Ara, Corona australis and Piscis australis, on account of the latitude of Uranienburg; and hence these constellations are omitted from his catalogue. He diverged from Ptolemy when he placed the asterisms Coma Berenices and Antinous upon the level of formal constellations, Ptolemy having regarded these asterisms as unformed stars ([Greek: amorphotoi]). The next innovator of moment was Johann Bayer, a German astronomer, who published a _Uranometria_ in 1603, in which twelve constellations, all in the southern hemisphere, were added to Ptolemy's forty-eight, viz. Apis (or Musca) (Bee), Avis Indica (Bird of Paradise), Chameleon, Dorado (Sword-fish), Grus (Crane), Hydrus (Water-snake), Indus (Indian), Pavo (Peacock), Phoenix, Piscis volans (Flying fish), Toucan, Triangulum australe. According to W. Lynn (_Observatory_, 1886, p. 255), Bayer adapted this part of his catalogue from the observations of the Dutch navigator Petrus Theodori (or Pieter Dirchsz Keyser), who died in 1596 off Java. The _Coelum stellatum Christianum_ of Julius Schiller (1627) is noteworthy for the attempt made to replace the names connoting mythological and pagan ideas by the names of apostles, saints, popes, bishops, and other dignitaries of the church, &c. Aries became St Peter; Taurus, St Andrew; Andromeda, the Holy Sepulchre; Lyra, the Manger; Canis major, David; and so on. This innovation (with which the introduction of the twelve apostles into the solar zodiac by the Venerable Bede may be compared) was shortlived. According to Charles Hutton [_Math. Dict._ i. 328 (1795)] the editions published in 1654 and 1661 had reverted to the Greek names; on the other hand, Camille Flammarion (_Popular Astronomy_, p. 375) quotes an illuminated folio of 1661, which represents "the sky delivered from pagans and peopled with Christians." A similar confusion was attempted by E. Weigelius, who sought to introduce a _Coelum heraldicum_, in which the constellations were figured as the arms or insignia of European dynasties, and by symbols of commerce.

CONSTELLATION

+----------------+---------------------+------------------------+-----------------------+-------------------+ | Modern. | Ptolemy. [Greek] | Ulugh Beg. | Tycho Brahe. | Meaning. | +----------------+---------------------+------------------------+-----------------------+-------------------+ | | | Northern constellations (21). | | ----------------------------- | | | | Ursa minor Arktou mikras Stellae Ursi minoris Ursa minor, Cynosura Little Bear | | asterismhost | | | | Ursa major Arktou megales a. S. Ursi majoris Ursa major, Helice Great Bear | | | | Draco Drakontos a. S. Draconis Draco Dragon | | | | Cepheus Kepheos a. S. Cephei Cepheus Cepheus | | | | Booetes Bootou a. S. Vociferatoris Booetes, Arctophylax Ploughman | | | | | Corona borealis Stephanou Boreiou a. S. Coronae or Phecca Corona borea Northern Crown | | | | Hercules Tou en gonasin a. S. Incumbentis genubus Engonasi, Hercules Man kneeling | | | | Lyra Lyras a. S. [tou] Shelyak or Lyra, Vultur cadens Lyre | | Testudo | | | | Cygnus Ornithos a. S. Gallinae Olor, Cygnus Bird, Swan | | | | Cassiopeia Kassiepeias a. S. Inthronatae Cassiopeia Cassiopeia | | | | Perseus Perseos a. S. Bershaush or Portans Perseus Perseus | | Caput Larvae | | | | Auriga Heniochou a. S. Tenentis habenas Auriga, Heniochus, Charioteer | | Erichthonius | | | | Serpentarius Ophiouchou a. S. Serpentarii Ophiuchus, Serpentarius Serpent-holder | | | | Serpens Oreos ophiouchou a. S. Serpentis Serpens ophiuchi Serpent | | | | Sagitta Oistou a. S. Sagittae Sagitta or Telum Arrow | | | | Aquila Aetou a. S. Aquilae Aquila or Vultur volans Eagle | | | | Delphinus Delphinos a. S. Delphini Delphinus Dolphin | | | | Equuleus Hippou protomes a. S. Sectionis equi Equuelus, Equi sectio Colt | | | | Pegasus Hippou a. S. Equi majoris Pegasus, Equus alatus Pegasus, Horse | | | | Andromeda Andromedas a. S. Mulieris catenatae Andromeda Andromeda | | | | Triangulum Trigonou a. S. Trianguli Triangulus, Deltoton Triangle | | | | | | Zodiacal constellations (12). | | ----------------------------- | | | | Aries Kriou a. S. Arietis Aries Ram | | | | Taurus Taurou a. S. Tauri Taurus Bull | | | | Gemini Didymon a. S. Gemellorum Gemini Twins | | | | Cancer Karkinou a. S. Cancri Cancer Crab | | | | Leo Leontos a. S. Leonis Leo Lion | | | | Virgo Parthenou a. S. Virginis, Sumbela Virgo Virgin | | | | Libra Chelon a. S. Librae Libra Balance | | | | Scorpio Skorpiou a. S. Scorpionis Scorpius Scorpion | | | | Sagittarius Toxotou a. S. Sagittarii, Arcum Sagittarius Archer | | | | Capricornus Aigokerotos a. S. Capricorni Capricornus Goat | | | | Aquarius Hydrochoou a. S. Effusoris aquae, Aquarius Water-pourer | | Situla | | | | Pisces Ichthyon a. S. Piscis Pisces Fishes | | | | | | Southern constellations (15). | | ----------------------------- | | | | Cetus Ketous a. S. Ceti Cete Sea-monster, | | Whale | | | | Orion Orionos a. S. Gigantis Orion Orion | | | | Eridanus Potamou a. S. Fluminis Eridanus fluvius River | | | | Lepus Lagoou a. S. Leporis Lepus Hare | | | | Canis major Kynos a. S. Canis majoris Canis major Great Dog | | | | Canis minor Prokynos a. S. Canis minoris Canis minor, Procyon Little Dog | | | | Argo Argous a. S. Navis Argo navis Ship | | | | Hydra Hydrou a. S. Hydri Hydra Sea-serpent | | | | Crater Krateros a. S. Craterae Crater Bowl | | | | | Corvus Korakos a. S. Corvi Corvus Crow | | | | Centaurus Kentaurou a. S. Centauri Centaurus, Chiron Centaur | | | | Lupus Theriou a. S. Ferae Wild beast | | | | Ara Thymiateriou a. S. Thuribuli Censer, Altar | | | | Corona australis Stephanou notiou a. S. Coronae australis Southern Crown | | | | Piscis australis Ichthyos notiou a. S. Piscis australis Southern Fish | +-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------+

In Edmund Halley's southern catalogue (_Catalogus stellarum australium_), published in 1679 and incorporated in Flamsteed's _Historia coelestis_ (1725), the following constellations are named:--Piscis australis, Columba Noachi, Argo navis, Robur Caroli, Ara, Corona australis, Grus, Phoenix, Pavo, Apus or Avis Indica, Musca apis, Chameleon, Triangulum australe, Piscis volans, Dorado or Xiphias, Toucan or Anser Americanus, and Hydrus. Flamsteed's maps also contained Mons Menelai. This list contains nothing new except Robur Caroli, since Columba Noachi (Noah's dove) had been raised to the skies by Bartschius in 1624. The constellation Robur Caroli and also the star Cor Caroli ([alpha] Canum Venaticorum) were named by Halley in honour of Charles II. of England.

In 1690 two posthumous works of Johann Hevelius (1611-1687), the _Firmamentum sobiescianum_ and _Prodromus astronomiae_, added several new constellations to the list, viz. Canes venatici (the Greyhounds), Lacerta (the Lizard), Leo minor (Little Lion), Lynx, Sextans Uraniae, Scutum or Clypeus Sobieskii (the shield of Sobieski), Vulpecula et Anser (Fox and Goose), Cerberus, Camelopardus (Giraffe), and Monoceros (Unicorn); the last two were originally due to Jacobus Bartschius. In 1679 Augustine Royer introduced the most interesting of the constellations of the southern hemisphere, the Crux australis or Southern Cross. He also suggested Nubes major, Nubes minor, and Lilium, and re-named Canes venatici the river Jordan, and Vulpecula et Anser the river Tigris, but these innovations met with no approval. The Magellanic clouds, a collection of nebulae, stars and star-clusters in the neighbourhood of the south pole, were so named by Hevelius in honour of the navigator Ferdinand Magellan.

Many other star-groupings have been proposed from time to time; in some cases a separate name has been given to a part of an authoritatively accepted constellation, e.g. Ensis Orionis, the sword of Orion, or an ancient constellation may be subdivided, e.g. Argo (ship) into Argo, Malus (mast), Vela (sails), Puppis (stern), Carina (keel); and whereas some of the rearrangements, which have been mostly confined to the southern hemisphere, have been accepted, many, reflecting nothing but idiosyncrasies of the proposers, have deservedly dropped into oblivion. Nicolas Louis de Lacaille, who made extended observations of the southern stars in 1751 and in the following years, and whose results were embodied in his posthumous _Coelum australe stelliferum_ (1763), introduced the following new constellations:--Apparatus sculptoris (Sculptor's workshop), Fornax chemica (Chemical furnace), Horologium (Clock), Reticulus rhomboidalis (Rhomboidal net), Caela sculptoris (Sculptor's chisels), Equuleus pictoris (Painter's easel), Pyxis nautica (Mariner's compass), Antlia pneumatica (Air pump), Octans (Octant), Circinus (Compasses), Norma _alias_ Quadra Euclidis (Square), Telescopium (Telescope), Microscopium (Microscope) and Mons Mensae (Table Mountain). Pierre Charles Lemonnier in 1776 introduced Tarandus (Reindeer), and Solitarius; J. J. L. de Lalande introduced Le Messier (after the astronomer Charles Messier) (1776), Quadrans muralis (Mural quadrant) (1795), Globus aerostaticus (Air balloon) (1798), and Felis (the Cat) (1799). Martin Poczobut introduced in 1777 Taurus Poniatovskii; Bode introduced the Honores Frederici (Honours of Frederick) (1786), Telescopium Herschelii (Telescope of Herschel) (1787), Machina electrica (Electrical machine) (1790), Officina typographica (Printing press) (1799), and Lochium funis (Log line); and M. Hell formed the Psalterium Georgianum (George's lute).

The following list gives the names of the constellations now usually employed: they are divided into three groups:--north of the zodiac, in the zodiac, south of the zodiac. Those marked with an asterisk have separate articles.

_Northern_ (28).

*Andromeda *Cepheus *Hercules Pegasus
*Aquila *Coma Berenices Lacerta *Perseus
*Auriga *Corona borealis *Leo minor *Sagitta
*Booetes *Cygnus Lynx Serpens
Camelopardus *Delphinus *Lyra Triangulum
*Canes venatici Draco { Ophiuchus *Ursa major
*Cassiopeia Equuleus {*Serpentarius *Ursa minor
*Vulpecula et Anser

_Zodiacal_ (12).

*Aquarius *Capricornus *Libra *Scorpio
*Aries *Gemini *Pisces *Taurus
*Cancer *Leo *Sagittarius *Virgo.

_Southern_ (49).

Antlia Columba Noachi Lupus Puppis
(pneumatica) Corona australis Malus Recticulum
Apus Corvus Microscopium Sculptor
*Ara Crater Monoceros (Apparatus
Argo Crux Musca australis sculptoris)
Caela sculptoris Dorado Norma Scutum Sobieskii
(Caelum) *Eridanus Octans Sextans
*Canis major Fornax chemica *Orion Telescopium
Canis minor Grus Pavo Toucan
Carina Horologium Phoenix Triangulum australe
*Centaurus *Hydra Pictor Vela
*Cetus Hydrus (Equuleus Volans
Chameleon Indus pictoris) (Piscis volans)
Circinus Lepus Piscis australis
(C. E.*)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The historical development of star-catalogues in general, regarded
as statistics of the co-ordinates, &c., of stars, is given in the
historical section of the article Astronomy. See also E. B. Knobel,
"Chronology of Star Catalogues," _Mem. R.A.S._ (1877).

CONSTIPATION (from Lat. _constipare_, to press closely together, whence also the adjective "costive"), the condition of body when the faeces are unduly retained, or there is difficulty in evacuation, tightness of the bowels (see Digestive Organs; and Therapeutics). It may be due to constitutional peculiarities, sedentary or irregular habits, improper diet, &c. The treatment varies with individual cases, according to the cause at work, laxatives, dieting, massage, &c., being prescribed.

CONSTITUENCY (from "constituent," that which forms a necessary part of a thing; Lat. _constituere_, to create), a political term for the body of electors who choose a representative for parliament or for any other public assembly, for the place or district possessing the right to elect a representative, and for the residents generally, apart from their voting powers, in such a locality. The term is also applied, in a transferred sense, to the readers of a particular newspaper, the customers of a business and the like.

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Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, "Constantine Pavlovich" to "Convention"Chapter II: Front Matter (2)

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