Chapter II: MODERN CONFESSIONS OF FAITH.--The second great creed-making epoch of (9)

The following "records" of Australian cricket in England up to 1909
are of interest:--Highest total by an Australian team: 843 v. Past and
Present of Oxford and Cambridge Universities in 1893. Highest total
against an Australian team: 576 by England at the Oval in 1899. Lowest
total by an Australian team: 18 v. M.C.C. in 1896. Lowest total
against an Australian team: 17 by Gloucestershire in 1896. Highest
individual Australian score in one innings: 303 not out by W. W.
Armstrong v. Somersetshire in 1905. Highest individual Australian
aggregate in a tour: 2570 by V. T. Trumper in 1902. Two centuries in a
match: V. T. Trumper 109 and 119 v. Essex in 1902; W. Bardsley 136 and
130 v. England in 1909 (test match record).

The following table shows the Australians who headed the batting and
bowling averages respectively in tours in England up to 1909.

_Batting._

+------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
| | | |Not | | | |
| Year.| |Inn.|out.| Runs.| Most.| Aver. |
+------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
| 1878 | C. Bannerman, N.S.W. | 31 | 1 | 723 | 133 | 24.10 |
| 1880 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 19 | 1 | 465 | *153 | 25.80 |
| 1882 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 61 | 5 | 1711 | *286 | 30.50 |
| 1884 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 50 | 5 | 1378 | 211 | 30.60 |
| 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A. | 63 | 9 | 1453 | 119 | 26.90 |
| 1888 | P. M'Donnell, V. | 62 | 1 | 1393 | 105 | 22.50 |
| 1890 | W. L. Murdoch, N.S.W. | 64 | 2 | 1459 | *158 | 23.33 |
| 1893 | H. Graham, V. | 55 | 3 | 1492 | 219 | 28.36 |
| 1896 | S. E. Gregory, N.S.W. | 48 | 2 | 1464 | 154 | 31.38 |
| 1899 | J. Darling, S.A. | 56 | 9 | 1941 | 167 | 41.29 |
| 1902 | V. T. Trumper, N.S.W. | 53 | 0 | 2570 | 128 | 48.49 |
| 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V. | 48 | 7 | 2002 | *303 | 48.82 |
| 1909 | V. S. Ransford | 43 | 4 | 1778 | 190 | 45.58 |
+------+------------------------+----+----+------+------+-------+
* Not out.

_Bowling._

+------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
| Year.| | O. | M. | R. | W. | Aver. |
+------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+
| 1878 | T. W. Garrett, N.S.W. | 296.2 | 144 | 394 | 38 | 10.30 |
| 1880 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 240.8 | 82 | 396 | 46 | 8.60 |
| 1882 | H. F. Boyle, V. | 1200.14| 525 | 1680 | 144 | 11.60 |
| 1884 | F. R. Spofforth, N.S.W.| 1544.32| 649 | 2642 | 216 | 12.20 |
| 1886 | G. Giffen, S.A. | 1693.26| 722 | 2711 | 159 | 17.05 |
| 1888 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 2589.3 | 1222 | 3492 | 314 | 11.38 |
| 1890 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1651.1 | 724 | 2725 | 215 | 12.45 |
| 1893 | C. T. B. Turner, N.S.W.| 1148 | 450 | 2202 | 160 | 13.12 |
| 1896 | T. R. M'Kibbin, N.S.W. | 647.1 | 198 | 1441 | 101 | 14.27 |
| 1899 | H. Trumble, V. | 1249.1 | 431 | 2618 | 142 | 18.43 |
| 1902 | H. Trumble, V. | 948 | 305 | 1998 | 140 | 14.27 |
| 1905 | W. W. Armstrong, V. | 1027 | 308 | 2288 | 130 | 17.60 |
| 1909 | F. Laver | 495.5 | 161 | 1048 | 70 | 14.97 |
+------+------------------------+--------+------+------+-----+-------+

The first English team to visit Australia was organized in 1862, and
was captained by H. H. Stephenson. George Parr (1826-1891) took out
the next in 1864, Dr E. M. Grace being the only amateur. In 1873 the
Melbourne Club invited Dr W. G. Grace to take out an eleven, and
three years later James Lillywhite conducted a team of professionals.
On this tour for the first time colonials contended on equal terms,
one match v. Australia being won by 4 wickets and the other lost by 45
runs. Lord Harris in the autumn of 1878 took a team of amateurs
assisted by Ulyett and Emmett, winning 2 and losing 3 eleven-a-side
encounters, Emmett's 137 wickets averaging 8 runs each. Shaw,
Shrewsbury and Lillywhite jointly organized the expedition of 1881,
when Australia won the second test match by 5 wickets. The Hon. Ivo
Bligh (afterwards Lord Darnley) in 1882 took a fine team, which was
crippled owing to an injury sustained by the bowler F. Morley. Four
victories could be set against three defeats; Australia winning the
only test match, owing to the batting of Blackham. Shaw's second tour
in 1884 showed Barnes heading both batting and bowling averages, while
six victories counterbalanced two defeats. In the third tour
Shrewsbury became captain, but the English for the first time
encountered the bowling of C. T. B. Turner, who took 27 wickets for
113 runs in two matches. Australia was twice defeated, the English
captain batting in fine form. On this tour was played the Smokers v.
Non-Smokers, when the latter scored 803 for 9 wickets (Shrewsbury 236,
W. Bruce 131, Gunn 150), against the bowling of Briggs, Boyle,
Lohmann, Palmer and Flowers. The winter of 1887 saw two English teams
in Australia, one under Lord Hawke and G. F. Vernon, the other under
Shrewsbury and Lillywhite. Both teams played well, the batting being
headed by W. W. Read with an average of 65, and Shrewsbury with 58.
The ill-success of Lord Sheffield's team in two out of three test
matches did not disprove the great merits of his eleven. Dr W. G.
Grace headed the averages with 44, and received the best support from
Abel and A. E. Stoddart, whilst Attewell, Briggs and Lohmann all
possessed fine bowling figures. A. E. Stoddart's first team (in 1894)
achieved immense success and was the best of all. In the first test
match they went in against 586 runs and ultimately won by 10 runs,
Ward making 75 and 117. Stoddart himself averaged 51, scoring 173 in
the second test match, and A. C. MacLaren (who made 228 v. Victoria),
Brown and Ward all averaged over 40. The last tour conducted by
Stoddart proved less satisfactory, four of the five test matches being
lost, and some friction being caused by various incidents. K. S.
Ranjitsinhji, who averaged 60 and made 175 in a test match and 189 v.
South Australia, and A. C. MacLaren, who scored five hundreds and
averaged 54, were prominent, Hayward also doing good work; but the
bowling broke down. Weakness in bowling was the cause of the ill
success of A. C. MacLaren's side in 1901. After a brilliant victory by
an innings and 124 runs at Sydney, the other four test matches were
all lost. MacLaren himself batted magnificently, and so did Hayward
and Tyldesley. Braund stood alone as an all-round man. The M.C.C. in
1903 officially despatched a powerful side led by P. F. Warner, and in
every sense except the financial the success was complete. Three test
matches were won and two lost, while two new records were set up, one
by Rhodes obtaining 15 wickets at Melbourne, the other by R. E.
Foster, who in seven hours of brilliant batting compiled 287.
Tyldesley and Hayward both did good work as batsmen; Rhodes and Braund
both bowled consistently. The catch-phrase about "bringing back the
ashes" became almost proverbial; its origin is to be found in the
_Sporting Times_ in 1882 after Australia had defeated England at the
Oval.

_New Zealand._--Although cricket has not attained a degree of
perfection in New Zealand commensurate with that in Australia, it is
keenly played. Lord Hawke sent out from England a team in 1902-1903
which won all the eighteen matches arranged.

_Cricket in India._--Not only the English who live in India, but the
natives also--Parsees, Hindus and Mahommedans alike--play cricket. A
Parsee eleven visited England in 1884 and 1888.

_South Africa._--South African cricketers visiting England are
handicapped by playing on turf instead of on the matting wickets used
in South Africa. The side which came over during the Boer War in 1901
won 13, lost 9, and drew 2 matches, playing a tie with Worcestershire,
and showing marked improvement on the team which had visited England
in 1894. E. A. Halliwell (b. 1864) proved a fine wicket-keeper, J. H.
Sinclair (b. 1876) a good all-round cricketer, J. J. Kotze (b. 1879) a
very fast bowler, and G. A. Rowe (b. 1872) clever with the ball. In
1904 more decided success was achieved, for on a more ambitious
programme ten victories could be set against two defeats by
Worcestershire and Kent, with a tie with Middlesex. The most important
success was a victory by 189 runs over a powerful England eleven at
Lord's, when R. O. Schwarz (b. 1875) scored 102 and 26, and took 8
wickets for 106, dismissing Ranjitsinhji twice. Kotze and Sinclair
again bore the brunt of the attack. Of the English teams visiting
South Africa, that taken by Lord Hawke in 1894 did not meet with such
important opposition as the one he led in 1900, yet the side came back
undefeated, having won all three test matches. P. F. Warner and F.
Mitchell, with Tyldesley, were the chief run-getters, Haigh, Trott and
Cuttell bowling finely. In the winter of 1905 the M.C.C. sent out a
side under P. F. Warner, but it lost four out of the five test
matches, F. L. Fane and J. N. Crawford being the most successful of
the Englishmen, and G. C. White (1882) and A. D. Nourse proving
themselves great colonial batsmen. In 1907 a representative South
African team came to England, and their improved status in the
cricketing world was shown by the arrangement of test matches. In the
winter of 1909-1910 an English team under Mr Leveson Gower went to
South Africa, and played test matches.

_West Indies._--West Indian cricketers toured in England in 1900,
winning 5 matches and losing 8. The best batsman was C. A. Olivierre
(b. 1876), who subsequently qualified for Derbyshire. The brunt of the
bowling devolved on S. Woods and T. Burton (b. 1878). In 1897 teams
under Lord Hawke and A. Priestly (b. 1865) both visited West Indies,
Trinidad defeating both powerful combinations. R. S. Lucas (b. 1867)
had in 1895 taken out a successful side. A much weaker combination in
1902 suffered five defeats but won 13 matches. B. J. T. Bosanquet, E.
R. Wilson (b. 1879) and E. M. Dowson (b. 1880) were the chief
performers. In 1906 another West Indian side visited England, but were
not particularly successful.

_America._--In the United States cricket has always had to contend
with the popularity of baseball, and in Canada with the rival
attractions of lacrosse. Nevertheless it has grown in popularity,
Philadelphia being the headquarters of the game in the New World.

The Germantown, Belmont, Merion and Philadelphia Clubs play annually
for the Halifax Cup, and the game is controlled by the Associated
Cricket clubs of Philadelphia. In the neighbourhood of New York
matches are arranged by the Metropolitan District Cricket League and
the New York Cricket Association; similar organizations are the
Northwestern, the California and the Massachusetts associations, while
the Intercollegiate Cricket League consists of college teams
representing Harvard, Pennsylvania and Haverford. R. S. Newhall (b.
1852) and D. S. Newhall (b. 1849) may almost claim to be the fathers
of cricket in the United States; while D. W. Saunders (b. 1862) did
much for the game in Canada. Other eminent names in American cricket
are A. M. Wood; H. Livingston, of the Pittsburg Club, who scored three
centuries in one week in 1907; H. V. Hordern, University of
Pennsylvania, a very successful bowler; J. B. King, who in 1906 made
344 not out for Belmont v. Merion, and who as a fast bowler proved
most effective during two tours in England. At San Francisco in 1894
W. Robertson and A. G. Sheath compiled a total of 340 without the loss
of a wicket, the former scoring 206 not out, and the latter 118 not
out. A large number of English cricket teams have visited the United
States and Canada. The first county to do so was Kent in 1904, in
which year the Philadelphians also made a tour in England, in the
course of which J. B. King (b. 1873) took 93 wickets at an average
cost of 14 runs, and proved himself the best all-round man on the
side. P. H. Clark (b. 1873), a clever fast bowler, and J. A. Lester
(b. 1872), the captain of the team, also showed themselves to be
cricketers of merit, while N. Z. Graves (b. 1880) and F. H. Bohlen (b.
1868) were quite up to English county form. The team did not, however,
include G. S. Patterson (b. 1868), one of the best batsmen in America.
The Philadelphians again visited Great Britain in 1908, when they won
7 out of 14 matches, one being drawn. On this tour King surpassed his
former English record by taking 115 wickets, and Wood, who played one
fine innings of 132, was the most successful of the American batsmen.

_Other Countries._--The English residents of Portugal support the
game, but were no match for a moderate English team that visited them
in 1898. In Holland, chiefly at the Hague and Haarlem, cricket is
played to a limited extent on matting wickets. Dutch elevens have
visited England, and English elevens have crossed to Holland, the most
important visit being that of the gentlemen of the M.C.C. in 1902, the
Englishmen winning all the matches.

_Professionalism._--The remuneration of the first-class English
professionals is L6 per match, out of which expenses have to be paid;
a man engaged on a ground to bowl receives from L2, 10s. to L3, 10s. a
week when not away playing matches. A professional player generally
receives extra reward for good batting or bowling, the amount being
sometimes a fixed sum of L1 for every fifty runs, more frequently a
sum awarded by the committee on the recommendation of the captain.
Some counties give their men winter pay, others try to provide them
with suitable work when cricket is over. A few get cricket in other
countries during the English winter. For international matches
professional players and "reserves" receive L20 each, though before
1896 the fee was only L10; players (and reserves) in Gentlemen v.
Players at Lord's are paid L10. A good county professional generally
receives a "benefit" after about ten years' service; but the amount of
the proceeds varies capriciously with the weather, the duration of the
match, and the attendance. In the populous northern counties of
England benefits are far more lucrative than in the south, but L800 to
L1000 may be regarded as a good average result. County clubs generally
exercise some control over the sums received. Umpires are paid L6 a
match; in minor games they receive about L1 a day.

_Records._--Records other than those already cited may be added for
reference. A schoolboy named A. E. J. Collins, at Clifton College in
1899, excited some interest by scoring 628 not out in a boy's match,
being about seven hours at the wicket. C. J. Eady (b. 1870) scored 566
for Break o' Day v. Wellington in eight hours in 1902, the total being
911. A. E. Stoddart made 485 for Hampstead v. Stoics in 1886. In
first-class cricket the highest individual score for a batsman is A.
C. MacLaren's 424 for Lancashire v. Somerset at Taunton in 1895.
Melbourne University scored 1094 against Essendon in March 1898, this
being the highest authenticated total on record. M.C.C. and Ground
made 735 v. Wiltshire in 1888, the highest total at Lord's. In the
match between A. E. Stoddart's team and New South Wales at Sydney in
1898, 1739 runs were scored, an aggregate unparalleled in first-class
cricket. The highest total for an innings in a first-class match is
918 for N.S.W. v. South Australia in January 1901. Yorkshire scored
887 v. Warwickshire at Birmingham in May 1896. The lowest total in a
first-class match is 12 by Northamptonshire v. Gloucestershire in June
1907. The record for first wicket is 472 by S. Colman and P. Coles at
Eastbourne in 1892. The longest partnership on record is 623 by
Captain Oates and Fitzgerald at the Curragh in 1895. The best stand
that has been made for the last wicket in a first-class match is 230
runs, which was run up by R. W. Nicholls and Roche playing for
Middlesex v. Kent at Lord's in 1899.

The "averages" of individual players for batting and bowling annually
excite a good deal of interest, and there is a danger that some
players may think too much of their averages and too little of the
sporting side of the game. Any comparison of the highest averages
during a series of years would be misleading, owing to improvements in
grounds, difference of weather, and the variations in the number of
innings.

The following table of aggregates, compiled from the figures to the
end of 1905, affords a summary of the records of a select list of
historic cricketers; it will serve to supplement some details already
given above about them and others.

_Batting._

+--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
| | Innings.|Not Out.| Runs.|Most.| Aver. |
+--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+
| K. S. Ranjitsinhji | 448 | 57 | 22,277| 285 | 56.3 |
| C. B. Fry | 481 | 29 | 22,865| 244 | 50.4 |
| T. Hayward | 667 | 61 | 25,225| 315 | 41.3 |
| J. T. Tyldesley | 491 | 38 | 18,683| 250 | 41.1 |
| Dr W. G. Grace | 1463 | 103 | 54,073| 344 | 39.1 |
| A. Shrewsbury | 784 | 88 | 25,819| 267 | 37.6 |
| R. Abel | 964 | 69 | 32,810| 357 | 36.5 |
| A. C. MacLaren | 526 | 37 | 17,364| 424 | 35.2 |
| G. H. Hirst | 626 | 92 | 18,615| 341 | 34.4 |
| Hon. F. S. Jackson | 490 | 35 | 15,498| 160 | 34.2 |
| W. Gunn | 821 | 66 | 25,286| 273 | 33.3 |
| W. W. Read | 739 | 53 | 22,919| 328 | 33.2 |
| A. E. Stoddart | 513 | 16 | 16,081| 221 | 32.2 |
+--------------------+---------+--------+-------+-----+-------+

_Bowling._

+----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
| | Overs.| Maid. | Runs.|Wkts.| Aver.|
+----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+
| A. Shaw | 22,830| 12,803 | 21,887| 1916| 11.8 |
| F. R. Spofforth | 5,342| 2,168 | 8,773| 682| 12.5 |
| C. T. B. Turner | 5,388| 2,396 | 8,419| 649| 12.6 |
| T. Emmett | 14,672| 6,870 | 20,811| 1523| 13.1 |
| G. Lohmann | 15,196| 6,508 | 23,958| 1734| 13.1 |
| F. Morley | 12,610| 6,239 | 15,938| 1213| 13.1 |
| E. Peate | 11,669| 5,593 | 14,299| 1061| 13.5 |
| W. Rhodes | 11,014| 3,476 | 23,336| 1564| 14.1 |
| W. Attewell | 22,461| 11,408 | 28,671| 1874| 15.5 |
| J. Briggs | 20,300| 8,275 | 34,411| 2161| 15.2 |
| R. Peel | 18,255| 7,856 | 27,795| 1733| 16.6 |
| S. Haigh | 7,749| 2,279 | 18,516| 1102| 16.8 |
| J. T. Hearne | 19,895| 7,395 | 40,532| 2350| 17.5 |
| W. H. Lockwood | 8,733| 2,241 | 22,981| 1273| 18.6 |
| T. Richardson (1904) | 14,474| 3,835 | 38,126| 2081| 18.6 |
| Dr W. G. Grace (1904)| 28,502| 10,892 | 50,441| 2730| 18.1 |
| G. H. Hirst | 11,586| 3,525 | 27,028| 1377| 19.8 |
+----------------------+-------+--------+-------+-----+------+

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--The chief works on cricket are, apart from well-known
annuals:--H. Bentley's _Scores from 1786 to 1822_ (published in 1823);
John Nyren's _Young Cricketer's Tutor_ (1833); N. Wanostrocht's _Felix
on the Bat_ (various editions, 1845-1855); F. Lillywhite's _Cricket
Scores and Biographies, 1746 to 1840_ (1862); Rev. J. Pycroft's
_Cricket Field_ (various editions, 1862-1873); C. Box's _Theory and
Practice of Cricket_ (1868); F. Gale's _Echoes from Old Cricket
Fields_ (1871, new ed. 1896); _Marylebone Cricket Club Scores and
Biographies_ (1876), a continuation of Lillywhite's _Scores and
Biographies_; C. Box's _English Game of Cricket_ (1877); _History of a
Hundred Centuries_, by W. G. Grace (1895); _History of the Middlesex
County Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1900); _History of the Cambridge
University Cricket Club_, by W. J. Ford (1902); _History of Yorkshire
County Cricket_, by R. S. Holmes (1904); _History of Kent County
Cricket_, ed. by Lord Harris, (1907); _Annals of Lord's_, by A. D.
Taylor (1903); _Curiosities of Cricket_, by F. S. Ashley Cooper
(1901); "Cricket," by Lord Hawke, in _English Sport_, by A. E. T.
Watson (1903); _Cricket_, edited by H. G. Hutchinson (1903); _Cricket
Form at a Glance_, by Home Gordon (1903); _Cricket_ (Badminton
Library), by A. G. Steel and Hon. R. H. Lyttleton (1904); _Old English
Cricketers_, by Old Ebor (1900); _Cricket in Many Climes_, by P. F.
Warner (1903); _How We Recovered the Ashes_, by P. F. Warner (1904);
_England v. Australia_, by J. N. Pentelow (records from 1877 to 1904)
(1904); _The Jubilee Book of Cricket_, by K. S. Ranjitsinhji (1897).

CRICKHOWELL, a market town of Brecknockshire, Wales, 14 m. E. of Brecon, beautifully situated on the left bank of the Usk, which divides it from Llangattock. Pop. (1901) 1150. The nearest railway stations are Govilon (5 m.) and Gilwern (4 m.) on the London & North-Western railway, but a mail and passenger motor service running between Abergavenny and Brecon passes through the town. It is also served by the Brecon & Newport Canal, which passes through Llangattock about a mile distant. Agriculture is almost the sole industry of the district. The town derives its name from a British fortress, Crug Hywel, commonly called Table Mountain, about 2 m. N.N.E. of the town. Crickhowell Castle, of which only a tower remains, probably dated from the Norman conquest of the country. The manor of Crickhowell used to be regarded as a borough by prescription, but there is no record of its ever having possessed any municipal institutions. The church is in transitional Decorated style.

CRICKLADE, a market town in the Cricklade parliamentary division of Wiltshire, England, 9 m. N.W. of Swindon, on the Midland & South-Western Junction railway. Pop. (1901) 1517. It is pleasantly situated in the plain which borders the south bank of the Thames, not far from the Thames & Severn Canal. The cruciform church of St Sampson is mainly Perpendicular, with a fine ornate tower, and an old rood-stone in its churchyard. The small church of St Mary has an Early English tower, Perpendicular aisles and a Norman chancel-arch. There is some agricultural trade.

Legend makes Cricklade the abode of a school of Greek philosophers before the Roman conquest, and the name is given as "Greeklade" in Drayton's _Polyolbion_. It owed its importance in Saxon times to its position at the passage of the Thames. During the revolt of AEthelwald the AEtheling in 905 he and his army "harried all the Mercian's land until they came to Cricklade and there they went over the Thames" (Anglo-Sax. Chron. _sub anno_), and in 1016 Canute came with his army over the Thames into Mercia at Cricklade (ibid.). There was a mint at Cricklade in the time of Edward the Confessor and William I., and William of Dover fortified a castle here in the reign of Stephen. In the reign of Henry III. a hospital dedicated to St John the Baptist was founded at Cricklade, and placed under the government of a warden or prior. Cricklade was a borough by prescription at least as early as the Domesday Survey, and returned two members to parliament from 1295 until disfranchised by the Redistribution Act of 1885. The borough was never incorporated, but certain liberties, including exemption from toll and passage, were granted to the townsmen by Henry III. and confirmed by successive sovereigns. In 1257 Baldwin de Insula obtained a grant of a Thursday market, and an annual three days' fair at the feast of St Peter ad Vincula. The market was subsequently changed to Saturday, and was much frequented by dealers in corn and cattle, but is now inconsiderable. During the 14th century Cricklade formed part of the dowry of the queens of England. In the reign of Henry VI. the lordship was acquired by the Hungerford family, and in 1427 Sir Walter Hungerford granted the reversion of the manor to the dean and chapter of Salisbury cathedral to aid towards the repair of their belfry.

CRIEFF, a police burgh of Perthshire, Scotland, capital of Strathearn, 17-3/4 m. W. of Perth by the Caledonian railway. Pop. (1901) 5208. Occupying the southern slopes of a hill on the left bank of the Earn, here crossed by a bridge, it practically consists of a main street, with narrower streets branching off at right angles. Its climate is the healthiest in mid-Scotland, the air being pure and dry. Its charter is said to date from 1218, and it was the seat of the courts of the earls of Strathearn till 1747, when heritable jurisdictions were abolished. A Runic sculptured stone, believed to be of the 8th century, and the old town cross stand in High Street, but the great cattle fair, for which Crieff was once famous, was removed to Falkirk in 1770. It was probably in connexion with this market that the "kind gallows of Crieff" acquired their notoriety, for they were mostly used for the execution of Highland cattle-stealers. The principal buildings are the town hall, tolbooth, public library, assembly rooms, mechanics' institute, Morison's academy (founded in 1859), and Strathearn House, a hydropathic establishment built on an eminence at the back of the town, and itself sheltered by the Knock of Crieff (911 ft. high). The industries consist of manufactures of cotton, linen, woollens and worsteds, and leather. Drummond Castle, about 3 m. S., is celebrated for its gardens. They cover an area of 10 acres, are laid out in terraces, and illustrate Italian, Dutch and French styles. They were planned by the 2nd earl of Perth (d. 1662), and take rank with the most magnificent in the United Kingdom. The keep of the castle dates from 1490, and much of the original building was demolished in 1689, a few years after its siege by Cromwell. The present structure was erected subsequent to the extinction of the Jacobite rebellion.

CRIME (Lat. _crimen_, accusation), the general term for offences against the Criminal Law (q.v.). Crime has been defined as "a failure or refusal to live up to the standard of conduct deemed binding by the rest of the community." Sir James Stephen describes it as "some act or omission in respect of which legal punishment may be inflicted on the person who is in default whether by acting or omitting to act." Such action or neglect of action may be injurious or hurtful to society. It is a wrong or tort, to be prevented and corrected by the strong arm of the law.

Crimes vary in character with times and countries. Under different circumstances of place and custom, that which at one time is denounced as a crime, at another passes as a meritorious act. It was once an imperative duty for the family to avenge the death of a kinsman, and the blood feud had a sanction that made killing no murder. Again, among primitive tribes to make away with parents at an advanced age or suffering from an incurable disease was a filial duty. Polyandry was sometimes encouraged, and cannibalism practised with general approval; religious sentiment elevated into heinous crimes, blasphemy, heresy, sacrilege, sorcery and even science when it ran counter to accepted dogmas of the church. Offences multiplied when people gathered into communities and the rights of property and of personal security were understood and established. The law of the strongest might still interfere with individual ownership; the weakest went to the wall; authority, whether exercised by one master or by the combined government of the many, was resisted, and this resistance constituted crime. As civilization spread and the bulk of the population settled into orderliness, society, for its own comfort, convenience and protection, would not tolerate the infraction of its rules, and rising against all law-breakers decreed reprisals against them as the common enemy. Then began that constant warfare between criminals and the forces of law and order which has been continuously waged through the centuries with varying degrees of bitterness.

The combat with crime was long waged with great cruelty. Extreme penalties were thought to constitute the best deterrent, and the principle of vengeance chiefly inspired the penal law. The harshness of ancient codes makes a more humane age shudder. It was the custom to hang or decapitate, or otherwise take life in some more or less barbarous fashion, on the smallest excuse. The final act was preceded by hideous torture. It was performed with the utmost barbarity. Victims were put to death by breaking on the wheel, burning at the stake, by dismemberment and flaying or boiling alive. These were the aggravations of the original idea of riddance, of checking crime by the absolute removal of the offender. Only slowly and gradually milder methods came into force. Revenge and retaliation were no longer the chief aims, the law had a larger mission than to coerce the criminal and force him by severity to mend his ways. To withdraw him for a lengthened period from the sphere of his baneful activity was something; to subject him to more or less irksome processes, to solitary confinement upon short diet, deprived of all the solaces of life, with severe labour, were sharp lessons limited in effect to those actually subjected to them, but too remote to deter the outside crowd of potential wrongdoers. The higher duty of the administrator is to utilize the period of detention by labouring to reform the criminal subjects and send them out from gaol reformed characters. If no very remarkable success has been achieved in this direction, it is obviously the right aim, and it is being more and more steadfastly pursued. But it is generally accepted in principle that to eradicate criminal proclivities and cut off recruits from the permanent army of crime the work must be undertaken when the subject is of an age susceptible of reform; hence the extreme value attaching to the more enlightened treatment of crime in embryo, a principle becoming more and more largely accepted in practice among civilized nations.

It may safely be asserted that the germ of crime is universally present in mankind, ever ready to show under conditions favourable to its growth. Children show criminal tendencies in their earliest years. They exhibit evil traits, anger, resentment, mendacity; they are often intensely selfish, are strongly acquisitive, greedy of gain, ready to steal and secrete things at the first opportunity. Happily the fatal consequences that would otherwise be inevitable are checked by the gradual growth of inhibitory processes, such as prudence, reflection, a sense of moral duty, and in many cases the absence of temptation. From this Dr Nicholson deduces that "in proportion as this development is prevented or stifled, either owing to an original brain defect or by lack of proper education or training, so there is the risk of the individual lapsing into criminal-mindedness or into actual crime." In the lowest strata of society this risk is largely increased from the conditions of life. The growth of criminals is greatly stimulated where people are badly fed, morally and physically unhealthy, infected with any forms of disease and vice. In such circumstances, moreover, there is too often the evil influence of heredity and example. The offspring of criminals are constantly impelled to follow in their parents' footsteps by the secret springs of nature and pressure of childish imitativeness. The seed is thrown, so to speak, into a hot-bed where it finds congenial soil in which to take root and flourish.

Wherever crime shows itself it follows certain well-defined lines and has its genesis in three dominant mental processes, the result of marked propensities. These are malice, acquisitiveness and lust. Malicious crimes may be amplified into offences against the person originating in hatred, resentment, violent temper, and rising from mere assaults into manslaughter and murder. Crimes of greed and acquisitiveness cover the whole range of thefts, frauds and misappropriation; of larcenies of all sorts; obtaining by false pretences; receiving stolen goods; robberies; house-breaking, burglary, forgery and coining. Crimes of lust embrace the whole range of illicit sexual relations, the result of ungovernable passion and criminal depravity. The proportions in which these three categories are manifested have been worked out in England and Wales to give the following figures. The percentage in any 100,000 of the population is:--

Crimes of malice 15%
Crimes of greed 75%
Crimes of lust 10%

The members of these categories do not form distinct classes; their crimes are interdependent and constantly overlap. Crime in many is progressive and passes through all the stages from minor offences to the worst crimes. Murder--the culminating point of malice--is constantly preceded by petty larceny; theft by forcible entry; and robbery is associated with violence and armed resistance to capture. Criminality rising into its highest development shows itself under many forms. It is instinctive, passionate, accidental, deliberate and habitual, the outcome of abnormal appetite, of weak and disordered moral sense. The causation of crime varies, but a predominating motive is idleness, leading to the predatory instincts of gain easily acquired without the labour of continuous effort. To deprive the more industrious or more happily placed of their hard-won earnings or possessions, inspires the bulk of modern serious crime. It no doubt has produced one peculiar feature in modern crime: the extensive scale on which it is carried out. The greatest frauds are now commonly perpetrated; great robberies are planned in one capital and executed in another. The whole is worked by wide associations of cosmopolitan criminals.

Other features of modern crime are especially interesting. It is extraordinarily precocious. Children of quite tender years commit murders, and boys and girls are frequently to be met with as professional thieves. Again, the comparative proportions of crime in the two sexes may be considered. Everywhere women are less criminal than men. Naturally they have fewer facilities for committing crimes of violence, although they have offences peculiar to their sex, such as infanticide, and are more frequently guilty of poisoning than men by 70% against 30%. Statistics presented to the Prison Congress at Stockholm fix the percentage of female criminals at 3% in Japan, the East generally, South America and some parts of North America. In some states of the American Union it is 10%; in China, 20%; in Europe generally it varies between 10% and 21%. In France the proportion of accused women is fifteen to eighty-five men. In Great Britain it is now one in four, but has been less. The total sentenced in 1905-1906 to penal servitude and imprisonment was 139,389 men and 44,294 women, the balance being made up by summary convictions. The curious fact in female crime is that one-seventh of the women committed to prison had already been convicted from eleven to twenty times. It has been well said from the above proportions that women are less criminal according to the figures, because when a woman wants a crime committed she can generally find a man to do it for her.

It has often been debated whether or not prison methods react upon the criminality of the country; whether, in other words, severity of treatment _deters_, while milder methods encourage the wrongdoers to despise the penalties imposed by the law. Evidence for and against the verdict may be drawn from the whole civilized world. In England, as judged by the increase or decrease of the prison population, it might be supposed that the prison system was at one time effective in diminishing crime. Between 1878 and 1891 there was a steady decrease in numbers because of it. More recently there has been an appreciable increase in the number of crimes and proportionately of those imprisoned. The figures for 1906 showed a distinct increase in criminality for that year as compared with the years immediately preceding. The proportion of indictable offences had increased in 1906 from 59,079 as against 50,494 in 1899, or in the proportion of 171.01 per 100,000 of the population as against 158.97, a very marked increase over earlier years. Nevertheless the figures for 1906, although high, are by no means the highest, as on eight occasions during the fifty odd years for which statistics were available in 1909 the total crimes exceeded 60,000, and in the quinquennial period 1860-1864 the annual average was 280 per 100,000 as compared with 171.01 for 1906 and 175 for the quinquennial period 1902-1906. The quality of the crime varied, and while offences against property have increased, those against the person have constantly fallen. Quite half the whole number of crimes were committed by old offenders (see RECIDIVISM).

Statistics have not been kept with the same care in all other countries, but some authentic figures may be quoted for France, where the number of thefts increased while offences against the person diminished. In Belgium there has been a satisfactory decrease in recent years. In Prussia the prison population has on the whole increased, but there has been a slight diminution in more serious crime. Some very noticeable figures are forthcoming from the United States, and comparison is possible of the relative amount of crime in the two countries, America and England. Here the want of statistics covering a large period is much to be regretted. On the general question serious crime in the ten years between 1880 and 1890 slightly increased, while petty crime was very considerably less during the period. Charges for homicide have been much more numerous. There were in 1880, 4608, or a ratio of 9.1 to 100,000 of the population; but in 1890 these offences rose to 7351, or a ratio of 11.7. Comparing America with England, it has been calculated in round numbers that the proportion of prisoners to the general population was in the United States as 1 to every 759, and in England 1 to every 1764 persons. As regards the more serious crimes the number in English convict prisons was as 1 to 10,000, and in the American state prisons (the corresponding institutions) the ratio was 1 to every 1358. In the lesser prisons, i.e. the English local prisons and the American city or county gaols, the numbers more nearly approximate, being in England 1 to 2143 and in America 1 to 1721. It has been argued that much of the crime in America is attributable to the preponderance of foreign immigrants, but the ratio of native born prisoners is that of 1237 to the million, of foreign born prisoners 1777 to the million.

AUTHORITIES.--A. MacDonald, _Criminology_ (New York, 1893); A. Drahms,
_The Criminal_ (New York, 1900); E. Ferri, _La Sociologie criminelle_,
trans. Ferrier (Paris, 1905); all these contain extensive
bibliographies. See also under CRIMINOLOGY. (A. G.)

CRIMEA (ancient _Tauris_ or Tauric Chersonese, called by the Russians by the Tatar name _Krym_ or _Crim_), a peninsula on the north side of the Black Sea, forming part of the Russian government of Taurida, with the mainland of which it is connected by the Isthmus of Perekop (3-4 m. across). It is rudely rhomboid in shape, the angles being directed towards the cardinal points, and measures 200 m. between 44 deg. 23' and 46 deg. 10' N., and 110 m. between 32 deg. 30' and 36 deg. 40' E. Its area is 9700 sq. m.

Its coasts are washed by the Black Sea, except on the north-east, where is the Sivash or Putrid Sea, a shallow lagoon separated from the Sea of Azov by the Arabat spit of sand. The shores are broken by several bays and harbours--on the west side of the Isthmus of Perekop by the Bay of Karkinit; on the south-west by the open Bay of Kalamita, on the shores of which the allies landed in 1854, with the ports of Eupatoria, Sevastopol and Balaklava; by the Bay of Arabat on the north side of the Isthmus of Yenikale or Kerch; and by the Bay of Kaffa or Feodosiya (Theodosia), with the port of that name, on the south side of the same. The south-east coast is flanked at a distance of 5 to 8 m. from the sea by a parallel range of mountains, the Yaila-dagh, or Alpine Meadow mountains, and these are backed, inland, by secondary parallel ranges; but 75% of the remaining area consists of high arid prairie lands, a southward continuation of the Pontic steppes, which slope gently north-westwards from the foot of the Yaila-dagh. The main range of these mountains shoots up with extraordinary abruptness from the deep floor of the Black Sea to an altitude of 2000 to 2500 ft., beginning at the south-west extremity of the peninsula, Cape Fiolente (anc. _Parthenium_), supposed to have been crowned by the temple of Artemis in which Iphigeneia officiated as priestess. On the higher parts of this range are numerous flat mountain pastures (Turk, _yailas_), which, except for their scantier vegetation, are analogous to the _almen_ of the Swiss Alps, and are crossed by various passes (_bogaz_), of which only six are available as carriage roads. The most conspicuous summits in this range are the Demir-kapu or Kemal-egherek (5040 ft.), Roman-kosh (5060 ft.), Chatyr-dagh (5000 ft.), and Karabi-yaila (3975 ft.). The second parallel range, which reaches altitudes of 1500 to 1900 ft., likewise presents steep crags to the south-east and a gentle slope towards the north-west. In the former slope are thousands of small caverns, probably inhabited in prehistoric times; and several rivers pierce the range in picturesque gorges. A valley, 10 to 12 m. wide, separates this range from the main range, while another valley 2 to 3 m. across separates it from the third parallel range, which reaches altitudes of only 500 to 850 ft. Evidences of a fourth and still lower ridge can be traced towards the south-west.

A number of short streams, none of them anywhere navigable, leap down the flanks of the mountains by cascades in spring, e.g. the Chernaya, Belbek, Kacha and Alma, to the Black Sea, and the Salghir, with its affluent, the Kara-su, to the Sivash lagoon.

In point of climate and vegetation there exist marked differences between the open steppes and the south-eastern littoral, with the slopes of the Yaila-dagh behind it. The former, although grasses and Liliaceae grow on them in great variety and luxuriance in the early spring, become completely parched up by July and August, while the air is then filled with clouds of dust. There also high winds prevail, and snowstorms, hailstorms and frost are of common occurrence. Nevertheless this region produces wheat and barley, rye and oats, and supports numbers of cattle, sheep and horses. Parts of the steppes are, however, impregnated with salt, or studded with saline lakes; there nothing grows except the usual species of _Artemisia_ and _Salsola_. As a rule water can only be obtained from wells sunk 200 to 300 ft. deep, and artesian wells are now being bored in considerable numbers. All over the steppes are scattered numerous _kurgans_ or burial-mounds of the ancient Scythians. The picture which lies behind the sheltering screen of the Yaila-dagh is of an altogether different character. Here the narrow strip of coast and the slopes of the mountains are smothered with greenery. This Russian Riviera stretches all along the south-east coast from Cape Sarych (extreme S.) to Feodosiya (Theodosia), and is studded with summer sea-bathing resorts--Alupka, Yalta, Gursuv, Alushta, Sudak, Theodosia. Numerous Tatar villages, mosques, monasteries, palaces of the Russian imperial family and Russian nobles, and picturesque ruins of ancient Greek and medieval fortresses and other buildings cling to the acclivities and nestle amongst the underwoods of hazel and other nuts, the groves of bays, cypresses, mulberries, figs, olives and pomegranates, amongst the vineyards, the tobacco plantations, and gardens gay with all sorts of flowers; while the higher slopes of the mountains are thickly clothed with forests of oak, beech, elm, pines, firs and other Coniferae. Here have become acclimatized, and grow in the open air, such plants as magnolias, oleanders, tulip trees, bignonias, myrtles, camellias, mimosas and many tender fruit-trees. Vineyards cover over 19,000 acres, and the wine they yield (3-1/2 million gallons annually) enjoys a high reputation. Fruits of all kinds are produced in abundance. In some winters the tops of the mountains are covered with snow, but snow seldom falls to the south of them, and ice, too, is rarely seen in the same districts. The heat of summer is moderated by breezes off the sea, and the nights are cool and serene; the winters are mild and healthy. Fever and ague prevail in the lower-lying districts for a few weeks in autumn. Dense fogs occur sometimes in March, April and May, but seldom penetrate inland. The difference of climate between the different parts of the Crimea is illustrated by the following data: annual mean, at Melitopol, on the steppe N. of Perekop, 48 deg. Fahr.; at Simferopol, just within the mountains, 50 deg.; at Yalta, on the south-east coast, 56.5 deg.; the respective January means being 20 deg., 31 deg. and 39.5 deg., and the July means 74 deg., 70 deg. and 75.5 deg.. The rainfall is small all over the peninsula, the annual average on the steppes being 13.8 in., at Simferopol 17.5, and at Yalta 18 in. It varies greatly, however, from year to year; thus at Simferopol it ranges between the extremes of 7.5 and 26.4 in.

Other products of the Crimea, besides those already mentioned, are salt, porphyry and limestone, and ironstone has recently been brought to light at Kerch. Fish abound all round the coast, such as red and grey mullet, herring, mackerel, turbot, soles, plaice, whiting, bream, haddock, pilchard, a species of pike, whitebait, eels, salmon and sturgeon. Manufacturing industries are represented by shipbuilding, flour-mills, ironworks, jam and pickle factories, soap-works and tanneries. The Tatars excel in a great variety of domestic industries, especially in the working of leather, wool and metal. A railway, coming from Kharkov, crosses the peninsula from north to south, terminating at Sevastopol and sending off branch lines to Theodosia and Kerch.

The bulk of the population consist of Tatars, who, however, are racially modified by intermarriage with Greeks and other ethnic elements. The remainder of the population is made up of Russians, Germans, Karaite Jews, Greeks and a few Albanians. The total in 1897 was 853,900, of whom only 150,000 lived in the towns. Simferopol is the chief town; others of note, in addition to those already named, are Eupatoria and Bakhchisarai, the old Tatar capital.

_History._--The earliest inhabitants of whom we have any authentic traces were the Celtic Cimmerians, who were expelled by the Scythians during the 7th century B.C. A remnant, who took refuge in the mountains, became known subsequently as the Tauri. In that same century Greek colonists began to settle on the coasts, e.g. Dorians from Heraclea at Chersonesus, and Ionians from Miletus at Theodosia and Panticapaeum (also called Bosporus). Two centuries later (438 B.C.) the archon or ruler of the last-named assumed the title of king of Bosporus, a state which maintained close relations with Athens, supplying that city with wheat and other commodities. The last of these kings, Paerisades V., being hard pressed by the Scythians, put himself under the protection of Mithradates VI., king of Pontus, in 114 B.C. After the death of this latter sovereign his son Pharnaces, as a reward for assistance rendered to the Romans in their war against his father, was (63 B.C.) invested by Pompey with the kingdom of Bosporus. In 15 B.C. it was once more restored to the king of Pontus, but henceforward ranked as a tributary state of Rome. During the succeeding centuries the Crimea was overrun or occupied successively by the Goths (A.D. 250), the Huns (376), the Khazars (8th century), the Byzantine Greeks (1016), the Kipchaks (1050), and the Mongols (1237). In the 13th century the Genoese destroyed or seized the settlements which their rivals the Venetians had made on the Crimean coasts, and established themselves at Eupatoria, Cembalo (Balaklava), Soldaia (Sudak), and Kaffa (Theodosia), flourishing trading towns, which existed down to the conquest of the peninsula by the Ottoman Turks in 1475. Meanwhile the Tatars had got a firm footing in the northern and central parts of the peninsula as early as the 13th century, and after the destruction of the Golden Horde by Tamerlane they founded an independent khanate under a descendant of Jenghiz Khan, who is known as Hadji Ghirai. He and his successors reigned first at Solkhat (Eski-krym), and from the beginning of the 15th century at Bakhchi-sarai. But from 1478 they ruled as tributary princes of the Ottoman empire down to 1777, when having been defeated by Suvarov they became dependent upon Russia, and finally in 1783 the whole of the Crimea was annexed to the Russian empire. Since that date the only important phase of its history has been the Crimean War of 1854-56, which is treated of under a separate article. At various times, e.g. after the acquisition by Russia, after the Crimean War of 1854-56, and in the first years of the 20th century, the Tatars emigrated in large numbers to the Ottoman empire.

See _Antiquites du Bosphore cimmerien_ (3 vols., St Petersburg, 1854);
C. Bossoll, _The Beautiful Scenery of the Crimea_ (52 large drawings,
London, 1855-1856); P. Brunn, _Notices hist. et topogr. concernant les
colonies italiennes en Gazarie_ (St Petersburg, 1866); J. B. Telfer,
_The Crimea and Transcaucasia_ (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., 1877); F.
Remy, _Die Krim in ethnographischer, landschaftlicher und hygienischer
Beziehung_ (Leipzig, 1872); Joseph, Baron von Hammer-Purgstall,
_Geschichte der Chane der Krim unter osmanischer Herrschaft_ (Vienna,
1856); M. G. Canale, _Della Crimea e dei suoi dominatori dalle sue
origini fino al trattato di Parigi_ (3 vols., Genoa, 1855-1856); and
Sir Evelyn Wood, _The Crimea in 1854 and 1894_ (London, 1895). (See
also BOSPORUS CIMMERIUS.) (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

CRIMEAN WAR. The war of 1853-56, usually known by this name, arose from causes the discussion of which will be found under the heading TURKEY: History. When Turkey, after a period of irregular fighting, declared war on Russia in October 1853, Great Britain and France (subsequently assisted by Sardinia) intervened in the quarrel. At first this intervention was represented merely by the presence of an allied squadron in the Bosporus, but the storm of indignation aroused in Great Britain and France by the destruction of the Turkish fleet at Sinope (30th November) soon impelled these powers to more active measures. On the 27th of January 1854 they declared war on the tsar, and prepared to carry their armaments to the Danube. In this, the main, theatre of war, the Turks had hitherto proved quite capable of holding their own. The Russian commander, Prince Michael Gorchakov, had crossed the Pruth with two corps early in July 1853, and had overrun Moldavia and Wallachia without difficulty. Omar Pasha, however, disposing of superior forces, was able to check any further advance. During October, November and December the Turks won a succession of actions, of which that at Oltenitza (Nov. 4th) may be particularly mentioned, and a little later Gorchakov found himself compelled to fight at Cetatea (Tchetati) before reinforcements could come up. The defeat he sustained was for the time being decisive (6th Jan. 1854). Three months later, the Russians, now under command of the veteran Prince Paskievich, took the offensive in great force. Crossing the Danube near its mouth at Galatz and Braila, they advanced through the Dobrudja and closed upon the fortress of Silistria, which offered a strong and steady resistance, with an effect all the greater as the Turks from the side of Shumla, now supported by the leading British and French brigades at Varna, prevented a close investment. The Turks, however, avoided a decisive encounter, and the stormers stood ready in the trenches before Silistria, when the siege was suddenly raised. The decision had passed into other hands. The tsar had learned that the Austrian army of observation in Transylvania, 50,000 strong under Feldzeugmeister Hess, was about to enforce the wishes of the "Four Powers." The Russian offensive was at an end, the army hastily fell back, and on the 2nd of August 1854 the last man recrossed the Pruth. The principalities were at once occupied by Hess.