Chapter V: Part 5

The Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, which came into operation on the 1st of January 1900, contains several sections relating to the trade in dairy produce in the United Kingdom. Section 1 imposes penalties in the case of the importation of produce insufficiently marked, such as (a) margarine or margarine-cheese, except in passages conspicuously marked "Margarine" or "Margarine-cheese"; (b) adulterated or impoverished butter (other than margarine) or adulterated or impoverished milk or cream, except in packages or cans conspicuously marked with a name or description indicating that the butter or milk or cream has been so treated; (c) condensed separated or skimmed milk, except in tins or other receptacles which bear a label whereon the words "machine-skimmed milk" or "skimmed milk" are printed in large and legible type. For the purposes of this section an article of food is deemed to be adulterated or impoverished if it has been mixed with any other substance, or if any part of it has been abstracted, so as in either case to affect injuriously its quality, substance, or nature; provided that an article of food shall not be deemed to be adulterated by reason only of the addition of any preservative or colouring matter of such a nature and in such quantity as not to render the article injurious to health. Section 7 provides that every occupier of a manufactory of margarine or margarine-cheese, and every wholesale dealer in such substances, shall keep a register showing the quantity and destination of each consignment of such substances sent out from his manufactory or place of business, and this register shall be open to the inspection of any officer of the board of agriculture. Any such officer shall have power to enter at all reasonable times any such manufactory, and to inspect any process of manufacture therein, and to take samples for analysis. Section 8 is of much practical importance, as it limits the quantity of butter-fat which may be contained in margarine; it states that it shall be unlawful to manufacture, sell, expose for sale or import any margarine the fat of which contains more than 10% of butter-fat, and every person who manufactures, sells, exposes for sale or imports any margarine which contains more than that percentage shall be guilty of an offence under the Margarine Act 1887. For the purposes of the act _margarine-cheese_ is defined as "any substance, whether compound or otherwise, which is prepared in imitation of cheese, and which contains fat not derived from milk"; whilst _cheese_ is defined as "the substance usually known as cheese, containing no fat derived otherwise than from milk." The so-called "filled" cheese of American origin, in which the butter-fat of the milk is partially or wholly replaced by some other fat, would come under the head of "margarine-cheese." In making such cheese a cheap form of fat, usually of animal origin, but sometimes vegetable, is added to and incorporated with the skim-milk, and thus takes the place previously occupied by the genuine butter-fat. The act is regarded by some as defective in that it does not prohibit the artificial colouring of margarine to imitate butter.

In connexion with this act a departmental committee was appointed in 1900 "to inquire and report as to what regulations, if any, may with advantage be made by the board of agriculture under section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for determining what deficiency in any of the normal constituents of genuine milk or cream, or what addition of extraneous matter or proportion of water, in any sample of milk (including condensed milk) or cream, shall for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that the milk or cream is not genuine." Much evidence of the highest interest to dairy-farmers was taken, and subsequently published as a Blue-Book (Cd. 484). The report of the committee (Cd. 491) included the following "recommendations," which were signed by all the members excepting one:--

I. That regulations under section 4 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899 be
made by the board of agriculture with respect to milk (including
condensed milk) and cream.

II. (a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated or
condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which on being dried at 100
deg. C. do not amount to 12% a presumption shall be raised, until the
contrary is proved, that the milk is deficient in the normal
constituents of genuine milk.

(b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk)
the total milk-solids in which are less than 12%, and in which the
amount of milk-fat is less than 3.25%, shall be deemed to be
deficient in milk-fat as to raise a presumption, until the contrary
is proved, that it has been mixed with separated milk or water, or
that some portion of its normal content of milk-fat has been
removed. In calculating the percentage amount of deficiency of fat
the analyst shall have regard to the above-named limit of 3.25% of
milk-fat.

(c) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk)
the total milk-solids in which are less than 12%, and in which the
amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 8.5%, shall be deemed
to be so deficient in normal constituents as to raise a presumption,
until the contrary is proved, that it has been mixed with water. In
calculating the percentage amount of admixed water the analyst shall
have regard to the above-named limit of 8.5% of non-fatty
milk-solids, and shall further take into account the extent to which
the milk-fat may exceed 3.25%.

III. That the artificial thickening of cream by any addition of
gelatin or other substance shall raise a presumption that the cream is
not genuine.

IV. That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids
are less than 9% shall be deemed to be so deficient in normal
constituents as to raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved,
that it has been mixed with water.

V. That any condensed milk (other than that labelled "machine-skimmed
milk" or "skimmed milk," in conformity with section 11 of the Food and
Drugs Act 1899) in which either the amount of milk-fat is less than
10%, or the amount of non-fatty milk-solids is less than 25%, shall be
deemed to be so deficient in some of the normal constituents of milk
as to raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that it is
not genuine.

The committee further submitted the following expressions of opinion on points raised before them in evidence:--

(a) That it is desirable to call the attention of those engaged in the
administration of the Food and Drugs Acts to the necessity of adopting
effective measures to prevent any addition of water, separated or
condensed milk, or other extraneous matter, for the purpose of
reducing the quality of genuine milk to any limits fixed by regulation
of the board of agriculture.

(b) That it is desirable that steps should be taken with the view of
identifying or "ear-marking" separated milk by the addition of some
suitable and innocuous substance, and by the adoption of procedure
similar to that provided by section 7 of the Food and Drugs Act 1899,
in regard to margarine.

(c) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, the
procedure adopted in collecting, forwarding, and retaining pending
examination, samples of milk (including condensed milk) and cream
under the Food and Drugs Acts should be uniform.

(d) That it is desirable that, so far as may be found practicable, the
methods of analysis used in the examination of samples of milk
(including condensed milk) or cream taken under the Food and Drugs
Acts should be uniform. (e) That it is desirable in the case of
condensed milk (other than that labelled "machine-skimmed milk" or
"skimmed milk," in conformity with section 11 of the Food and Drugs
Act 1899) that the label should state the amount of dilution required
to make the proportion of milk-fat equal to that found in uncondensed
milk containing not less than 3.25% of milk-fat.

(f) That it is desirable in the case of condensed whole milk to limit,
and in the case of condensed machine-skimmed milk to exclude, the
addition of sugar.

(g) That the official standardizing of the measuring vessels
commercially used in the testing of milk is desirable.

In the minority report, signed by Mr Geo. Barham, the most important clauses are the following:--

(a) That in the case of any milk (other than skimmed, separated or
condensed milk) the total milk-solids in which are less than 11.75%,
and in which, during the months of July to February inclusive, the
amount of milk-fat is less than 3%, and in the case of any milk which
during the months of March to June inclusive shall fall below the
above-named limit for total solids, and at the same time shall contain
less than 2.75% of fat, it shall be deemed that such milk is so
deficient in its normal constituent of fat as to raise a presumption,
for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899,
until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine.

(b) That any milk (other than skimmed, separated or condensed milk)
the total milk-solids in which are less than 11.75%, and in which the
amount of non-fatty solids is less than 8.5%, shall be deemed to be so
deficient in its normal constituents as to raise a presumption, for
the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until
the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine. In calculating
the amount of the deficiency the analyst shall take into account the
extent to which the milk-fat exceeds the limits above named.

(c) That any skimmed or separated milk in which the total milk-solids
are less than 8.75% shall be deemed to be so deficient in its normal
constituents as to raise a presumption, for the purpose of the Sale of
Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that
the milk is not genuine.

Much controversy arose out of the publication of these reports, the opinion most freely expressed being that the standard recommended in the majority report was too high. The difficulty of the problem is illustrated by, for example, the diverse legal standards for milk that prevail in the United States, where the prescribed percentage of fat in fresh cows' milk ranges from 2.5 in Rhode Island to 3.5 in Georgia and Minnesota, and 3.7 (in the winter months) in Massachusetts, and the prescribed total solids range from 12 in several states (11.5 in Ohio during May and June) up to 13 in others. Standards are recognized in twenty-one of the states, but the remaining states have no laws prescribing standards for dairy products. That the public discussion of the reports of the committee was effective is shown by the following regulations which appeared in the _London Gazette_ on the 6th of August 1901, and fixed the limit of fat at 3%:--

The board of agriculture, in exercise of the powers conferred on them
by section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, do hereby make
the following regulations:--

1. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or
separated or condensed milk) contains less than 3% of milk-fat, it
shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts
1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved, that the milk is not
genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom of milk-fat, or the
addition thereto of water.

2. Where a sample of milk (not being milk sold as skimmed, or
separated or condensed milk) contains less than 8.5% of milk-solids
other than milk-fat, it shall be presumed for the purposes of the Sale
of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until the contrary is proved,
that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the abstraction therefrom
of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the addition thereto of water.

3. Where a sample of skimmed or separated milk (not being condensed
milk) contains less than 9% of milk-solids, it shall be presumed for
the purposes of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts 1875 to 1899, until
the contrary is proved, that the milk is not genuine, by reason of the
abstraction therefrom of milk-solids other than milk-fat, or the
addition thereto of water.

4. These regulations shall extend to Great Britain.

5. These regulations shall come into operation on the 1st of September
1901.

6. These regulations may be cited as the Sale of Milk Regulations
1901.

In July 1901 another departmental committee was appointed by the board of agriculture to inquire and report as to what regulations, if any, might with advantage be made under section 4 of the Sale of Food and Drugs Act 1899, for determining what deficiency in any of the normal constituents of butter, or what addition of extraneous matter, or proportion of water in any sample of butter should, for the purpose of the Sale of Food and Drugs Acts, raise a presumption, until the contrary is proved, that the butter is not genuine. As bearing upon this point reference may be made to a report of the dairy division of the United States department of agriculture on experimental exports of butter, in the appendix to which are recorded the results of the analyses of many samples of butter of varied origin. First, as to American butters, 19 samples were analysed in Wisconsin, 17 in Iowa, 5 in Minnesota and 2 in Vermont, at the respective experiment stations of the states named. The amount of moisture throughout was low, and the quantity of fat correspondingly high. In no case was there more than 15% of water, and only 4 samples contained more than 14%. On the other hand, 11 samples had less than 10%, the lowest being a pasteurized butter from Ames, Iowa, with only 6.72% of water. The average amount of water in the total 43 samples was 11.24%. The fat varies almost inversely as the water, small quantities of curd and ash having to be allowed for. The largest quantity of fat was 91.23% in the sample containing only 6.72% of water. The lowest proportion of fat was 80.18%, whilst the average of all the samples shows 85.9%, which is regarded as a good market standard. The curd varied from 0.55 to 1.7%, with an average of 0.98. This small amount indicates superior keeping qualities. Theoretically there should be no curd present, but this degree of perfection is never attained in practice. It was desired to have the butter contain about 2(1/2)% of salt, but the quantity of ash in the 43 samples ranged from 0.83 to 4.79%, the average being 1.88. Analyses made at Washington of butters other than American showed a general average of 13.22% of water over 28 samples representing 14 countries. The lowest were 10.25% in a Canadian butter and 10.38 in an Australian sample. The highest was 19.1% in an Irish butter, which also contained the remarkably large quantity of 8.28% of salt. Three samples of Danish butter contained 12.65, 14.27 and 15.14% respectively of water. French and Italian unsalted butter included, the former 15.46 and the latter 14.41% of water, and yet appeared to be unusually dry. In 7 samples of Irish butters the percentages of water ranged from 11.48 to 19.1. Of the 28 foreign butters 15 were found to contain preservatives. All 5 samples from Australia, the 2 from France, the single ones from Italy, New Zealand, Argentina, and England, and 4 out of the 7 from Ireland, contained boric acid.

THE MILK TRADE

The term "milk trade" has come to signify the great traffic in country milk for the supply of dwellers in urban districts. Prior to 1860 this traffic was comparatively small or in its infancy. Thirty years earlier it could not have been brought into existence, for it is an outcome of the great network of railways which was spread over the face of the country in the latter half of the 19th century. It affords an instructive illustration of the process of commercial evolution which has been fostered by the vast increase of urban population within the period indicated. It is a tribute to the spirit of sanitary reform which--as an example in one special direction--has brought about the disestablishment of urban cow-sheds and the consequent demand for milk produced in the shires. London, in fact, is now being regularly supplied with fresh milk from places anywhere within 150 m., and the milk traffic on the railways, not only to London but to other great centres, is an important item. A factor in the development of the milk trade must no doubt be sought in the outbreak of cattle plague in 1865, for it was then that the dairymen of the metropolis were compelled to seek milk all over England, and the capillary refrigerator being invented soon after, the production of milk has remained ever since in the hands of dairymen living mainly at a distance from the towns supplied.

This great change in country dairying, involving the continuous export of enormous quantities of milk from the farms, has been accompanied by subsidiary changes in the management of dairy-farms, and has necessitated the extensive purchase of feeding-stuffs for the production of milk, especially in winter-time. It is probable that, in this way, a gradual improvement of the soil on such farms has been effected, and the corn-growing soils of distant countries are adding to the store of fertility of soils in the British Isles. Country roads, exposed to the wear and tear of a comparatively new traffic, are lively at morn and eve with the rattle of vehicles conveying fresh milk from the farms to the railway stations. Most of these changes were brought about within the limits of the last third of the 19th century.

In the case of London the daily supply of a perishable article such as milk, which must be delivered to the consumer within a few hours of its production, to a population of five millions, is an undertaking of very great magnitude, especially when it is considered that only a comparatively minute proportion of the supply is produced in the metropolitan area itself. To meet the demand of the London consumer some 5000 dairies proper exist, as well as a large number of businesses where milk is sold in conjunction with other commodities. It has been computed that some 12,000 traders are engaged in the business of milk-selling in the metropolis, and the number of persons employed in its distribution, &c., cannot be fewer than 25,000. The amount of capital involved is very great, and it may be mentioned that the paid-up capital of six of the principal distributing and retail dairy companies amounts to upwards of one million sterling. The most significant feature in connexion with the milk-supply of the metropolis at the beginning of the 20th century is the gradual extinction of the town "cowkeeper"--the retailer who produces the milk he sells. The facilities afforded by the railway companies, the favourable rates which have been secured for the transport of milk, and the more enlightened methods of its treatment after production, have made it possible for milk produced under more favourable conditions to be brought from considerable distances and delivered to the retailer at a price lower than that at which it has been possible to produce it in the metropolis itself. As a result, the number of milk cows in the county of London diminished from 10,000 in 1889 to 5144 in 1900, the latter, on an estimated production of 700 gallons per cow--the average production of stall-fed town cows--representing a yearly milk yield of 3,600,000 gallons. How small a proportion this is of the total supply will be gathered from the fact that the annual quantity of milk delivered in London on the Great Western line amounts to some 11,000,000 gallons, whilst the London & North-Western railway delivers 9,000,000, and the Midland railway at St Pancras 5,000,000, and at others of its London stations about 1,000,000, making 6,000,000 in all. The London & South-Western railway brings upwards of 8,000,000 gallons to London, a quantity of 7,500,000 gallons is carried by the Great Northern railway, and the Great Eastern railway is responsible for 7,000,000. The London, Brighton & South Coast railway delivers 1,000,000 gallons, and the South-Eastern & Chatham and the London & Tilbury railways carry approximately 1,000,000 gallons between them. A large quantity of milk is also carried in by local lines from farms in the vicinity of London and delivered at the local stations, and a quantity is also brought by the Great Central railway. In addition to this, milk is taken into London by carts from farms in the neighbourhood of the metropolis. A computation of the total milk-supply of the metropolis reveals a quantity approximating to 60,000,000 gallons per annum, or rather more than a million gallons per week, which, taking 500 gallons as the average yearly production of the cows contributing to this supply, represents the yield of at least 120,000 cows. The growth of the supply of country milk to London may be judged from the figures given by Mr George Barham, chairman of the Express Dairy Co. Ltd., in an article on "The Milk Trade" contributed to Professor Sheldon's work on _The Farm and Dairy_. The quantities carried by the respective railways in 1889 are therein stated in gallons as:--Great Western, 9,000,000; London & North-Western, 7,000,000; Midland, 7,000,000; London & South-Western, 6,000,000; Great Northern, 3,000,000; Great Eastern, 3,000,000; the southern lines, 2,000,000. The increase, therefore, on these lines amounted to no less than 13,500,000 gallons per annum, or 36%. The diminished production in the metropolis itself amounted approximately only to 3,000,000 gallons, and it follows, therefore, that the consumption largely increased.

Previously to 1864 it was only possible to bring milk into London from short distances, but the introduction of the refrigerator has enabled milk to be brought from places as far removed from the metropolis as North Staffordshire, and it has even been received from Scotland. Practically the whole of the milk supplied to the metropolis is produced in England. Attempts have been made to introduce foreign milk, and in 1898 a company was formed to promote the sale of fresh milk from Normandy, but the enterprise did not succeed. The trade subsequently showed signs of reviving, owing probably to the increased cost of the home produced article, and during the winter season of 1900-1901 the largest quantity received into the kingdom in one week amounted to 10,000 gallons. Of recent years a large demand has sprung up for sterilized milk in bottles, and a considerable trade is also done in humanized milk, which is a milk preparation approximating in its chemical composition to human milk.

Estimating the average yield of milk of each country cow at 500 gallons per annum, and assuming an average of 28 cows to each farm, as many as 4300 farmers are engaged in supplying London with milk; allotting ten cows to each milker, it needs 12 battalions of 1000 men each for this work alone. Some 3500 horses are required to convey the milk from the farms to the country railway stations. The chief sources of supply are in the counties of Derby, Stafford, Leicester, Northampton, Notts, Warwick, Bucks, Oxford, Gloucester, Berks, Wilts, Hants, Dorset, Essex, and Cambridge. It is not entirely owing to the railways that London's enormous supply of milk has been rendered possible, for the milk must still have been produced in the immediate neighbourhood of the metropolis had not the method of reducing the temperature of the product by means of the refrigerator been devised. There are probably 5700 horses engaged in the delivery of milk in London, and more people are employed in this work than in milking the cows. One of the great difficulties the London dairyman has to contend with, and a cause of frequent anxiety to him, is associated with the rise and fall of the thermometer, for a movement to the extent of ten degrees one way or the other may diminish or increase the supply in an inverse ratio to the demand. Thus, at periods of extreme cold, the cows shrink in their yield of milk, while from the same cause the Londoner is demanding more, in an extra cup of coffee, &c. Again, at periods of extreme heat, which has the same effect on the cow's production as extreme cold, the customer also demands an increased quantity of milk. Ten degrees fall of temperature in the summer will result in a lessened demand and an enlarged supply--to such an extent, indeed, that a single firm has been known to have had returned by its carriers some 600 gallons in one day. In such cases the cream separator is capable of rendering invaluable assistance. To make cheese in London in large quantities and at uncertain intervals has been found to be impracticable, while to set for cream a great bulk of milk is almost equally so. But now a considerable portion of what would otherwise be lost is saved by passing the milk through separators, and churning the cream into butter.

Previously to the enormous development of the urban trade in country milk, dairy farms were in the main self-sustaining in the matter of manures and feeding-stuffs, and the cropping of arable land was governed by routine. To-day, on the contrary, many dairy farms are run at high pressure by the help of purchased materials,--corn, cake, and manure,--and the land is cropped regardless of routine and independent of courses. Such crops, moreover, are grown--white straw crops, green crops, root crops--as are deemed likely to be most needed at the time when they are ready. Green crops,--"soiling" crops, as they are termed in North America,--consisting largely of vetches or tares (held up by stalks of oat plants grown amongst them), cabbages, and in some districts green maize, are used to supplement the failing grass-lands at the fall of the year, and root crops, especially mangel, are advantageously grown for the same purpose. For winter feeding the farm is made to yield what it will in the shape of meadow and clover hay, and of course root crops of the several kinds. This provision is supplemented by the purchase of, for example, brewers' grains as a bulky food, and of oilcake and corn of many sorts as concentrated food.

TABLE XI.--_Estimated Annual Production of Milk, Butter and Cheese in
the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 31st December 1899._

+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| Year | | | |Influence | | Estimated | Estimated |
| ended | | | Cows and |of Season.| Estimated | Total Quantity | Total Quantity |
| Decem-| Cows and | Cows | Heifers |Percentage| Total Quantity | of Butter | of Cheese |
|ber 31.|Heifers in | per | giving | above or | of Milk produced| produced in the| produced in the |
| |Milk or in |1000 of| Milk all |below the | in the 52 Weeks,| 52 Weeks, | 52 Weeks, |
| | Calf on | Popu- | the year |Average of| by 75% of the | taking 32% of | taking 20% of |
| | 4th June. |lation.| round; | previous | Total Herd, at | the Total Milk | the Total Milk |
| | | | say 75% | 10 Years.| 49 cwt. or 531 | to yield 80 lb.| to yield 220 lb.|
| | | | of Total. | | gallons per Cow.| of Butter per | of Cheese per |
| | | | | | | Ton of Milk. | Ton of Milk. |
+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| | No. | No. | No. | % | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |
| 1890 | 3,956,220 | 105.5 | 2,967,165 | +3.0 | 7,487,640 | 85,572 | 147,078 |
| 1891 | 4,117,707 | 108.9 | 3,088,281 | Average. | 7,566,288 | 86,472 | 148,624 |
| 1892 | 4,120,451 | 108.1 | 3,090,339 | -5.6 | 7,147,337 | 81,684 | 140,394 |
| 1893 | 4,014,055 | 104.4 | 3,010,542 | -9.0 | 6,712,004 | 76,709 | 131,843 |
| 1894 | 3,925,486 | 101.2 | 2,944,115 | +6.3 | 7,667,505 | 87,628 | 150,611 |
| 1895 | 3,937,590 | 100.5 | 2,953,193 | -3.5 | 6,982,087 | 79,652 | 137,148 |
| 1896 | 3,958,762 | 100.0 | 2,969,387 | -4.0 | 6,983,999 | 79,817 | 130,000 |
| 1897 | 3,984,167 | 99.7 | 2,988,126 | +3.1 | 7,547,856 | 86,261 | 148,260 |
| 1898 | 4,035,501 | 100.0 | 3,025,526 | +3.2 | 7,645,105 | 87,372 | 150,171 |
| 1899 | 4,133,249 | 101.9 | 3,099,937 | -3.5 | 7,329,027 | 83,760 | 130,020 |
+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+
| 10 | | | | | | | |
| Years'| 4,018,318 | 103.0 | 3,013,660 | -0.7 | 7,906,874 | 83,992 | 141,412 |
|Average| | | | | | | |
+-------+-----------+-------+-----------+----------+-----------------+----------------+-----------------+

BRITISH OUTPUT, IMPORTS AND EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCE

Whilst the quantity of imported butter and cheese consumed in the United Kingdom from year to year can be arrived at with a tolerable degree of accuracy, it is more difficult to form an estimate of the amounts of these articles annually produced at home. Various attempts have, however, from time to time been made by competent authorities to arrive approximately at the annual output of milk, butter and cheese in the United Kingdom, and the results are given by Messrs W. Weddel & Co. in their annual _Dairy Produce Review_. Table XI. shows the estimates for each of the ten years 1890 to 1899, the numbers in the second column of "cows and heifers in milk or in calf" being identical with those officially recorded in the agricultural returns. In thus estimating the quantity of milk, butter and cheese produced within the United Kingdom, the "average milking life" of a cow is taken to be four years, from which it follows that on the average one-fourth of the total herd has to be renewed every year by heifers with their first calf. This leaves 75% of the total herd giving milk throughout the year. Each cow of this 75% is estimated as yielding 49 cwt., or 531 gallons of milk annually. It is assumed that 15% of the total milk yield is used for the calf, 32% utilized for butter-making, 20% for cheese-making, and the remaining 33% consumed in the household as fresh milk. A ton of milk is estimated to produce 80 lb. of butter or 220 lb. of cheese. A gallon of milk weighs 10.33 lb. (10(1/3) lb.). The probable effects of each season upon the production have been taken into consideration in making these estimates, and it will be noticed that owing to the terrible drought of 1893 a reduction of 9% is made from the average. Accepting these estimates with due reservation,[15] it is seen that the annual production of milk varied in the decade to the extent of nearly a million tons, the exact difference between the maximum of 7,667,505 tons in 1894 and the minimum of 6,712,004 tons in 1893 being 955,501 tons. The decennial averages are 7,906,874 tons of milk, 83,992 tons of butter, and 141,412 tons of cheese.

Table XII. furnishes an estimate of the total consumption of butter in
the United Kingdom in each of the years 1891 to 1900. Whilst the
estimated home production did not vary greatly from year to year, the
imports from colonial and foreign sources underwent almost continuous
increase. The ten years' average indicates 37.6% home-made, 7.3%
imported colonial, and 55.1% imported foreign butter. But whereas at
the beginning of the decade the proportions were 45.4% home-made, 1.5%
colonial, and 53.2% foreign, at the end of the percentages were 32.8,
14.7 and 52.5 respectively. It thus appears that whilst the United
Kingdom was able in 1891 to furnish nearly half of its requirements
(45.4%), by 1900 it was unable to supply more than one-third (32.8%).

TABLE XII.--_Estimated Home Production and Imports of Butter into
the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June 1900._

+------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+
| Year ended | Home | Imported | Imported | |
| 30th June. | Production, | Colonial. | Foreign. | Total. |
| | _estimated_.| | | |
+------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+
| | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |
| 1891 | 84,961 | 2,883 | 99,598 | 187,442 |
| 1892 | 86,022 | 6,323 | 101,796 | 194,141 |
| 1893 | 84,078 | 9,408 | 105,712 | 199,198 |
| 1894 | 79,196 | 15,550 | 107,534 | 202,280 |
| 1895 | 82,168 | 17,807 | 116,730 | 216,705 |
| 1896 | 83,640 | 12,949 | 133,249 | 229,838 |
| 1897 | 79,734 | 18,111 | 138,800 | 236,645 |
| 1898 | 83,039 | 17,732 | 141,426 | 242,197 |
| 1899 | 87,326 | 22,443 | 142,193 | 251,962 |
| 1900 | 83,760 | 37,534 | 133,957 | 255,251 |
| +-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+
| 10 Years' | | | | |
| Average | 83,392 | 16,074 | 122,099 | 221,565 |
+------------+-------------+-------------+-----------+---------+

The rapid headway which colonial butter has made in British markets is
shown by the fact that for the five years ended 30th of June 1900 the
import had grown from 12,949 tons to 37,534 tons per annum, or an
increase of 24,585 tons. It is during the mid-winter months that the
colonial butter from Australasia arrives on the British markets, while
that from Canada begins to arrive in July, and virtually ceases in the
following January. The bulk of the Canadian butter reaches British
markets during August, September and October; the bulk of the
Australasian in December, January and February.

It appears to be demonstrated by the experience of the last decade of
the 19th century that the United Kingdom is quite unable to turn out
sufficient dairy produce to supply its own population. In the year
ended 30th of June 1891 the total import of butter was 102,500 tons,
and for the year ended 30th of June 1900 it was 170,700 tons, which
shows an annual average increase in the decade of 6800 tons. This
growth was on the whole very uniform, any disturbance in its
regularity being attributable more to the deficient seasons in the
colonies and foreign countries than to the bountiful seasons at home.
Twice in the decade the import of butter from colonial sources fell
off slightly from the previous year, namely, in 1896 and 1898, while
only once was there any decrease in the foreign supply, and this
occurred in 1900. In 1896 the colonial supply fell off by 5000 tons,
principally owing to drought in Australia, but from foreign countries
this deficiency was more than made good, as the increased import from
these sources exceeded 16,500 tons. In 1900 the position was reversed,
for while the foreign import fell away to the extent of over 8000
tons, the supply from the colonies exceeded that of 1899 by 15,000
tons, thus leaving a gain in the quantity of imported butter of nearly
7000 tons on the year. Table XII. shows that over the ten years,
1891-1900, the import of colonial butter was augmented by 34,600 tons,
and that of foreign by 33,600 tons, so that the increased import is
fairly divided between colonial and foreign sources. If, however, the
last five years of the period be taken, it will be seen that the
increases in the arrivals of colonial butter have far exceeded those
from foreign countries. Between 1891 and 1900 the Australasian
colonies increased their quota by 13,400 tons, and Canada by 11,100
tons. Of foreign countries, Denmark showed the greatest development in
the supply of imported butter, which increased in the ten years by
28,678 tons. Next came Russia and Holland, with increases respectively
of 7207 tons and 6589 tons. Sweden, which made steady progress from
1891 to 1896, subsequently declined, and in 1900 sent 1400 tons less
than in 1891. France and Germany are rapidly falling away, and the
latter country will soon cease its supply altogether. Up to 1896 it
was 6000 tons annually; by 1900 it had fallen to 1850 tons. France,
which in 1892 sent to the United Kingdom 29,000 tons, regularly
declined, and in 1900 sent only 16,800. Among the countries sending
the smaller quantities, Argentina, Belgium and Norway are all
gradually increasing their supplies; but their totals are
comparatively insignificant, as they together contributed in 1900 only
6400 tons out of a total foreign supply of 134,000 tons. The United
States was erratic in its supplies during the decade, and up to 1900
had not made butter specially for export to the United Kingdom, as all
the other foreign countries had done. Consequently it is only when
supplies from elsewhere fail that American butter is sought for by
British buyers. The large amount of salt in this butter, although
suitable for the American palate, prevents its becoming popular in the
United Kingdom.

TABLE XIII.--_Annual Imports of Butter into the United Kingdom,
1897-1900._

+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| From | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. |
| Denmark | 1,334,726 | 1,465,030 | 1,430,052 | 1,486,342 |
| Australasia | 269,432 | 228,563 | 366,944 | 509,910 |
| France | 448,128 | 416,821 | 353,942 | 322,048 |
| Holland | 278,631 | 269,631 | 284,810 | 282,805 |
| Russia* | .. | .. | .. | 209,738 |
| Sweden | 299,214 | 294,962 | 245,599 | 196,041 |
| Canada | 109,402 | 156,865 | 250,083 | 138,313 |
| United States | 154,196 | 66,712 | 159,137 | 56,046 |
| Germany | 51,761 | 41,231 | 36,953 | 36,042 |
| Other countries | 272,312 | 269,645 | 262,331 | 141,231 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total | 3,217,802 | 3,209,153 | 3,389,851 | 3,378,516 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| | % | % | % | % |
| Denmark | 41.5 | 45.6 | 42.2 | 44.0 |
| Australasia | 8.4 | 7.1 | 10.8 | 15.1 |
| France | 13.9 | 13.0 | 10.5 | 9.5 |
| Holland | 8.7 | 8.4 | 8.4 | 8.4 |
| Russia* | .. | .. | .. | 6.2 |
| Sweden | 9.3 | 9.2 | 7.2 | 5.8 |
| Canada | 3.4 | 4.9 | 7.4 | 4.1 |
| United States | 4.8 | 2.1 | 4.7 | 1.6 |
| Germany | 1.6 | 1.3 | 1.1 | 1.1 |
| Other countries | 8.4 | 8.4 | 7.7 | 4.2 |
| +-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
| Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
+-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
* Not shown separately in the Trade and Navigation Returns prior to
1900.

The sources whence the United Kingdom receives butter from abroad are
sufficiently indicated in Table XIII., which shows the absolute
quantities and the relative proportions sent by the chief contributory
countries in each of the four years 1897 to 1900, the order of
precedence of the several countries being in accord with the figures
for 1900. Denmark, as a result of the efforts made by that little
kingdom to supply a sound product of uniform quality, possesses over
40% of the trade, and in the year 1900 received from the United
Kingdom upwards of L8,000,000 for butter and over L3,000,000 for
bacon, the raising of pigs for the consumption of separated milk being
an important adjunct of the dairying industry in Denmark, where butter
factories are extensively maintained on the co-operative principle. It
is worthy of note that some at least of the butter received in the
United Kingdom from Russia is made in Siberia, whence it is sent at
the outset on a long land journey in refrigerated railway cars for
shipment at a Baltic port, usually Riga. The countries not specially
enumerated in Table XIII. from which butter is sent to the United
Kingdom are Argentina, Belgium, Norway and Spain--these are included
in "other countries."

In Table XIV., relating to the estimated home production of cheese and
the imports of that article, the ten years' average indicates a
home-made supply of 555.3%, imports of colonial cheese 24.2%, and
imports of foreign cheese 20.5%. Comparing, however, the first with
the last year of the period 1891-1900, it appears that in 1891 the
proportions were 58.6% home-made, 17.2% colonial and 24.2% foreign,
whereas in 1900 the percentages were 50.3, 28.9 and 20.8 respectively.
Hence the colonial contribution (chiefly Canadian) has gained ground
at the expense both of the home-made and of the foreign. Again,
comparing 1891 with 1900, the import of cheese into the United Kingdom
increased to the extent of only 24,500 tons, so that it shows no
expansion comparable with that of butter, which increased by about
70,000 tons. Simultaneously the estimated home production diminished
by 17,000 tons.

TABLE XIV.--_Estimated Home Production and Imports of Cheese into
the United Kingdom for the Ten Years ended 30th June 1900._

+-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+
| Year ended| Home | Imported| Imported| |
| 30th June | Production,| Colonial| Foreign.| Total. |
| |_estimated._| | | |
+-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+
| | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. | Tons. |
| 1891 | 147,078 | 43,228 | 60,816 | 251,122 |
| 1892 | 148,624 | 45,781 | 59,452 | 253,857 |
| 1893 | 140,394 | 55,549 | 56,767 | 252,710 |
| 1894 | 131,843 | 57,322 | 52,498 | 241,663 |
| 1895 | 150,611 | 61,622 | 52,570 | 264,803 |
| 1896 | 137,148 | 62,478 | 44,569 | 244,195 |
| 1897 | 130,000 | 67,028 | 46,317 | 243,345 |
| 1898 | 148,260 | 77,620 | 49,114 | 274,994 |
| 1899 | 150,000 | 73,752 | 46,985 | 270,737 |
| 1900 | 130,000 | 74,702 | 53,903 | 258,605 |
| +------------+---------+---------+---------+
| 10 Years' | | | | |
| Average | 141,396 | 61,908 | 52,299 | 255,603 |
+-----------+------------+---------+---------+---------+

In imported colonial cheese Canada virtually has the field to itself,
for the only other colonial cheese which finds its way into the United
Kingdom is from New Zealand, but the amount of this kind is
comparatively insignificant, having been in 1900 only 4000 tons out of
a total import of 128,600 tons. Australia, in several seasons since
1891, sent small quantities, but they are not worth quoting.

From foreign countries the decline in the export of cheese is mainly
in the case of the United States, which shipped to British ports
10,000 tons less in 1900 than in 1891. France also is losing its
cheese trade in British markets, and is being supplanted by Belgium.
In 1891 France supplied over 3000 tons, in 1900 the import was below
2000 tons. Belgium in 1891 supplied less than 1000 tons, but in 1900
contributed 2600 tons. The import trade in Dutch cheese remains almost
stationary. In 1891 it amounted to 15,300 tons, in 1899 it was 15,600
tons, whilst in 1900, owing to exceptionally high prices, which
stimulated the manufacture, it reached 17,000 tons.

TABLE XV.--_Annual Imports of Cheese into the United Kingdom,
1897-1900._

+----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| From | 1897. | 1898. | 1899. | 1900. |
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. |
| Canada |1,526,664 |1,432,181 |1,337,198 |1,511,872 |
| United States | 631,616 | 485,995 | 590,737 | 680,583 |
| Holland | 297,604 | 292,925 | 328,541 | 327,817 |
| Australasia | 68,615 | 44,608 | 32,294 | 86,513 |
| France | 36,358 | 33,086 | 34,307 | 35,110 |
| Other countries| 42,321 | 50,657 | 60,992 | 69,910 |
| +----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Total |2,603,178 |2,339,452 |2,384,069 |2,711,805 |
| +----------+----------+----------+----------+
| | % | % | % | % |
| Canada | 58.6 | 61.2 | 56.1 | 55.8 |
| United States | 24.3 | 20.8 | 24.8 | 25.1 |
| Holland | 11.4 | 12.5 | 13.8 | 12.0 |
| Australasia | 2.7 | 1.9 | 1.3 | 3.2 |
| France | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.4 | 1.3 |
| Other countries| 1.6 | 2.2 | 2.6 | 2.6 |
| +----------+----------+----------+----------+
| Total | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
+----------------+----------+----------+----------+----------+

Over 80% of the cheese imported into the United Kingdom is derived
from North America, but the bulk of the trade belongs to Canada, which
supplies nearly 60% of the entire import. The value of the cheese
exported from Canada to the United Kingdom in the calendar year 1900
was close upon L3,800,000. As is shown in Table XV. below, Holland,
Australasia and France participate in this trade, whilst amongst the
"other countries" are Germany, Italy and Russia. The cheese sent from
North America and Australasia is mostly of the substantial Cheddar
type, whereas soft or "fancy" cheese is the dominant feature of the
French shipments. Thus, in the calendar year 1900 the average price of
the cheese imported into the United Kingdom from France was 61s. per
cwt., whilst the average value of the cheese from all other sources
was 50s. per cwt., there being a difference of 11s. in favour of the
"soft" cheese of France.

The imports of butter and margarine into the United Kingdom were not
separately distinguished before the year 1886. Previous to that date
they amounted, at five-year intervals, to the following aggregate
quantities:--

1870. 1875. 1880. 1885.
Cwt. 1,159,210 1,467,870 2,326,305 2,401,373

For the same years the imports of cheese registered the subjoined
totals:--

1870. 1875. 1880. 1885.
Cwt. 1,041,281 1,627,748 1,775,997 1,833,832

The imports of butter and margarine, both separately and together, and
also the imports of cheese in each year from 1886 to 1900 inclusive,
are set out in Table XVI., the most significant feature of which is
the rapid expansion it shows in the imports of butter. In the space of
nine years, between 1887 and 1896, the quantity was doubled. On the
other hand, the general tendency of the imports of margarine, which
have been much more uniform than those of butter, has been in the
direction of decline since 1892. It is necessary, however, to point
out that there has been an increase in the number of margarine
factories in the United Kingdom, and in the quantity of margarine
manufactured in them, during the last few years. Taking the imports of
butter and margarine together, the aggregate in 1889 and also in 1900
was practically three times as large as a quarter of a century
earlier, in 1875. The imports of cheese have increased at a less rapid
rate than those of butter, and the quantity imported in 1900, which
was a maximum, fell considerably short of twice the quantity in 1875.
In 1886, 1887, 1888, 1890 and 1892 the imports of cheese exceeded
those of butter, but since the last-named year those of butter have
always been the larger, and 1899 were fully a million cwt. more than
the cheese imports. The cheapness of imported fresh meat has probably
had the effect of checking the growth of the demand for cheese amongst
the industrial classes.

TABLE XVI.--_Imports of Butter, Margarine and Cheese into the United
Kingdom, 1886-1900._

+------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| | | |Total Butter| |
| Year.| Butter. | Margarine.| and | Cheese. |
| | | | Margarine. | |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+
| | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. | Cwt. |
| 1886 | 1,543,566 | 887,974 | 2,431,540 | 1,734,890 |
| 1887 | 1,513,134 | 1,276,140 | 2,789,274 | 1,836,789 |
| 1888 | 1,671,433 | 1,139,743 | 2,811,176 | 1,917,616 |
| 1899 | 1,927,842 | 1,241,690 | 3,169,532 | 1,907,999 |
| 1890 | 2,027,717 | 1,079,856 | 3,107,573 | 2,144,074 |
| 1891 | 2,135,607 | 1,235,430 | 3,371,037 | 2,041,325 |
| 1892 | 2,183,009 | 1,305,350 | 3,488,359 | 2,232,817 |
| 1893 | 2,327,474 | 1,299,970 | 3,627,444 | 2,077,462 |
| 1894 | 2,574,835 | 1,109,325 | 3,684,160 | 2,266,145 |
| 1895 | 2,825,662 | 940,168 | 3,765,830 | 2,133,819 |
| 1896 | 3,037,718 | 925,934 | 3,963,652 | 2,244,525 |
| 1897 | 3,217,802 | 936,543 | 4,154,345 | 2,603,178 |
| 1898 | 3,209,153 | 900,615 | 4,343,026 | 2,384,069 |
| 1999 | 3,389,851 | 953,175 | 4,343,026 | 2,384,069 |
| 1900 | 3,378,516 | 920,416 | 4,298,932 | 2,711,805 |
+------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------+

The imports of condensed milk into the United Kingdom were not
separately distinguished before 1888. In that year they amounted to
352,332 cwt. The quantities imported in subsequent years were the
following:--

+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------|
| Year.| Cwt. || Year.| Cwt. || Year.| Cwt. |
+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------|
| 1889 | 389,892 || 1893 | 501,005 || 1897 | 756,243 |
| 1890 | 407,426 || 1894 | 529,465 || 1898 | 817,274 |
| 1891 | 444,666 || 1895 | 545,394 || 1899 | 824,599 |
| 1892 | 481,374 || 1896 | 611,335 || 1900 | 986,741 |
+------+---------++------+---------++------+---------|

The quantity thus increased continuously in each year after 1889, with
the result that in 1900 the imports had grown to nearly three times
the amount of those in 1889. Simultaneously, over the period 1889-1900
the annual value of the imports steadily advanced from L704,849 to
L1,405,033. Thus, while the imports of condensed milk trebled in
quantity, they doubled in value. A fair proportion is, however,
exported, as is shown in the following statement of exports of
imported condensed milk for the four years 1897 to 1900:--

1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.
Quantity, cwt. 143,932 133,596 118,394 164,602
Value L274,578 L256,525 L228,446 L309,460

There is also an export trade in condensed milk made in the United
Kingdom. Thus, in 1892 the exports of home-made condensed milk
amounted to 61,442 cwt., valued at L133,556. By 1896 the quantity had
almost doubled, and reached 111,959 cwt., of the value of L224,831. In
subsequent years the exports were:--

1897. 1898. 1899. 1900.
Quantity, cwt. 154,901 178,055 185,749 209,447
Value L302,748 L343,070 L353,819 L390,559

Milk and cream (fresh or preserved other than condensed) received no
separate classification in the imports until 1894, in which year the
quantity imported was 161,633 gallons, followed by 126,995 gallons in
1895, and 22,776 gallons in 1896. The quantities have since been
returned by weight--10,006 cwt. in 1897, 10,691 cwt. in 1898, 7859
cwt. in 1899, and 15,638 cwt. in 1900. The values of these imports in
the successive years 1894 to 1900 were L21,371, L19,991, L5489, L9848,
L11,293, L16,068 and L26,837.

The total values of the imports of dairy produce of all kinds--butter,
margarine, cheese, &c.--into the United Kingdom were, at five-year
intervals between 1875 and 1890, the following:--

1875. 1880. 1885. 1890.
Value L13,211,592 L17,232,548 L15,632,852 L19,505,798

TABLE XVII.--_Values of Dairy Products imported into the United
Kingdom from 1891 to 1900, in Thousands of Pounds Sterling._

+------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
| Year.| Butter. | Margarine.| Cheese. | Condensed | Total. |
| | | | | Milk. | |
+------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+
| | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. | L1000. |
| 1891 | 11,591 | 3558 | 4813 | 900 | 20,863 |
| 1892 | 11,965 | 3713 | 5417 | 930 | 22,025 |
| 1893 | 12,754 | 3655 | 5161 | 1010 | 22,580 |
| 1894 | 13,457 | 3045 | 5475 | 1079 | 23,077 |
| 1895 | 14,245 | 2557 | 4675 | 1084 | 22,581 |
| 1896 | 15,344 | 2498 | 4900 | 1170 | 23,920 |
| 1897 | 15,917 | 2485 | 5886 | 1398 | 25,715 |
| 1898 | 15,962 | 2384 | 4970 | 1436 | 24,779 |
| 1899 | 17,214 | 2549 | 5503 | 1455 | 26,747 |
| 1900 | 17,450 | 2465 | 6838 | 1743 | 28,544 |
+------+----------+-----------+---------+-----------+--------+

The values in each year of the closing decade of the 19th century are
set forth in Table XVII., where the totals in the last column include
small sums for margarine-cheese and, since 1893, for fresh milk and
cream. The aggregate value more than doubled during the last quarter
of the century. The earliest year for which the value of imported
butter is separately available is 1886, when it amounted to
L8,141,438. Thirteen years later this sum had more than doubled, and
it is an impressive fact that in the closing year of the century the
United Kingdom should have expended on imported butter alone a sum
closely approximating to 17(1/2) million pounds sterling, equivalent to
about three-fourths of the total amount disbursed on imported wheat
grain.[16]

The imports of margarine--that is, of margarine specifically declared
to be such--into the United Kingdom are derived almost entirely from
Holland. Out of a total of 920,416 cwt. imported in 1900 Holland
supplied 862,154 cwt., and out of L2,464,839 expended on imported
margarine in the same year Holland received L2,295,174. To the imports
in the year named Holland contributed 93.7%; France, 2.9; Norway, 0.9;
all other countries, 2.5; so that Holland possesses almost a monopoly
of this trade. The quantities of imported butter, margarine and cheese
that are again exported from the United Kingdom are trivial when
compared with the imports, as will be seen from the following
quantities and values in the three years 1898 to 1900:--