Chapter VII: Part 7

(2) The court of the Rota (_Sacra Rota Romana_) used to be the supreme ecclesiastical tribunal for civil affairs, and its decisions had great authority. This tribunal goes back at least as far as the 14th century, but its activity had been reduced as a result of the more expeditious and summary, and less costly, procedure of the Congregations. The constitution _Sapienti_ restored the Rota to existence and activity: it is now once more the ecclesiastical court of appeal for both civil and criminal cases. Pius X. also made special regulations for it, by which its ancient usages are adapted to modern circumstances. The tribunal of the Rota consists of ten judges called auditors (_uditori_), of whom the most senior is president with the title of dean. Each judge has an auxiliary; to the tribunal are attached a _promotor fiscalis_, charged with the duty of securing the due application of the law, and an official charged with the defence of marriage and ordination; there is also a clerical staff (notaries, scribes) attached to the court. Cases are judged by three auditors, who succeed each other periodically (_per turnum_) according to the order in which the cases are entered, and in exceptional cases by all the auditors (_videntibus omnibus_). Under the jurisdiction of the Rota, in addition to cases of first instance submitted to it by the pope, are such judgments of episcopal courts as are strictly speaking subject to appeal; for petitions against non-judicial decisions are referred to the Congregations. Appeal is sometimes allowed from one "turn" to another; if the second sentence of the Rota confirms the first, it is definitive; if not, a third may be obtained.

Signatura.

(3) The supreme tribunal of the papal Signatura (_Signatura Apostolica_). There were formerly two sections: the Signatura Justitiae and the Signatura Gratiae; by the constitution _Sapientis_ they were suppressed and amalgamated into one body, the Signatura Apostolica, which is the exact equivalent of other modern courts of cassation. This tribunal is composed of six cardinals, one of whom is the prefect, assisted by a prelate secretary, consultors and the necessary inferior officials. It judges cases in which auditors of the Rota are concerned, such as personal objections, but especially objections (_querelae_) lodged against sentences of the Rota, with a view to their being annulled or revised (_restitutio in integrum_).

Next come the offices, now reduced to six in number.

Chancery.

Bull.

(1) The Chancery (_Cancellaria Apostolica_), the department from which are sent out the papal letters, has for a long time drawn up only those letters written in solemn form known as bulls. The bull, so called from the leaden seal (_bulla_), is written on thick parchment; the special writing known as Lombard, which used to be used for bulls, was abolished by Leo XIII., and the leaden seal reserved for the more important letters; on the others it has been replaced by a red ink stamp bearing both the emblems represented on the leaden seal: the two heads, face to face, of St Peter and St Paul, and the name of the reigning pope. Bulls are written in the name of the pope, who styles himself "(_Pius_) _Episcopus servus servorum Dei_; (Pius), bishop, servant of the servants of God." They were formerly dated by kalends and from the era of the Incarnation, which begins on the 25th of March, but in 1908 Pius X. ordered them to be dated according to the common era. It is practically only bulls of canonization which are signed by the pope and all the cardinals present in Rome; the signature of the pope is then "(_Pius_) _Episcopus Ecclesiae catholicae_," while his ordinary signature bears only his name and number, "Pius PP. X." Ordinary bulls are signed by several officials of the chancery, and a certain number only by the cardinal at its head, who until 1908 was styled vice-chancellor, because the chancellor used formerly to be a prelate, not a cardinal; but since the constitution _Sapienti_ has been entitled chancellor. He is assisted by several officials, beginning with the regens of the chancery. To the chancery were attached the _abbreviatores de parco majori vel minori_ (see ABBREVIATORS), formerly charged with the drawing up or "extension" of bulls; they were suppressed by Pius X., and their functions transferred to the _Protonotarii apostolici participantes_ (i.e. active). Further, Pope Pius confined the functions of the chancery to the sending out of bulls under the leaden seal (_sub plumbo_), for the erection of dioceses, the provision of bishoprics and consistorial benefices, and other affairs of importance, these bulls being sent out by order of the Consistorial Congregation.

Dataria Apostolica.

(2) The Apostolic Dataria is the department dealing with matters of grace, e.g. the concession of privileges, nominations to benefices and dispensations _in foro externo_, especially matrimonial ones; but its functions have been greatly reduced by the reforms of Pius X.; the matrimonial section has been suppressed, dispensations for marriages now belonging to the Congregation for the discipline of the sacraments; the section dealing with benefices, which is the only one preserved, deals with non-consistorial benefices reserved to the Holy See; it examines the claims of the candidates, draws up and sends out the letters of collation, gives dispensations, when necessary, in matters concerning the benefices, and manages the charges (i.e. pensions to incumbents who have resigned, &c.) imposed on the benefices by the pope. It has at its head a cardinal formerly called the _pro-datarius_, the _datarius_ having formerly been a prelate; and now _datarius_, since the reform by Pius X. The cardinal is assisted by a prelate called the _sub-datarius_, and other officials.

Apostolic chamber.

(3) The Apostolic Chamber (_Reverenda Camera Apostolica_) was before the abolition of the temporal power of the papacy the ministry of finance, at once treasury and exchequer, of the popes as heads of the Catholic Church as well as sovereigns of the papal states. Although it is necessarily diminished in importance, it has retained the administration of the property of the Holy See, especially during a vacancy. At its head is the cardinal camerlengo (_Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae Cardinalis Camerarius_), who, as we know, exercises the external authority during the vacancy of the Holy See.

Secretaryship of State.

Briefs.

(4) Next come the palatine secretariates, the first and principal of which is the secretariate of state (_Secretaria status_). The cardinal secretary of state is as it were the pope's prime minister, gathering into one centre the internal administration and foreign affairs, by means of the nunciatures and delegations depending on his department. The secretary of state is the successor of what was called in the 17th century the cardinal nephew; his functions and importance have increased more and more. The secretariate of state is the department dealing with the political affairs of the Church. To it belongs the internal administration of the apostolic palaces, with the library, archives, museums, &c. In 1908 Pius X. divided the departments of the secretariate of state into three sections, under the authority of the cardinal secretary. The first is the department of extraordinary ecclesiastical affairs, having at its head the secretary of the Congregation of the same name; the second, that of ordinary affairs, directed by a substitute, is the department dealing, among other things, with the concession of honorary distinctions, both for ecclesiastics and laymen; the third is that of the briefs, which hitherto formed a separate secretariate. It is this department which sends out, at the command of the secretary of state or the various Congregations, those papal letters which are written in less solemn form, _brevi manu_, hence the word "brief." They are written in the pope's name, but he only takes the less solemn style of: "Pius PP. X." The brief is written on thin parchment, and dated by the ordinary era and the day of the month; they were formerly signed only by the cardinal secretary of briefs or his substitute, but now by the cardinal secretary of state or the head of the office, called the chancellor of Briefs (_cancellarius Brevium_). The seal is that of the fisherman's ring, hence the formula of conclusion, "_Datum Romae, sub annulo Piscatoris_." The "Fisherman's ring" is a red ink stamp representing St Peter on a boat casting out his nets, with the name of the reigning pope.

Other offices.

The reform of Pius X. maintained untouched the two offices called the secretariate of briefs to princes, and the secretariate of Latin Letters, the names of which are sufficient indication of their functions. The secretariate of memorials (_Secretaria Memorialium_), through which pass requests addressed to the pope for the purpose of obtaining certain favours, was formerly of great importance; it is now suppressed and the requests are addressed to the proper departments. Finally, the pope has his special secretary, his _auditor_, with his offices, as well as the papal almonry, the officials of which administer the papal charities.

The pontifical "family."

IV. The pontifical "family" (_familia_) forms the pope's civil court. First come the palatine cardinals, i.e. those who, on account of their office, have the right of living in the papal palaces. These were formerly four in number: the _pro-datarius_ (now _datarius_), the secretary of state, the secretary of briefs, and the secretary of the memorials; the two last of these were suppressed in 1908. Next come the four palatine prelates, the majordomo, the superintendent of the household and its staff, and successor of the ancient _vicedominus_; the master of the chamber, who presides over the arrangement of audiences; the _auditor_, or private secretary; and finally the master of the sacred palace (_magister sacri palatii_), a kind of theological adviser, always a Dominican, whose special duty is nowadays the revision of books published at Rome. Other prelates rank with the above, but in a lower degree, notably the almoner and the various secretaries. All ecclesiastics admitted, by virtue of their office or by a gracious concession of the pope, to form part of the "family," are called domestic prelates, prelates of the household; this is an honorary title conferred on many priests not resident in Rome. The external service of the palace is performed by the Swiss Guard and the _gendarmerie_; the service of the ante-chamber by the lay and ecclesiastical chamberlains; this service has also given rise to certain honorary titles both for ecclesiastics, e.g. honorary chamberlain, and for laymen, e.g. secret chamberlain (_cameriere segreto_). (See CHAMBERLAIN.)

Pontifical chapel.

V. The pontifical "chapel" (_capella_) is the papal court for purposes of religious worship. In it the pope is surrounded by the cardinals according to their order; by the patriarchs, archbishops and bishops attending at the throne, and others; by the prelates of the Curia, and by all the clergy both secular and regular. Among the prelates we should mention the protonotaries, the successors of the old notaries or officials of the papal chancery in the earliest centuries; the seven _protonotarii participantes_ were restored by Pope Pius X. to the chancery, as noted above, but they have kept important honorary privileges; this is yet another source of distinctions conferred upon a great number of priests outside of Rome, the protonotaries of different classes. In a lower degree there are also the chaplains of honour. Since 1870 the great pontifical ceremonies have lost much of their splendour.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_La Gerarchia cattolica_, an annual directory published
at Rome; Lunadoro, _Relazione della corte di Roma_ (Rome, 1765);
Moroni, _Dizionario di erudizione_, under the various headings; Card.
De Luca, _Relatio curiae romanae_ (Cologne, 1683); Bouix, _De curia
romana_ (Paris, 1859); Ferraris, _Prompta bibliotheca_ (addit.
_Cassinenses_), s.v. _Congregatio_; Grimaldi, _Les Congregations
romaines_ (Sienna, 1891); _Dictionnaire de theologie catholique_, s.v.
_Cour romaine_ (Paris, 1907); Publications of the acts of the Roman
Congregations: Bishops and regulars--Bizzarri, _Collectanea in usum
Secretariae_ (Rome, 1866, 1885). Council: the _Thesaurus resolutionum_
has published all business since 1700; a volume is issued every year,
and the contents have been published in alphabetical order by Zamboni
(4 vols., Rome, 1812; Arras, 1860) and by Pallottini (18 vols., Rome,
1868, &c.). Immunity: Ricci, _Synopsis, decreta et resolutiones_
(Palestrina, 1708). Propaganda: De Martinis, _Juris pontificii de
Propaganda Fide_, &c. (Rome, 1888, &c.); _Collectanea S. C. de Prop.
Fide_ (2nd ed., Rome, 1907). Index: _Index librorum prohibitorum_
(Rome, 1900). Rites: _Decreta authentica_ (Rome, 1898). Indulgences:
_Decreta authentica_ (Regensburg, 1882); _Rescripta authentica_ (ib.,
1885). (A. Bo.*)

CURICO, a province of central Chile, lying between the provinces of Colchagua and Talca and extending from the Pacific to the Argentine frontier; area, 2978 sq. m.; pop. (1895) 103,242. The eastern and western sections are mountainous, and are separated by the fertile valley of central Chile. The mineral resources are undeveloped, but are said to include copper, gold and silver. Cattle, wheat and wine are the principal products, but Indian corn and fruit also are produced. On the coast are important salt-producing industries. The climate is mild and the rainfall more abundant than at the northern part of the valley, and the effects of this are to be seen in the better pasturage. Irrigation is used to a large extent. The province was created in 1865 by a division of Colchagua. The capital is Curico, on the Mataquito river, in lat. 34 deg. 58' S. long. 71 deg. 19' W., 114 m. S. of Santiago by the Chilean Central railway, which crosses the province. The city stands on the great central plain, 748 ft. above sea-level, and in the midst of a comparatively well-cultivated district. It was founded in 1742 by Jose de Manso, and is one of the more cultured and progressive provincial towns of Chile. Pop. (1895) 12,669. Vichiquen, on a tide-water lake on the coast, is a prosperous town, the centre of the salt trade.

CURIE, PIERRE (1859-1906), French physicist, was born in Paris on the 15th of May 1859, and was educated at the Sorbonne, where he subsequently became professor of physics. Although he had previously published meritorious researches on piezoelectricity, the magnetic properties of bodies at different temperatures, and other topics, he was chiefly known for his work on radium carried out jointly with his wife, Marie Sklodowska, who was born at Warsaw on the 7th of November 1867. After the discovery of the radioactive properties of uranium by Henri Becquerel in 1896, it was noticed that some minerals of uranium, such as pitchblende, were more active than the element itself, and this circumstance suggested that such minerals contained small quantities of some unknown substance or substances possessing radioactive properties in a very high degree. Acting on this surmise M. and Mme Curie subjected a large amount of pitchblende to a laborious process of fractionation, with the result that in 1898 they announced the existence in it of two highly radioactive substances, polonium and radium. In subsequent years they did much to elucidate the remarkable properties of these two substances, one of which, polonium, came to be regarded as one of the transformation-products of the other (see RADIOACTIVITY). In 1903 they were awarded the Davy medal of the Royal Society in recognition of this work, and in the same year the Nobel prize for physics was divided between them and Henri Becquerel. Professor Curie, who was elected to the Academy of Sciences in 1905, was run over by a dray and killed instantly in Paris on the 19th of April 1906.

His elder brother, PAUL JACQUES CURIE, born at Paris on the 29th of October 1856, published an elaborate memoir on the specific inductive capacities of crystalline bodies (_Ann. Chim. Phys._ 1889, 17 and 18).

CURIO, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS, Roman statesman and orator, son of a distinguished orator of the same name, flourished during the 1st century B.C. He was tribune of the people in 90 B.C., and afterwards served in Sulla's army in Greece against Archelaus, general of Mithradates, and as his legate in Asia, where he was commissioned to restore order in the kingdoms abandoned by Mithradates. In 76 he was consul, and as governor of Macedonia carried on war successfully against the Thracians and Dardanians, and was the first Roman general who penetrated as far as the Danube. On his return he was granted the honour of a triumph. During the discussion as to the punishment of the Catilinarian conspirators he supported Cicero, but he spoke in favour of P. Clodius (q.v.) when the latter was being tried for the Bona Dea affair. This led to a violent attack on the part of Cicero, but it does not appear to have interfered with their friendship. Curio was a vehement opponent of Caesar, against whom he wrote a political pamphlet in the form of a dialogue. He was pontifex maximus in 57, and died in 53. His reputation as an orator was considerable, but according to Cicero he was very illiterate, and his only qualifications were brilliancy of style and the purity of his Latin. He was nicknamed Burbuleius (after an actor) from the way in which he moved his body while speaking.

Orelli, _Onomasticon_ to Cicero; Florus iii. 4; Eutropius vi. 2; Val.
Max. ix. 14, 5; Quintilian, _Instit._, vi. 3, 76; Dio Cassius xxxviii.
16.

His son, GAIUS SCRIBONIUS CURIO, was first a supporter of Pompey, but after his tribuneship (50 B.C.) went over to Caesar, by whom he was said to have been bribed. But, while breaking off relations with Pompey, Curio desired to keep up the appearance of impartiality. When it was demanded that Caesar should lay down his imperium before entering Rome, Curio proposed that Pompey should do the same, adding that, if the rivals refused to do so, they ought both to be declared public enemies. His proposal was carried by a large majority, but a report having spread that Caesar was on the way to attack Rome, the consuls called upon Pompey to undertake the command of all the troops stationed in Italy. Curio's appeal to the people to prevent the levying of an army by Pompey was disregarded; whereupon, feeling himself in danger, he fled to Ravenna to Caesar. He was commissioned by Caesar, who was still unwilling to proceed to extremities, to take a message to the senate. But Curio's reception was so hostile that he hurriedly returned during the night to Caesar. It was now obvious that civil war would break out. Curio collected troops in Umbria and Etruria for Caesar, who sent him to Sicily as propraetor in 49. After having fought with considerable success there against the Pompeians, Curio crossed over to Africa, where he was defeated and slain by Juba, king of Numidia. Curio, although a man of profligate character, possessed conspicuous ability, and was a distinguished orator. In spite of his faults, Cicero, as an old friend of his father, took a great interest in him and did his utmost to reform him. Seven of Cicero's letters (_Ad. Fam._ ii. 1-7) are addressed to him. There can be no doubt that Curio's behaviour in regard to the laying down of the imperium by Caesar and Pompey in great measure contributed to the outbreak of civil war. The first amphitheatre in Rome was erected by him (50), for the celebration of the funeral games in honour of his father.

Orelli, _Onomasticon_ to Cicero; Livy, _Epit._ 109, 110; Caesar,
_Bell. Civ._, ii. 23, for Curio's African campaign; Appian, _Bell.
Civ._, ii. 26-44; Vell. Pat. ii. 48.

CURITYBA (also CORITYBA and CURITIBA), capital of the state of Parana, Brazil, situated on an elevated plateau (2916 ft. above sea-level) 68 m. W. of its seaport Paranagua, with which it is connected by a railway remarkable for the engineering difficulties overcome and for the beautiful scenery through which it passes. Pop. (1890) 22,694; of the municipality, 24,553. There is a large foreign element in the population, the Germans preponderating. The city has a temperate, healthy climate, and is surrounded by a charming _campo_ country, which, however, is less fertile than the forested river valleys. Mate is the principal export.

CURLEW (Fr. _Courlis_ or _Corlieu_), a name given to two birds, of whose cry it is an imitation, both belonging to the group _Limicolae_, but possessing very different habits and features.

1. The long-billed curlew, or simply curlew of most British writers, the _Numenius arquata_ of ornithologists, is one of the largest of the family _Scolopacidae_, or snipes and allied forms. It is common on the shores of the United Kingdom and most parts of Europe, seeking the heaths and moors of the interior and more northern countries in the breeding-season, where it lays its four brownish-green eggs, suffused with cinnamon markings, in an artless nest on the ground. In England it has been ascertained to breed in Cornwall and in the counties of Devon, Dorset, Salop, and Derby--though sparingly. In Yorkshire it is more numerous, and thence to the extreme north of Scotland, as well as throughout Ireland, it is, under the name of whaup, familiar to those who have occasion to traverse the wild and desolate tracts that best suit its habits. So soon as the young are able to shift for themselves, both they and their parents resort to the sea-shore or mouths of rivers, from the muddy flats of which they at low tide obtain their living, and, though almost beyond any other birds wary of approach, form an object of pursuit to numerous gunners. While leading this littoral life the food of the curlew seems to consist of almost anything edible that presents itself. It industriously probes the mud or sand in quest of the worms that lurk therein, and is also active in seeking for such crustaceans and molluscs as can be picked up on the surface, while vegetable matter as well has been found in its stomach. During its summer-sojourn on the moorlands insects and berries, when they are ripe, enter largely into its diet. In bulk the curlew is not less than a crow, but it looks larger still from its long legs, wings and neck. Its bill, from 5 to 7 in. in length, and terminating in the delicate nervous apparatus common to all birds of its family, is especially its most remarkable feature. Its plumage above is of a drab colour, streaked and mottled with very dark brown; beneath it is white, while the flight-quills are of a brownish black.

Nearly allied to the curlew, but smaller and with a more northern range, is the whimbrel (_N. phaeopus_), called in some parts jack-curlew, from its small size; May-fowl, from the month in which it usually arrives; and titterel, from one of its cries.[1] This so much resembles the former in habit and appearance that no further details need be given of it. In the countries bordering on the Mediterranean occurs a third species (_N. tenuirostris_). Some fifteen other species, or more, have been described, but it is probable that this number is too great. The genus _Numenius_ is almost cosmopolitan. In North America three very easily recognized species are found--the first (_N. longirostris_) closely agreeing with the European curlew, but larger and with a longer bill; the second (_N. hudsonicus_) representing the British whimbrel; and the third (_N. borealis_), which has several times found its way to Britain, very much less in size--indeed the smallest of the genus. All these essentially agree with the species of the Old World in habit; but it is remarkable that the American birds can be easily distinguished by the rufous colouring of their axillary feathers--a feature which is also presented by the American godwits (_Limosa_).

2. The curlew of inlanders, or stone-curlew--called also, by some writers, from its stronghold in England, the Norfolk plover, and sometimes the thick-knee--is usually classed among the _Charadriidae_, but it offers several remarkable differences from the more normal plovers. It is the _Charadrius oedicnemus_ of Linnaeus, the _C. scolopax_ of Sam. Gottl. Gmelin, and the _Oedicnemus crepitans_ of K. J. Temminck. With much the same cry as that of the _Numenii_, only uttered in a far sweeter tone, it is as fully entitled to the name of curlew as the bird most commonly so called. In England it is almost solely a summer visitor, though an example will occasionally linger throughout a mild winter; and is one of the few birds whose distribution is affected by geological formation, since it is nearly limited to the chalk-country--the open spaces of which it haunts, and its numbers have of late years been sensibly diminished by their inclosure. The most barren spots in these districts, even where but a superficial coating of light sand and a thin growth of turf scarcely hide the chalk below, supply its needs; though at night (and it chiefly feeds by night) it resorts to moister and more fertile places. Its food consists of snails, coleopterous insects, and earth-worms, but larger prey, as a mouse or a frog, is not rejected. Without making the slightest attempt at a nest, it lays its two eggs on a level spot, a bare fallow being often chosen. These are not very large, and in colour so closely resemble the sandy, flint-strewn surface that their detection except by a practised eye is difficult. The bird, too, trusts much to its own drab colouring to elude observation, and, on being disturbed, will frequently run for a considerable distance and then squat with outstretched neck so as to become almost invisible. In such a case it may be closely approached, and its large golden eye, if it do not pass for a tuft of yellow lichen, is perhaps the first thing that strikes the searcher. As autumn advances the stone-curlew gathers in large flocks, and then is as wary as its namesake. Towards October these take their departure, and their survivors return, often with wonderful constancy, to their beloved haunts. In size this species exceeds any other European plover, and looks even still larger than it is. The bill is short, blunt, and stout; the head large, broad, and flat at the top; the wings and legs long--the latter presenting the peculiarity of a singular enlargement of the upper part of the tarsus, whence the names _Oedicnemus_ and Thick-knee have been conferred. The toes are short and fleshy, and the hind-toe is wanting. This bird seems to have been an especial favourite with Gilbert White, in whose classical writings mention of it is often made. Its range extends to North Africa and India. Five other species of _Oedicnemus_ from Africa have also been described as distinct. Australia possesses a very distinct species (_O. grallarius_), and the genus has two members in the Neotropical Region (_O. bistriatus_ and _O. superciliaris_). An exaggerated form of _Oedicnemus_ is found in _Aesacus_, of which two species have been described, one (_A. recurvirostris_) from the Indian, and the other (_A. magnirostris_) from the northern parts of the Australian region. (A. N.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The name spowe (cf. Icelandic _Spoi_) also seems to have been
anciently given to this bird (see Stevenson's _Birds of Norfolk_, ii.
201).

CURLING, THOMAS BLIZARD (1811-1888), British surgeon, was born in London in 1811. Through his uncle, Sir William Blizard, he became assistant-surgeon to the London hospital in 1833, becoming full surgeon in 1849. After filling other important posts in the College of Surgeons, he was appointed president in 1873. In 1843 he won the Jacksonian prize for his investigations on tetanus; and he became famous for his skill in treating diseases of the testes and rectum, his published works on which went through many editions. He died on the 4th of March 1888.

CURLING, a game in which the players throw large rounded stones upon a rink or channel of ice, towards a mark called the tee. Where the game originated is not precisely known; but it has been popular in Scotland for three centuries at least. Some writers, looking to the name and technical terms of the game, trace its invention to the Netherlands; thus "curl" may have been derived from the Ger. _kurzweil_, a game; "tee" from the Teutonic _tighen_, to point out; "bonspiel," a district curling competition, from the Belgic _bonne_, a district, and _spel_, play; the further supposition that "rink" is merely a modification of the Saxon _hrink_, a strong man, seems scarcely tenable. Curling is called "kuting" in some parts of Lanarkshire and Ayrshire, and very much resembles quoiting on the ice, so that the name may have some connexion with the Dutch _coete_, a quoit; while Cornelis Kiliaan (1528-1607) in his _Teutonic Dictionary_ gives the term _khuyten_ as meaning a pastime in which large globes of stone like the quoit or discus are thrown upon ice. Possibly some of the Flemish merchants who settled in Scotland towards the close of the 16th century may have brought the game to the country. Unfortunately, however, for the theory that assigns to it a far-away origin, we find no early mention of it in the literature of the continent; while Camden, when describing the Orkney Islands in 1607, tells us that one of them supplies "plenty of excellent stones for the game called curling"; and incidental references to it as a game played in Scotland are made by several authors during the first half of the same century.

If the game be not indigenous to Scotland it certainly owes its development to that country, and in the course of time it has come to be the national sport. It was played at first with very rude engines--random whin boulders fashioned by nature alone, or misshapen granite blocks, bored through to let in the thumb of the player, having been the primitive channel stones. In course of years the rough block was superseded by a symmetrical object usually made of whinstone or granite, beautifully rounded, brilliantly polished, and supplied with a convenient handle.

Although curling boasts a literature of its own and songs innumerable, yet it has received but the scantiest notice from such important Scottish writers as Scott and Burns, or from contemporary literature in general. In 1834 an "Amateur Curling Club of Scotland" was formed, but this "mutual admiration amateur society came to nothing, as might be expected." Far more businesslike were the methods of the men who set afoot the "Grand Caledonian Curling Club," which began its existence on the 15th of November 1838, and which, under its present title of "The Royal Caledonian Curling Club," is regarded in all parts of the world as the mother-club and legislative body, even in Canada, where, however, curling conditions differ widely from those of Scotland; devotion to the mother-club does not by any means imply submission. Starting with 28 allied clubs the Royal Club grew so rapidly that there were 500 such in 1880 and 720 in 1903. It was under the auspices of the Royal Caledonian that a body of Scottish curlers visited Canada and the United States in the winter of 1902-1903, and, while a slight margin of victory remained with the home players under their own climatic conditions, the visit did much to bring together the lovers of the game on both sides of the Atlantic. The assumption of the title "Royal" in place of "Grand" was due to the visit of Queen Victoria and the prince consort to Scotland in 1842, on which occasion they were initiated into the mysteries of the game on the polished floor of the drawing-room in the Palace of Scone; and the prince consort, who was presented with a pair of curling-stones, consented to become patron of the club. On his death he was succeeded by the prince of Wales, who, as Edward VII., still continued his patronage. The Club's main duties are to further the interests of the game, to revise the laws and to arrange the important matches, especially the grand match, played annually between the Scottish clubs north of the Forth & Clyde Canal and those south of it. In the first of these matches (1847) only twelve "rinks" were played; in 1903 there were no fewer than 286. During this time the southern clubs were usually victorious. Curlers claim to be a united brotherhood within which peer and peasant are equal "on the ice." To the same end the laws of the club are framed with a due regard to economy, not forgetting conviviality in the matter of "beef and greens," the curler's traditional dish, washed down with whisky. A formal freemasonry exists among curlers, who must be initiated into the mysteries and instructed in the grip, password and ceremony, being liable at any moment to be examined in these essentials and fined for lapses of memory. Betting, excepting for the smallest stakes, is discountenanced.

_Glossary._--As curling has a language which contains many curious
terms, puzzling to the uninitiated, the English equivalents of some of
them are here given. _Baugh ice_, rough or soft ice. _Bias_, a slope
on the ice. _Boardhead_ (also house or parish), the large circle round
the tee. _Bonspiel_, a match between two clubs. _Break an egg on a
stone_, touch it very slightly. _Broughs_, the small circles round the
tee. _Chipping_, striking a stone of which a small part can be seen.
_Core_, old name for rink. _Cowe_ or _kowe_, a besom made of
broom-twigs. _Draw_, to play gently. _Drive_, to play hard. _Drug
ice_, soft bad ice. _Fill the port_, to block the interval between two
stones. _Gogsee_, tee. _Guard_, a stone that covers and protects
another. _Hack_, a hollow cut in the ice for the player's foot, used
in place of a crampit. _Hands up!_ stop sweeping. _Hog_, a stone that
stops short of the _hog-score_, a line drawn one-sixth of the length
of the rink from the tee. _Head_, an innings, both sides delivering
all their stones once. _Howe_, the middle of the rink, gradually
hollowed by stones. _In-ringing_, gaining a good position by
rebounding off another stone. _In-wick_, the same. _Lie shot_, the
stone resting nearest the tee. _Mar_, to interfere with a stone while
running. _Out-Turn_, to make the stone twist to the left. _In-Turn_,
to make one turn to the right. _Out-wick_, to strike a stone on the
edge so as to drive it towards the tee. _Pat-lid_, a stone that lies
on the tee. _Pittycock_, the oldest form of curling-stone. _Raise_, to
drive a "friendly" stone nearer the tee. _Rebut_, to deliver the stone
with great force, so as to scatter the stones on the boardhead. _Red
the ice_, clear away the opponents' stones. _Rink_, the space in which
the game is played; also the members of a side. _Sole_, the under part
of the stone; also to deliver the stone. _Soop_, to sweep. _Souter_,
to win without allowing the opponents to score at all; a term derived
from a famous team of cobblers (souters) of Lochmaben, whose opponents
seldom or never scored a point. _Spiel_, a match between members of
the same club. _Spend the stone_, to waste a shot by playing wide
intentionally. _Stug_, a fluke. _Tee_, the mark in the centre of the
boardhead, against which it is the curler's object to lay the stone.
The tee may be any kind of a mark; a small iron plate with a spike in
it is often used. _Tozee_, tee. _Tramp_, _crampit_, _trigger_ or
_tricker_, an iron plate fitted with spikes which the player stands
upon to deliver the stone. _Wittyr_, tee.

_The Rink and Implements._--The rink is marked out in the ice, which should be very hard and smooth, in curling language "keen and clear." To keep it swept every curler carries a broom, sometimes a mere bundle of broom-twigs, more often an ordinary housemaid's broom. Good "sooping," or sweeping, is part of the curler's art, and is performed subject to strict rules and under the direction of the skip, or captain; its importance lying in the fact that the progress of a stone is retarded by the ice-dust caused by the play, the sweeping of which in front of a running stone consequently prolongs its course. Apart from the broom and the crampit, the "roarin' game," as curlers love to call it, requires no further implement than the stone, a flattened, polished disk, fitted with a handle. In weight it must not exceed 44 lb., 35 to 40 lb. being usual. It must not exceed 36 in. in circumference or be less in height than one-eighth of the circumference. The two flat sides, or soles, are so shaped that one is serviceable for keen ice and the other for ice that is soft, rough or "baugh." The handle can be fitted to either side, as the case demands. The cost of a pair of stones is not less than L2, generally more. In the intense cold of Canada and the United States iron is found more serviceable than stone, and the irons weigh from 60 to 70 lb. Even these are light compared with the earlier rough boulder-stones, some of which weighed over 115 lb., although the very early ones were much lighter. The modern stone took shape at the beginning of the 19th century. The ancient stones had no handles, but notches were hewn in them for finger and thumb, and, as their weight varied from 5 to 25 lb., it is probable that they were thrown after the manner of quoits. Channel-stones, stones rounded by the action of water in a river-bed, were the favourites, while the shape was a matter of individual taste, oblong and triangular stones having been common. The soles were artificially flattened. During the next period we find the heavy boulder-stones, unhewn blocks fitted with handles and probably used at shorter distances, 70 or 80 lb. being no uncommon weight. The rounded stone, made on scientific principles, did not appear until about 1800. Even then it was of all shapes and sizes, with and without handles, and not uncommonly made of wood. The stones of to-day are named after the places in which they are quarried, Ailsa Craigs, Burnocks, Carsphairn Reds and Crawfordjohns being some of the best-known varieties. The stones are quarried and never blasted, as the shock of the explosion is apt to strain or split the rock.

_The Game._--Curling is practically bowls played on the ice, the place of the "jack" being taken by a fixed mark, as at quoits, called the tee, to which the curler aims his stone; every stone that finally lies nearer than any of the opposing stones counting a point or "shot." As each side has four players, each playing two stones, it is possible for one side to score eight points at a "head" or innings; but in practice it is found wiser, when a good shot has been made, to play some or all following stones to such positions as will prevent opposing stones from disturbing the stone lying near the tee. Stones thus placed are called "guards." Strategic matters like this are decided by the skip, or captain, of the rink, who plays last, and who is an autocrat whose will is law. The "lead," or first player, is expected to play quietly up the rink, leaving his stone as close to the tee as possible, but on no account beyond it. He is followed by the "lead" of the other side, who, instructed by his skip, will either try to drive away the first stone, if well placed, or put his own stone in a better position. When the skip's turn comes he is "skipped," or directed, by another player, appointed by himself, usually the third player. When all sixteen stones have been delivered the players cross over, the scores are counted, and the game proceeds from the other end of the rink. If a stone fails to cross the "hog-score" it is a "hog" and is removed from the rink, unless it has struck another stone in position. Stones that pass the back-score or touch the swept snow on either side are also removed. By a cleverly imparted twist a stone may be made to curve round a guard and either drive away an opposing winner or find a favourable lie for itself. This, the equivalent of "bias" in the game of bowls, is the height of scientific play. If the situation seems desperate a very hard throw, a "thunderin' cast," may succeed in clearing away the opponents' stones from the neighbourhood of the tee. Different methods are adopted in delivering the stone, but in all of them a firm stand should be taken on the crampit, and the stone swung, either quietly, or, if the skip calls for a "thunderin' cast," vigorously; but care must be taken to avoid striking the ice with the stone so as to crack or "star" the ice. All matches are for a certain number of "heads" or of points, or for all that can be made within a certain time limit, as may be agreed.

_Abridged Rules._--Tees shall be 38 yds. apart, and with the tee as
centre a circle having a radius of 7 ft. shall be drawn. In alignment
with the tees, lines, to be called Central Lines, are drawn from the
tees to points 4 yds. behind each tee, and at these points Foot Scores
18 in. long shall be drawn at right angles, on which, at 6 in. from
Central Line, the heel of the Crampit shall be placed. All matches
shall be of a certain number of heads, or shots, or by time, as
agreed. Every rink of players shall be composed of four a side. No
shoes likely to break the ice may be worn.

The skips opposing each other shall settle by lot, or in any other way
they may agree upon, which party shall lead at the first head, after
which the winning party shall do so.

All curling stones shall be of a circular shape. No stone shall be of
a greater weight than 44 lb. imperial, or of greater circumference
than 36 in., or of less height than one-eighth part of its greatest
circumference.

No stone, or side of a stone, shall be changed after a match has been
begun, or during its continuance, unless by consent.

Should a stone happen to be broken, the largest fragment shall be
considered in the game for that end--the player being entitled
afterwards to use another stone or another pair.

If a played stone rolls over, or stops, on its side or top, it shall
be put off the ice. Should the handle quit the stone in delivery, the
player must keep hold of it, otherwise he shall not be entitled to
replay the shot.

Players, during the course of each end, to be arranged along the sides
of the rink, anywhere skips may direct; and no party, except when
sweeping according to rule, shall go upon the middle of the rink, or
cross it, under any pretence whatever. Skips alone to stand at or
about the tee--that of the playing party having the choice of place,
and not to be obstructed by the other.

If a player should play out of turn, the stone so played may be
stopped in its progress, and returned to the player. Should the
mistake not be discovered till the stone be at rest, or has struck
another stone, the opposite skip shall have the option of adding one
to his score, allowing the game to proceed, or declaring the end null
and void. But if a stone be played before the mistake has been
discovered, the head must be finished as if it had been properly
played from the beginning.

The sweeping shall be under the direction and control of the skips.
The player's party may sweep the ice anywhere from the centre line to
the tee, and behind it,--the adverse party having liberty to sweep
behind the tee, and in front of any of their own stones when moved by
another, and till at rest. Skips to have full liberty to clean and
sweep the ice behind the tee at any time, except when a player is
being directed by his skip.

If in sweeping or otherwise, a _running_ stone be marred by any of the
party to which it belongs, it may, at the option of the opposite skip,
be put off the ice; if by any of the adverse party, it may be placed
where the skip of the party to which it belongs shall direct. If
otherwise marred, it shall be replayed.

Every player to be ready to play when his turn comes, and not to take
more than a reasonable time to play. Should he play a wrong stone, any
of the players may stop it while running; but if not stopped till at
rest, the one which ought to have been played shall be placed instead,
to the satisfaction of the opposing skip.

No measuring of shots allowable previous to the termination of the
end. Disputed shots to be determined by the skips, or, if they
disagree, by the umpire, or, when there is no umpire, by some neutral
person chosen by the skips. All measurements to be taken from the
centre of the tee, to that part of the stone which is nearest it. No
stone shall be considered without a circle, or over a line, unless it
clear it;--and in every case, this is to be determined by placing a
square on the ice, at the circle or line.

Skips shall have the exclusive regulation and direction of the game
for their respective parties, and may play last stone, or in what part
of it they please; and, when their turn to play comes, they may name
one of their party to take charge for them.

If any player shall speak to, taunt or interrupt another, not being of
his own party, while in the act of delivering his stone, one shot
shall be added to the score of the party so interrupted.

If from any change of weather after a match has been begun, or from
any other reasonable cause, one party shall desire to shorten the
rink, or to change to another one, and, if the two skips cannot agree,
the umpire shall, after seeing one end played, determine whether the
rink shall be shortened, and how much or whether it shall be changed,
and his decision shall be final.

See _Annual_ of the Royal Caledonian Curling Club, Edinburgh.

CURLL, EDMUND (1675-1747), English bookseller, was born in 1675 in the west of England. His parents were in humble circumstances. After being apprenticed to an Exeter bookseller he came to London and started business on his own account, advertising himself by a system of newspaper quarrels. His connexion with the anonymously-published _Court Poems_ in 1716 led to the long quarrel with Pope, who took his revenge by immortalizing Curll in the _Dunciad_. Curll became notorious for his indecent publications, so much so that "Curlicism" was regarded as a synonym for literary indecency. In 1716 and again in 1721 he had to appear at the bar of the House of Lords for publishing matter concerning its members. In 1725 he was convicted of publishing obscene books, and fined in 1728 for publishing _The Nun in her Smock_ and _De Usu Flagrorum_, while his _Memories of John Ker of Kersland_ cost him an hour in the pillory. When Curll in 1735 announced the forthcoming publication of "_Mr Pope's Literary Correspondence_," his stock, at Pope's instigation, was seized. It has since been proved that the publication was really instigated by Pope, who wanted an excuse to print his letters, as he actually did (1737-1741). In his forty years of business Curll published a great variety of books, of which a very large number, fortunately, were quite free from "Curlicisms." A list of his publications contains, indeed, 167 standard works. He died on the 11th of December 1747.

For Curll's relations with Pope, see the _Life of Pope_, by Sir Leslie
Stephen in the English Men of Letters series.

CURRAGH, a level stretch of open ground in Co. Kildare, Ireland, famous for its race-course and its military camp. It has an area of upwards of 4800 acres; and its soft natural sward, which has never been broken by the plough, affords excellent pasture for sheep. From the peculiarity of its herbage, the district is known in the neighbourhood as "the short grass"; and the young men of Kildare are jocularly distinguished as the "boys of the short grass." The land is the property of the crown, which appoints a special officer as the ranger of the Curragh; but the right of pasturage is possessed by the landowners of the vicinity. The oldest mention of the Curragh occurs in the _Liber Hymnorum_ (the manuscript of which probably dates from the 10th century) in connexion with St Bridget, who is said to have received a grant of the district from the king of Leinster, and is popularly credited with the honour of having turned it into a common. It is evident, however, that long before the days of the saint the downs of Kildare had afforded a regular place of assembly for the people of the south of Ireland. The word _cuirrech_, cognate with the Lat. _cursus_, signifies a race-course, and chariot-races are spoken of as taking place on the Curragh as early as the 1st century A.D. The _Aenach Colmain_ (Curragh fair), also called _Aenach Life_ (the fair on the plain of the Liffey), is frequently mentioned in the Irish annals, and both racing and other sports were carried on at this, the principal meeting of its kind in southern Ireland, and the plain appears from time to time as the scene of hostile encounters between the kings of Meath, Leinster and Offaly. In 1234 the earl of Pembroke was defeated here by the viceroy of Ireland, Lord Geoffrey de Monte Marisco; and in 1406 the Irish under the prior of Connell were routed by the English. In 1789 the Curragh was the great rendezvous for the volunteers, and in 1804 it saw the gathering of 30,000 United Irishmen. The camp was established at the time of the Crimean War, and is capable of accommodating 12,000 men. The races are held in April, June, September and October.

See W. M. Hennessy, in _Proceedings of Royal Irish Acad._, 1866.

CURRAN, JOHN PHILPOT (1750-1817), Irish politician and judge, was born on the 24th of July 1750, at Newmarket, Cork, where his father, a descendant of one of Cromwell's soldiers, was seneschal to the manor-court. He was educated at Middleton, through the kind help of a friend, the Rev. Nathaniel Boyse, and at Trinity College, Dublin; and in 1773, having taken his M.A. degree, he entered the Middle Temple. In 1774 he married a lady who brought him a small dowry; but the marriage proved unhappy, and Mrs Curran finally eloped from her husband.

In 1775 Curran was called to the Irish bar, where he very soon obtained a practice. On his first rising in court excessive nervousness prevented him from even reading distinctly the few words of a legal form, and when requested by the judge to read more clearly he became so agitated as to be totally unable to proceed. But, his feelings once roused, all nervousness disappeared. His effective and witty attack upon a judge who had sneered at his poverty, the success with which he prosecuted a nobleman for a disgraceful assault upon a priest, the duel which he fought with one of the witnesses for this nobleman, and other similar exploits, gained him such a reputation that he was soon the most popular advocate in Ireland.

In 1783 Curran was appointed king's counsel; and in the same year he was presented to a seat in the Irish House of Commons. His conduct in connexion with this affair displays his conduct in a most honourable light; finding that he differed radically in politics from the gentleman from whom he had received his seat, he expended L1500 in buying another to replace that which he occupied. In his parliamentary career Curran was throughout sincere and consistent. He spoke vigorously on behalf of Catholic emancipation, and strenuously attacked the ministerial bribery which prevailed. His declamations against the government party led him into two duels--the first with John Fitzgibbon, then attorney-general, afterwards Lord Clare; the second with the secretary of state, Major Hobart, afterwards earl of Buckinghamshire. The Union caused him the bitterest disappointment; he even talked of leaving Ireland, either for America or for England.

Curran's fame rests most of all upon his speeches on behalf of the accused in the state trials that were so numerous between 1794 and 1803; and among them may be mentioned those in defence of Hamilton Rowan, the Rev. William Jackson, the brothers John and Henry Sheares, Peter Finnerty, Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Wolfe Tone and Owen Kirwan. Another of his most famous and characteristic speeches is that against the marquis of Headfort, who had eloped with the wife of a clergyman named Massey. On the arrest of Robert Emmet, who had formed an attachment to his daughter, Curran was himself under suspicion; but, on examination before the privy council, nothing was brought forward to implicate him in the intended rebellion.

In 1806, on the death of Pitt and the formation of the Fox ministry, Curran received the post of master of the rolls, with a seat in the privy council, much to his disappointment, for he had desired a position of greater political influence. For eight years, however, he held this office. He then retired on a pension of L3000; and the three remaining years of his life were spent in London, where he became one of the most brilliant members of the society which included Sheridan, Erskine, Thomas Moore, and William Godwin. He died at his house in Brompton on the 14th of October 1817.