Chapter XI: Part 11

_Dedication of Churches._--The custom of solemnly dedicating or consecrating buildings as churches or chapels set apart for Christian worship must be almost as old as Christianity itself. If we find no reference to it in the New Testament or in the very earliest apostolic or post-apostolic writings, it is merely due to the fact that Christian churches had not as yet begun to be built. Throughout the ante-Nicene period, until the reign of Constantine, Christian churches were few in number, and any public dedication of them would have been attended with danger in those days of heathen persecution. This is why we are ignorant as to what liturgical forms and what consecration ritual were employed in those primitive times. But when we come to the earlier part of the 4th century allusions to and descriptions of the consecration of churches become plentiful.

Like so much else in the worship and ritual of the Christian church this service is probably of Jewish origin. The hallowing of the tabernacle and of its furniture and ornaments (Exodus xl.); the dedication of Solomon's temple (1 Kings viii.) and of the second temple by Zerubbabel (Ezra vi.), and its rededication by Judas Maccabaeus (see above), and the dedication of the temple of Herod the Great (Josephus, _Antiq. of the Jews_, bk. xv. c. xi. S 6), and our Lord's recognition of the Feast of Dedication (St John xi. 22, 23)--all these point to the probability of the Christians deriving their custom from a Jewish origin, quite apart from the intrinsic appropriateness of such a custom in itself.

Eusebius (_Hist. Eccles._ lib. x. cap. 3) speaks of the dedication of churches rebuilt after the Diocletian persecution, including the church at Tyre in A.D. 314. The consecrations of the church of the Holy Sepulchre at Jerusalem in A.D. 335, which had been built by Constantine, and of other churches after his time, are described both by Eusebius and by other ecclesiastical historians. From them we gather that every consecration was accompanied by a celebration of the Holy Eucharist and a sermon, and special prayers of a dedicatory character, but there is no trace of the elaborate ritual, to be described presently, of the medieval pontificals dating from the 8th century onwards.

The separate consecration of altars is provided for by canon 14 of the council of Agde in 506, and by canon 26 of the council of Epaone in 517, the latter containing the first known reference to the usage of anointing the altar with chrism. The use of both holy water and of unction is attributed to St Columbanus, who died in 615 (Walafrid Strabo, _Vita S. Galli_, cap. 6).

There was an annual commemoration of the original dedication of the church, a feast with its octave extending over eight days, during which Gregory the Great encouraged the erection of booths and general feasting on the part of the populace, to compensate them for, and in some way to take the place of, abolished heathen festivities (Sozomen, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. ii. cap. 26; Bede, _Hist. Eccles._ lib. i. cap. 30).

At an early date the right to consecrate churches was reserved to bishops, as by canon 37 of the first council of Bracara in 563, and by the 23rd of the Irish collections of canons, once attributed to St Patrick, but hardly to be put earlier than the 8th century (Haddon and Stubbs, _Councils, &c._, vol. ii. pt. 2, p. 329).

When we come to examine the MS. and printed service-books of the medieval church, we find a lengthy and elaborate service provided for the consecration of churches. It is contained in the pontifical. The earliest pontifical which has come down to us is that of Egbert, archbishop of York (732-766), which, however, only survives in a 10th-century MS. copy. Later pontificals are numerous; we cannot describe all their variations. A good idea, however, of the general character of the service will be obtained from a skeleton of it as performed in this country before the Reformation according to the use of Sarum. The service in question is taken from an early 15th-century pontifical in the Cambridge University Library as printed by W. Makell in _Monumenta ritualia ecclesiae Anglicanae_, and ed., vol. i. pp. 195-239.

There is a preliminary office for laying a foundation-stone. On the day of consecration the bishop is to vest in a tent outside the church, thence to proceed to the door of the church on the outside, a single deacon being inside the church, and there to bless holy water, twelve lighted candles being placed outside, and twelve inside the church. He is then to sprinkle the walls all round outside, and to knock at the door; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a second time and to knock at the door again; then to sprinkle the walls all round outside a third time, and a third time to knock at the door, by which he will then enter, all laity being excluded. The bishop is then to fix a cross in the centre of the church, after which the litany is said, including a special clause for the consecration of the church and altar. Next the bishop inscribes the alphabet in Greek letters on one of the limbs of St Andrew's cross from the left east corner to the right west corner on the pavement cindered for the purpose, and the alphabet in Latin on the other limb from the right east corner to the left west corner. Then he is to genuflect before the altar or cross. Then he blesses water, mingled with salt, ashes and wine, and sprinkles therewith all the walls of the church inside thrice, beginning at the altar; then he sprinkles the centre of the church longwise and crosswise on the pavement, and then goes round the outside of the church sprinkling it thrice. Next reentering the church and taking up a central position he sprinkles holy water to the four points of the compass, and toward the roof. Next he anoints with chrism the twelve internal and twelve external wall-crosses, afterwards perambulating the church thrice inside and outside, censing it.

Then there follows the consecration of the altar. First, holy water is blessed and mixed with chrism, and with the mixture the bishop makes a cross in the middle of the altar, then on the right and the left, then on the four horns of the altar. Then the altar is sprinkled seven times or three times with water not mixed with chrism, and the altar-table is washed therewith and censed and wiped with a linen cloth. The centre of the altar is next anointed with the oil of the catechumens in the form of a cross; and the altar-stone is next anointed with chrism; and then the whole altar is rubbed over with oil of the catechumens and with chrism. Incense is next blessed, and the altar censed, five grains of incense being placed crosswise in the centre and at the four corners, and upon the grains five slender candle crosses, which are to be lit. Afterwards the altar is scraped and cleansed; then the altar-cloths and ornaments having been sprinkled with holy water are placed upon the altar, which is then to be censed.

All this is subsidiary to the celebration of mass, with which the whole service is concluded. The transcription and description of the various collects, psalms, anthems, benedictions, &c., which make up the order of dedication have been omitted for the sake of brevity.

The Sarum order of dedication described above is substantially identical with the Roman order, but it would be superfluous to tabulate and describe the lesser variations of language or ritual. There is, however, one very important and significant piece of ritual, not found in the above-described English church order, but always found in the Roman service, and not infrequently found in the earlier and later English uses, in connexion with the presence and use of relics at the consecration of an altar. According to the Roman ritual, after the priest has sprinkled the walls of the church inside thrice all round and then sprinkled the pavement from the altar to the porch, and sideways from wall to wall, and then to the four quarters of the compass, he prepares some cement at the altar. He then goes to the place where the relics are kept, and starts a solemn procession with the relics round the outside of the church. There a sermon is preached, and two decrees of the council of Trent are read, and the founder's deed of gift or endowment. Then the bishop, anointing the door with chrism, enters the church with the relics and deposits them in the cavity or confession in the altar. Having been enclosed they are censed and covered in, and the cover is anointed. Then follows the censing and wiping of the altar as in the Sarum order.

This use of relics is very ancient and can be traced back to the time of St Ambrose. There was also a custom, now obsolete, of enclosing a portion of the consecrated Eucharist if relics were not obtainable. This was ordered by cap. 2 of the council of Celchyth (Chelsea) in 816. But though ancient the custom of enclosing relics was not universal, and where found in English church orders, as it frequently is found from the pontifical of Egbert onwards, it is called the "Mos Romanus" as distinguished from the "Mos Anglicanus" (_Archaeologia_, liv. 416). It is absent from the description of the early Irish form of consecration preserved in the _Leabhar Breac_, translated and annotated by Rev. T. Olden in the _Transactions of the St Paul's Ecclesiolog. Soc._ vol. iv. pt. ii. p. 98.

The curious ritual act, technically known as the _abecedarium_, i.e. the tracing of the alphabet, sometimes in Latin characters, sometimes in Latin and Greek, sometimes, according to Menard, in Latin, Greek and Hebrew, along the limbs of St Andrew's cross on the floor of the church, can be traced back to the 8th century and may be earlier. Its origin and meaning are unknown. Of all explanations we like best the recent one suggested by Rossi and adopted by the bishop of Salisbury. This interprets the St Andrew's cross as the initial Greek letter of Christus, and the whole act as significant of taking possession of the site to be consecrated in the name of Christ, who is the Alpha and Omega, the word of God, combining in himself all letters that lie between them, every element of human speech. The three languages may then have been suggested by the Latin, Greek and Hebrew, in which his title was written on the cross.

The disentangling the Gallican from the Roman elements in the early Western forms of service is a delicate and difficult task, undertaken by Monsignor Louis Duchesne, who shows how the former partook of a funerary and the latter of a baptismal character (_Christian Worship_ (London, 1904), cap. xii.).

The dedication service of the Greek Church is likewise long and elaborate. Relics are to be prepared and guarded on the day previous in some neighbouring sacred building. On the morning following, all ornaments and requisites having been got ready, the laity being excluded, the bishop and clergy vested proceed to fix in its place and consecrate the altar, a long prayer of dedication being said, followed by a litany. The altar is then sprinkled with warm water, then with wine, then anointed with chrism in the form of a cross. The altar, the book of the gospels, and all cloths are then censed, every pillar is crossed with chrism, while various collects are said and psalms recited. One lamp is then filled with oil and lit, and placed on the altar, while clergy bring in other lamps and other ornaments of the church. On the next day--if the service cannot be concluded in one day--the bishop and clergy go to the building where the relics have been kept and guarded. A procession is formed and advances thence with the relics, which are borne by a priest in a holy vessel (_discus_) on his head; the church having been entered, the relics are placed by him with much ceremonial in the "confession," the recess prepared in or about the altar for their reception, which is then anointed and sealed up. After this the liturgy is celebrated both on the feast of dedication and on seven days afterwards.

There is no authorized form for the dedication of a church in the reformed Church of England. A form was drawn up and approved by both houses of the convocation of Canterbury under Archbishop Tenison in 1712, and an almost identical form was submitted to convocation in 1715, but its consideration was not completed by the Lower House, and neither form ever received royal sanction. The consequence has been that Anglican bishops have fallen back on their undefined _jus liturgicum_, and have drawn up and promulgated forms for use in their various dioceses, some of them being content to borrow from other dioceses for this purpose. There is a general similarity, with a certain amount of difference in detail, in these various forms. In the diocese of London the bishop, attended by clergy and churchwardens, receives at the west door, outside, a petition for consecration; the procession then moves round the whole church outside, while certain psalms are chanted. On again reaching the west door the bishop knocks thrice for admission, and the door being opened the procession advances to the east end of the church. He there lays the keys on the table "which is to be hallowed." The _Veni Creator_ is then sung kneeling, followed by the litany with special suffrages. The bishop then proceeds to various parts of the church and blesses the font, the chancel, with special references to confirmation and holy matrimony, the lectern, the pulpit, the clergy stalls, the choir seats, the holy table. The deed of consecration is then read and signed, and the celebration of Holy Communion follows with special collects, epistle and gospel.

The Church of Ireland and the episcopal Church of Scotland are likewise without any completely authorized form of dedication, and their archbishops or bishops have at various times issued forms of service on their own authority. (F. E. W.)

DE DONIS CONDITIONALIBUS, a chapter of the statute of Westminster the Second (1285) which originated the law of entail. Strictly speaking, a form of entail was known before the Norman feudal law had been domesticated in England. The common form was a grant "to the feoffee and the heirs of his body," by which limitation it was sought to prevent alienation from the lineage of the first purchaser. These grants were also known as _feuda conditionata_, because if the donee had no heirs of his body the estate reverted to the donor. This right of reversion was evaded by the interpretation that such a gift was a conditional fee, which enabled the donee, if he had an heir of the body born alive, to alienate the land, and consequently disinherit the issue and defeat the right of the donor. To remedy this the statute _De Donis Conditionalibus_ was passed, which enacted that, in grants to a man and the heirs of his body, the will of the donor according to the form in the deed of gift manifestly expressed, should be from thenceforth observed; so that they to whom the land was given under such condition, should have no power to alienate the land so given, but that it should remain unto the issue of those to whom it was given after their death, or unto the giver or his heirs, if issue fail. Since the passing of the statute an estate given to a man and the heirs of his body has been known as an estate tail, or an estate in fee tail (_feudum talliatum_), the word tail being derived from the French _tailler_, to cut, the inheritance being by the statute cut down and confined to the heirs of the body. The operation of the statute soon produced innumerable evils: "children, it is said, grew disobedient when they knew they could not be set aside; farmers were deprived of their leases; creditors were defrauded of their debts; innumerable latent entails were produced to deprive purchasers of the land they had fairly bought; treasons also were encouraged, as estates tail were not liable to forfeiture longer than for the tenant's life" (Williams, _Real Property_). Accordingly, the power of alienation was reintroduced by the judges in Taltarum's case (_Year Book_, 12 Edward IV., 1472) by means of a fictitious suit or recovery which had originally been devised by the regular clergy for evading the statutes of mortmain. This was abolished by an act passed in 1833. (See FINE.)

DEDUCTION (from Lat. _deducere_, to take or lead from or out of, derive), a term used in common parlance for the process of taking away from, or subtracting (as in mathematics), and specially for the argumentative process of arriving at a conclusion from evidence, i.e. for any kind of inference.[1] In this sense it includes both arguments from particular facts and those from general laws to particular cases. In logic it is generally used in contradiction to "induction" for a kind of mediate inference, in which a conclusion (often itself called the deduction) is regarded as following necessarily under certain fixed laws from premises. This, the most common, form of deduction is the syllogism (q.v.; see also LOGIC), which consists in taking a general principle and deriving from it facts which are necessarily involved in it. This use of deduction is of comparatively modern origin; it was originally used as the equivalent of Aristotle's [Greek: apagoge] (see _Prior Analytics_, B xxv.). The modern use of deduction is practically identical with the Aristotelian [Greek: syllogismos].

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Two forms of the verb are used, "deduce" and "deduct"; originally
synonymous, they are now distinguished, "deduce" being confined to
arguments, "deduct" to quantities.

DEE, JOHN (1527-1608), English mathematician and astrologer, was born on the 13th of July 1527, in London, where his father was, according to Wood, a wealthy vintner. In 1542 he was sent to St John's College, Cambridge. After five years spent in mathematical and astronomical studies, he went to Holland, in order to visit several eminent continental mathematicians. Having remained abroad nearly a year, he returned to Cambridge, and was elected a fellow of Trinity College, then first erected by King Henry VIII. In 1548 he took the degree of master of arts; but in the same year he found it necessary to leave England on account of the suspicions entertained of his being a conjurer; these were first excited by a piece of machinery, which, in the _Pax_ of Aristophanes, he exhibited to the university, representing the scarabaeus flying up to Jupiter, with a man and a basket of victuals on its back. He went first to the university of Louvain, where he resided about two years, and then to the college of Rheims, where he had extraordinary success in his public lectures on Euclid's _Elements_. On his return to England in 1551 King Edward assigned him a pension of 100 crowns, which he afterwards exchanged for the rectory of Upton-upon-Severn, Worcestershire. Soon after the accession of Mary he was accused of using enchantments against the queen's life; but after a tedious confinement he obtained his liberty in 1555, by an order of council.

When Elizabeth ascended the throne, Dee was asked by Lord Dudley to name a propitious day for the coronation. On this occasion he was introduced to the queen, who took lessons in the mystical interpretation of his writings, and made him great promises, which, however, were never fulfilled. In 1564 he again visited the continent, in order to present his _Monas hieroglyphica_ to the emperor Maximilian, to whom he had dedicated it. He returned to England in the same year; but in 1571 he was in Lorraine, whither two physicians were sent by the queen to his relief in a dangerous illness. Returning to his home at Mortlake, in Surrey, he continued his studies, and made a collection of curious books and manuscripts, and a variety of instruments. In 1578 Dee was sent abroad to consult with German physicians and astrologers in regard to the illness of the queen. On his return to England, he was employed in investigating the title of the crown to the countries recently discovered by British subjects, and in furnishing geographical descriptions. Two large rolls containing the desired information, which he presented to the queen, are still preserved in the Cottonian Library. A learned treatise on the reformation of the calendar, written by him about the same time, is also preserved in the Ashmolean Library at Oxford.

From this period the philosophical researches of Dee were concerned entirely with necromancy. In 1581 he became acquainted with Edward Kelly, an apothecary, who had been convicted of forgery and had lost both ears in the pillory at Lancaster. He professed to have discovered the philosopher's stone, and by his assistance Dee performed various incantations, and maintained a frequent imaginary intercourse with spirits. Shortly afterwards Kelly and Dee were introduced by the earl of Leicester to a Polish nobleman, Albert Laski, palatine of Siradz, devoted to the same pursuits, who persuaded them to accompany him to his native country. They embarked for Holland in September 1583, and arrived at Laski's residence in February following. Upon Dee's departure the mob, believing him a wizard, broke into his house, and destroyed a quantity of furniture and books and his chemical apparatus. Dee and Kelly lived for some years in Poland and Bohemia in alternate wealth and poverty, according to the credulity or scepticism of those before whom they exhibited. They professed to raise spirits by incantation; and Kelly dictated the utterances to Dee, who wrote them down and interpreted them.

Dee at length quarrelled with his companion, and returned to England in 1589. He was helped over his financial difficulties by the queen and his friends. In May of 1595 he became warden of Manchester College. In November 1604 he returned to Mortlake, where he died in December 1608, at the age of eighty-one, in the greatest poverty. Aubrey describes him as "of a very fair, clear sanguine complexion, with a long beard as white as milk--a very handsome man--tall and slender. He wore a goune like an artist's goune with hanging sleeves." Dee's _Speculum_ or mirror, a piece of solid pink-tinted glass about the size of an orange, is preserved in the British Museum.

His principal works are--_Propaedeumata aphoristica_ (London, 1558);
_Monas hieroglyphica_ (Antwerp, 1564); _Epistola ad Fredericum
Commandinum_ (Pesaro, 1570); _Preface Mathematical to the English
Euclid_ (1570); _Divers Annotations and Inventions added after the
tenth book of English Euclid_ (1570); _Epistola praefixa Ephemeridibus
Joannis Feldi, a. 1557; Parallaticae commentationis praxeosque nucleus
quidam_ (London, 1573). The catalogue of his printed and published
works is to be found in his _Compendious Rehearsal_, as well as in his
letter to Archbishop Whitgift. A manuscript of Dee's, relating what
passed for many years between him and some spirits, was edited by
Meric Casaubon and published in 1659. _The Private Diary of Dr John
Dee, and the Catalogue of his Library of Manuscripts_, edited by J. O.
Halliwell, was published by the Camden Society in 1842. There is a
life of Dee in Thomas Smith's _Vitae illustrium virorum_ (1707);
English translation by W. A. Ayton, the _Life of John Dee_ (1909).

DEE (Welsh, _Dyfrdwy_; Lat., and in Milton, _Deva_), a river of Wales and England. It rises in Bala Lake, Merionethshire, which is fed by a number of small streams. Leaving the lake near the town of Bala it follows a north-easterly course to Corwen, turns thence E. by S. past Llangollen to a point near Overton, and then bends nearly north to Chester, and thereafter north-west through a great estuary opening into the Irish Sea. In the Llangollen district the Dee crosses Denbighshire, and thereafter forms the boundary of that county with Shropshire, a detached part of Flint, and Cheshire. From Bala nearly down to Overton, a distance of 35 m., during which the river falls about 330 ft., its course lies through a narrow and beautiful valley, enclosed on the south by the steep lower slopes of the Berwyn Mountains and on the north by a succession of lesser ranges. The portion known as the Vale of Llangollen is especially famous. Here an aqueduct carrying the Pontcysyllte branch of the Shropshire Union canal bestrides the valley; it is a remarkable engineering work completed by Thomas Telford in 1805. The Dee has a total length of about 70 m. and a fall of 530 ft. Below Overton it debouches upon its plain track. Below Chester it follows a straight artificial channel to the estuary, and this is the only navigable portion. The estuary, which is 14 m. long, and 5(1/4) m. wide at its mouth, between Hilbre Point on the English and Point of Air on the Welsh side, is not a commercial highway like the neighbouring mouth of the Mersey, for though in appearance a fine natural harbour at high tide, it becomes at low tide a vast expanse of sand, through which the river meanders in a narrow channel. The navigation, however, is capable of improvement, and schemes have been set on foot to this end. The tide rushes in with great speed over the sands, and their danger is illustrated in the well-known ballad "The Sands of Dee" by Charles Kingsley. The Dee drains an area of 813 sq. m.

DEE, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, pursuing a generally easterly direction from its source in the extreme west of the county till it reaches the North Sea at the city of Aberdeen. It rises in the Wells of Dee, a spring on Ben Braeriach, one of the Cairngorms, at a height of 4061 ft. above the sea. It descends rapidly from this altitude, and by the time that it receives the Geusachan, on its right bank, about 6 m. from its source, it has fallen 2421 ft. From the mountains flanking its upper reaches it is fed by numerous burns named and unnamed. With its tributaries the river drains an area of 1000 sq. m. Rapid and turbulent during the first half of its course of 90 m., it broadens appreciably below Aboyne and the rate of flow is diminished. The channel towards its mouth was artificially altered in order to provide increased dock accommodation at Aberdeen, but, above, the stream is navigable for only barges and small craft for a few miles. It runs through scenery of transcendent beauty, especially in Braemar. About two miles above Inverey it enters a narrow rocky gorge, 300 yds. long and only a few feet wide at one part, and forms the rapids and cascades of the famous Linn of Dee. One of the finest of Scottish salmon streams, it retains its purity almost to the very end of its run. The principal places on the Dee, apart from private residences, are Castleton of Braemar, Ballater, Aboyne, Kincardine O'Neil, Banchory, Culter and Cults.

DEED (in O. Eng. _dead_, from the stem of the verb "to do"), that which is done, an act, doing; particularly, in law, a contract in writing, sealed and delivered by the party bound to the party intended to benefit. Contracts or obligations under seal are called in English law _specialties_, and down to 1869 they took precedence in payment over _simple_ contracts, whether written or not. Writing, sealing and delivery are all essential to a deed. The signature of the party charged is not material, and the deed is not void for want of a date. Delivery, it is held, may be complete without the actual handing over of the deed; it is sufficient if the act of sealing were accompanied by words or acts signifying that the deed was intended to be presently binding; and delivery to a third person for the use of the party benefited will be sufficient. On the other hand, the deed may be handed over to a third person as an _escrow_,[1] in which case it will not take effect as a deed until certain conditions are performed. Such conditional delivery may be inferred from the circumstances attending the transaction, although the conditions be not expressed in words. A deed indented, or indenture (so called because written in counterparts on the same sheet of parchment, separated by cutting a wavy line between them so as to be identified by fitting the parts together), is between two or more parties who contract mutually. The actual indentation is not now necessary to an indenture. The _deed-poll_ (with a polled or smooth-cut edge, not indented) is a deed in which one party binds himself without reference to any corresponding obligations undertaken by another party. See CONTRACT.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] An Anglo-French law term meaning a "scroll" or strip of
parchment, cognate with the English "shred." The modern French
_ecroue_ is used for the entry of a name on a prison register.

DEEMS, CHARLES (ALEXANDER) FORCE (1820-1893), American clergyman, was born in Baltimore, Maryland, on the 4th of December 1820. He was a precocious child and delivered lectures on temperance and on Sunday schools before he was fourteen years old. He graduated at Dickinson College in 1839, taught and preached in New York city for a few months, in 1840 took charge of the Methodist Episcopal church at Asbury, New Jersey, and removed in the next year to North Carolina, where he was general agent for the American Bible Society. He was professor of logic and rhetoric at the University of North Carolina in 1842-1847, and professor of natural sciences at Randolph-Macon College (then at Boydton, Virginia) in 1847-1848, and after two years of preaching at Newbern, N.C., he held for four years (1850-1854) the presidency of Greensboro (N.C.) Female College. He continued as a Methodist Episcopal clergyman at various pastorates in North Carolina from 1854 to 1865, for the last seven years being a presiding elder and in 1859 to 1863 being the proprietor of St Austin's Institute, Wilson. In 1865 he settled in New York City, where in 1866 he began preaching in the chapel of New York University, and in 1868 he established and became the pastor of the undenominational Church of the Strangers, which in 1870 occupied the former Mercer Street Presbyterian church, purchased and given to Dr Deems by Cornelius Vanderbilt; there he remained until his death in New York city on the 18th of November 1893. He was one of the founders (1881) and president of the American Institute of Christian Philosophy and for ten years was editor of its organ, _Christian Thought_. Dr Deems was an earnest temperance advocate, as early as 1852 worked (unsuccessfully) for a general prohibition law in North Carolina, and in his later years allied himself with the Prohibition party. He was influential in securing from Cornelius Vanderbilt the endowment of Vanderbilt University, in Nashville, Tennessee. He was a man of rare personal and literary charm; he edited _The Southern Methodist Episcopal Pulpit_ (1846-1852) and _The Annals of Southern Methodism_ (1855-1857); he compiled _Devotional Melodies_ (1842), and, with the assistance of Phoebe Cary, one of his parishioners, _Hymns for all Christians_ (1869; revised, 1881); and he published many books, among which were: _The Life of Dr Adam Clarke_ (1840); _The Triumph of Peace and other Poems_ (1840); _The Home Altar_ (1850); _Jesus_ (1872), which ran through many editions and several revisions, the title being changed in 1880 to _The Light of the Nations_; _Sermons_ (1885); _The Gospel of Common Sense_ (1888); _The Gospel of Spiritual Insight_ (1891) and _My Septuagint_ (1892). The Charles F. Deems Lectureship in Philosophy was founded in his honour in 1895 at New York University by the American Institute of Christian Philosophy.

His _Autobiography_ (New York, 1897) is autobiographical only to 1847,
the memoir being completed by his two sons.

DEER (O. E. _deor_, _dior_, a common Teutonic word, meaning a wild animal, cf. Ger. _Tier_, Du. _dier_, &c., probably from a root _dhus_-, to breathe), originally the name of one of two British species, the red-deer or the fallow-deer, but now extended to all the members of the family _Cervidae_, in the section Pecora of the suborder Artiodactyla of the order Ungulata. (See PECORA; ARTIODACTYLA and UNGULATA.) Briefly, deer may be defined as Pecora presenting the following characteristics:--either antlers present in the male, or when these are absent, the upper canines large and sabre-like, and the lateral metacarpal bones represented only by their lower extremities. This definition will include the living and also most of the extinct forms, although in some of the latter the lateral metacarpal bones not only retain their lower ends, but are complete in their entire length.

The leading characters of antlers are described under PECORA, but these structures may be defined somewhat more fully in the following passage from the present writer's _Deer of all Lands_:--

"Antlers are supported on a pair of solid bony processes, or pedicles,
arising from the frontal bones of the skull, of which they form an
inseparable portion; and if in a fully adult deer these pedicles be
sawn through, they will generally be found to consist of solid,
ivory-like bone, devoid of perceptible channels for the passage of
blood-vessels. The pedicles are always covered with skin well supplied
with blood-vessels; and in young deer, or those in which the antlers
have been comparatively recently shed, the covering of skin extends
over their summits, when they appear as longer or shorter projections
on the forehead, according to the species. When the first or a new
antler is about to be formed, the summits of these pedicles become
tender, and bear small velvet-like knobs, which have a high
temperature, and are supplied by an extra quantity of blood, which
commences to deposit bony matter. This deposition of bony matter
progresses very rapidly, and although in young deer and the adults of
some species the resulting antler merely forms a simple spike, or a
single fork, in full-grown individuals of the majority it assumes a
more or less complexly branched structure. All this time the growing
antler is invested with a skin clothed with exceedingly fine short
hairs, and is most liberally supplied with blood-vessels; this
sensitive skin being called the velvet. Towards the completion of its
growth a more or less prominent ring of bone, termed the burr or
coronet, is deposited at its base just above the junction with the
pedicle; this ring tending to constrict the blood-vessels, and thus
cut off the supply of blood from the antlers....

"When the antlers are freed from the velvet--a process usually
assisted by the animal rubbing them against tree stems or boughs--they
have a more or less rugose surface, owing to the grooves formed in
them by the nutrient blood-vessels. Although a few living species have
the antlers in the form of simple spikes in the adult male, in the
great majority of species they are more or less branched; while in
some, like the elk and fallow-deer, they expand into broad palmated
plates, with tines, or snags, on one or both margins. In the antlers
of the red-deer group, which form the type of the whole series, the
following names have been applied to their different component parts
and branches. The main shaft is termed the beam; the first or lowest
tine the brow-tine; the second the bez-tine; the third the trez-tine,
or royal; and the branched portion forming the summit the crown, or
surroyals. But the antlers of all deer by no means conform to this
type; and in certain groups other names have to be adopted for the
branches.

"The antlers of young deer are in the form of simple spikes; and this
form is retained in the South American brockets, although the simple
antlers of these deer appear due to degeneration, and are not
primitive types. Indeed, no living deer shows such primitive
spike-like antlers in the adult, and it is doubtful whether such a
type is displayed by any known extinct form, although many have a
simple fork. In the deer of the sambar group, where the antlers never
advance beyond a three-tined type, the shedding is frequently, if not
invariably, very irregular; but in the majority at least of the
species with complex antlers the replacement is annual, the new
appendages attaining their full development immediately before the
pairing-season. In such species there is a more or less regular annual
increase in the complexity of the antlers up to a certain period of
life, after which they begin to degenerate."

The _Cervidae_ are distributed all over Europe, Asia, Northern Africa and America, but are unknown in Africa south of the Sahara. They are undoubtedly a group of European or Asiatic origin, and obtained an entrance into America at a time when that continent was connected with Asia by way of Bering Strait.

The existing members of the family are classified in the writer's _Deer of all Lands_ as follows:--

A. Subfamily CERVINAE.--Antlers, with one exception, present in the
male; liver without a gall-bladder; a face-gland, and a gland-pit in
the skull.

I. Reindeer, Genus _Rangifer_.--Lateral metacarpal bones represented
only by their lower extremities; antlers present in both sexes,
complex. Northern part of both hemispheres.

II. Elk, Genus _Alces_.--Lateral metacarpals as in preceding; antlers
(as in the following genera) present only in the male, arising at
right angles to the median longitudinal line of the skull, and
extending at first in the plane of the forehead, after which, when in
their fullest development, they expand into a broad palmation margined
with snags. Northern portion of both hemispheres.

III. True Deer, Genus _Cervus_.--Lateral metacarpals represented only
by their upper ends. Antlers arising at acute angles to the median
line of the skull (as in the following genera), at first projecting
from the plane of the forehead, and then continued upwards nearly in
that plane, supported on short pedicles, and furnished with a
brow-tine, never regularly forked at first division, but generally of
large size, and with not less than three tines; the skull without
ridges on the frontals forming the bases of the pedicles of the
antlers. Upper canine teeth small, or wanting. Europe, Asia and N.
America.

1. Red-deer Group, Subgenus _Cervus_.--Antlers rounded, usually with
five or more tines, generally including a bez (second), and always a
trez (third); coat of adult generally unspotted, with a large
light-coloured disk surrounding the tail; young, spotted. Europe,
Northern and Central Asia and North America.

2. Sika Deer, Subgenus _Pseudaxis_.--Antlers smaller and simpler,
four-tined, with a trez (third), but no bez (second); coat of adult
spotted, at least in summer, with a white area bordered by black in
the region of the tail, which is also black and white. North-Eastern
Asia.

3. Fallow-deer, Subgenus _Dama_.--Antlers without a bez, but with a
trez-tine, above which the beam is more or less palmated, and
generally furnished with numerous snags; coat of adult spotted in
summer, uniform in winter, with black and white markings in the region
of the tail similar to those of _Pseudaxis_; young, spotted.
Mediterranean region, but more widely spread in Europe during the
Pleistocene epoch, and also introduced into many European countries.

4. Sambar Group, Subgenus _Rusa_.--Antlers rounded, three-tined, with
the bez- and trez-tines wanting, and the beam simply forked at the
summit; coat either uniform or spotted at all seasons. Indo-Malay
countries and part of China.

5. Barasingha Group, Subgenus _Rucervus_.--Antlers flattened or
rounded, without bez- or trez-tine, the beam dichotomously forking,
and one or both branches again forked, so that the number of tines is
at least four; brow-tine forming a right angle or a continuous curve
with the beam; coat of adult generally more or less uniform, of young
spotted. Indo-Malay countries.

IV. Muntjacs, Genus _Cervulus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in _Cervus_;
antlers small, with a brow-tine and an unbranched beam, supported on
long bony pedicles, continued downwards as convergent ridges on the
forehead; upper canines of male large and tusk-like. Indo-Malay
countries and China.

V. Tufted Muntjacs, Genus _Elaphodus_.--Nearly related to the last,
but the antlers still smaller, with shorter pedicles and divergent
frontal ridges; upper canines of male not everted at the tips. Tibet
and China.

VI. Water-deer, Genus _Hydrelaphus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in
_Rangifer_; antlers wanting; upper canines of males tusk-like and
growing from semi-persistent pulps; cheek-teeth tall-crowned
(hypsodont); tail moderate. China.

VII. Roe-deer, Genus _Capreolus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in
_Rangifer_; antlers rather small, without a brow-tine or sub-basal
snag, dichotomously forked, with the upper or posterior prong again
forking; tail rudimentary; vomer not dividing posterior nasal aperture
of skull. Europe and Northern Asia.

VIII. Pere David's Deer, Genus _Elaphurus_.--Lateral metacarpals as in
_Cervus_; antlers large, without a brow-tine or sub-basal snag,
dichotomously forked, with the upper prong of the fork curving
forwards and dividing, and the lower prong long, simple, and projected
backwards, the beam making a very marked angle with the plane of the
face; tail very long; vomer as in _Capreolus_. North-East Asia.

IX. American Deer, Genus _Mazama_.--Lateral metacarpals as in
_Rangifer_; antlers very variable in size, forming a marked angle with
the plane of the face, without a brow-tine; when consisting of more
than a simple prong, dichotomously forked, frequently with a sub-basal
snag, and always with the lower prong of the fork projected from the
front edge of the beam, in some cases the lower, in others the upper,
and in others both prongs again dividing; tail long; tarsal gland
generally present; metatarsal gland very variable, both as regards
presence and position; vomer dividing the inner aperture of the
nostrils in the skull into two distinct chambers. America.

1. White-tailed Group, Subgenus _Dorcelaphus_ or
_Odocoileus_.--Antlers large and complex, with a sub-basal snag, and
the lower prong more or less developed at the expense of the upper
one; metatarsal gland usually present; tail long or moderate, and
hairy below; face very long and narrow; the face-gland small, and the
gland-pit in the skull of moderate extent; no upper canines; size
generally large. North America to Northern South America.

2. Marsh-deer Group, Subgenus _Blastoceros_.--Antlers large and
complex, without a sub-basal snag, and the upper prong more developed
than the lower one; metatarsal gland absent; tail short; face
moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well developed; upper
canines usually present in male. Size large or rather small. South
America.

3. Guemals, Subgenus _Xenelaphus_.--Antlers small and simple, forming
a single dichotomous fork; metatarsal gland absent; tail short; face
moderately long; face-gland and gland-pit well developed; upper
canines present in both sexes. Size medium. South America.

4. Brockets, Subgenus _Mazama_.--Antlers in the form of simple
unbranched spikes; metatarsal, and in one case also the tarsal gland
absent; tail very short; face elongated; face-gland small and
gland-pit deep and triangular; hair of face radiating from two whorls:
upper canines sometimes present in old males. Size small. Central and
South America.

X. Genus _Pudua_.--Skull and metacarpals generally as in _Mazama_;
size very small; hair coarse and brittle; antlers in the form of
short, simple spikes; cannon-bones very short; tail very short or
wanting; no whorls in the hair of the face; face-gland moderately
large, and gland-pit deep and oval; tarsal and metatarsal glands
wanting; ectocuneiform bone of tarsus united with the naviculocuboid.
South America.

B. Subfamily MOSCHINAE.--Antlers wanting in both sexes; liver
furnished with a gall-bladder; no face-gland or gland-pit.

XI. Musk-deer, Genus _Moschus_.--Hair coarse and brittle; upper
canines of male very long; no tarsal or metatarsal glands or tufts;
lateral metacarpals represented by their lower extremities; lateral
hoofs very large; tail very short; naked portion of muzzle extensive;
male with a large abdominal gland. Central Asia.

Of the above, Reindeer and Elk are dealt with in separate articles (qq.v.).

The first or typical group of the genus _Cervus_ includes the red-deer (_Cervus elaphus_) of Europe and western Asia, of which there are several local races, such as the large _C. elaphus maral_ of eastern Europe and Persia, which is often partially spotted above and dark-coloured below, the smaller _C. e. barbarus_ of Tunisia and Morocco, and the still smaller _C. e. corsicanus_ of Corsica. The Scandinavian red-deer is the typical form of the species. In all red-deer the antlers are rounded, and show a more or less marked tendency to form a cup at the summit. Wapiti, on the other hand, show a marked tendency to the flattening of the antlers, with a great development of the fourth tine, which is larger than all the others, and the whole of the tines above this in the same plane, or nearly so, this plane being the same as the long axis of the animal. Normally no cup is developed at the summit of the antler. The tail, too, is shorter than in the red-deer; while in winter the under parts become very dark, and the upper surface often bleaches almost white. The cry of the stags in the breeding season is also different. The typical representative of the group is the North American wapiti _C. canadensis_, but there are several closely allied races in Central Asia, such as _C. canadensis songaricus_ and _C. c. bactrianus_, while in Manchuria the subgroup is represented by _C. c. xanthopygus_, in which the summer coat is reddish instead of grey. The hangul (_C. cashmirianus_) of Kashmir is a distinct dark-coloured species, in which the antlers tend to turn in at the summit; while _C. yarcandensis_, of the Tarim Valley, Turkestan, is a redder animal, with a wholly rufous tail, and antlers usually terminating in a simple fork placed in a transverse plane. Another Asiatic species is the great shou (_C. affinis_) of the Chumbi Valley, in which the antlers curve forwards in a remarkable manner. Lastly _C. albirostris_, of Tibet, is easily recognized by its white muzzle, and smooth, whitish, flattened antlers, which have fewer tines than those of the other members of the group, all placed in one plane.

The second group of the genus _Cervus_, forming the subgenus _Pseudaxis_, is typified by the handsome little Japanese deer, or sika, _C. (P.) sika_, in which the antlers are four-tined, and covered with red "velvet" when first grown, while the coat is fully spotted in summer, but more or less uniformly brown in winter. The most distinctive feature of the deer of this group is, however, the patch of long erectile white hairs on the buttocks, which, although inconspicuous when the animals are quiescent, is expanded into a large chrysanthemum-like bunch when they start to run or are otherwise excited. The patch then forms a guiding signal for the members of the herd when in flight. On the mainland of Manchuria both the typical sika, and a larger race (_C. sika manchuricus_), occur. A still larger and finer animal is the Pekin sika (_C. hortulorum_), of northern Manchuria, which is as large as a small red-deer; it is represented in the Yang-tse valley by a local race, _C. h. kopschi_. Formosa possesses a species of its own (_C. taevanus_), which, in correlation with the perpetual verdure of that island, is spotted at all seasons.

For the fallow-deer, _Cervus [Dama] dama_, see FALLOW-DEER.

The rusine or sambar group of _Cervus_, of which the characteristics are given above, comprises a considerable number of long-tailed species with three-tined antlers from the Indo-Malay countries and some parts of China. The largest and handsomest is the sambar of India (_Cervus [Rusa] unicolor_), characterized by its massive and rugged antlers. It is represented by a number of local races, mostly of smaller size, such as the Burmese and Malay _C. u. equinus_, the Formosan _C. u. swinhoei_, and the Philippine _C. u. philippinus_ and _C. u. nigricans_, of which the latter is not larger than a roe-buck, while the sambar itself is as large as a red-deer. Whether these local phases of a single variable type are best denominated races or species, must be largely a matter of individual opinion. The rusa, or Javan sambar, _C. (R.) hippelaphus_, is a lighter-coloured and smaller deer than the Indian sambar, with longer, slenderer and less rugged antlers. Typically from Java, this deer is also represented in the Moluccas and Timor, and has thus the most easterly range of the whole tribe. A black coat with white spots distinguishes the Philippine spotted deer, _C. alfredi_, which is about the size of a roe-buck; while other members of this group are the Calamianes deer of the Philippines (_C. culionensis_), the Bavian deer (_C. kuhli_) from a small island near Java, and the well-known Indian hog-deer or para (_C. porcinus_), all these three last being small, more or less uniformly coloured, and closely allied species. On the other hand, the larger and handsomer chital, or spotted deer (_C. axis_), stands apart by its white-spotted fawn-red coat and differently formed antlers.

Nearly allied to the preceding is the barasingha or rucervine group (subgenus _Rucervus_), in which the antlers are of a different and generally more complex character. The typical species is the Indian barasingha or swamp-deer, _Cervus (Rucervus) duvauceli_, a uniformly red animal, widely distributed in the forest districts of India. In Siam it is replaced by _C. (R.) schomburgki_, in which the antlers are of a still more complex type. Finally, we have the thamin, or Eld's deer, _C. (R.) eldi_, ranging from Burma to Siam, and characterized by the continuous curve formed by the beam and the brow-tine of the antlers.

For the small eastern deer, respectively known as muntjacs (_Cervulus_) and tufted muntjacs or tufted deer (_Elaphodus_), see MUNTJAC; while under WATER-DEER will be found a notice of the Chinese representative of the genus _Hydrelaphus_ (or _Hydropotes_). The roe-deer, or roe-buck (_Capreolus_), likewise form the subject of a separate article (see ROE-BUCK), as is also the case with Pere David's deer, the sole representative of the genus _Elaphurus_.

The American deer include such New World species as are generically distinct from Old World types. All these differ from the members of the genus _Cervus_ in having no brow-tine to the antlers, which, in common with those of the roe-deer, belong to what is called the forked type. Including all these deer except one in the genus _Mazama_ (of which the typical representatives are the South American brockets), the North American species constitute the subgenus _Dorcelaphus_ (also known as _Cariacus_ and _Odocoileus_). One of the best known of these is the white-tailed deer _Mazama (Dorcelaphus) americana_, often known as the Virginian deer. It is typically an animal of the size of a fallow-deer, reddish in summer and greyish in winter, with a long tail, which is coloured like the back above but white below, and is carried elevated when the animal is running, so as to form with the white of the inner sides of the buttocks a conspicuous "blaze." A white fetlock-gland with a black centre is also distinctive of this species. The antlers are large and curve forwards, giving off an upright snag near the base, and several vertical tines from the upper surface of the horizontal portion. As we proceed southwards from the northern United States, deer of the white-tailed type decrease steadily in size, till in Central America, Peru and Guiana they are represented by animals not larger that a roe-buck. The most convenient plan appears to be to regard all these degenerate forms as local races of the white-tail, although here again there is room for difference of opinion, and many naturalists prefer to call them species. The large ears, brown-and-white face, short, black-tipped tail, and antlers without large basal snag serve to distinguish the mule-deer _M. (D.) hemionus_, of western North America; while the black tail, _M. (D.) columbiana_, ranging from British Columbia to California, is a smaller animal, recognizable by the larger and longer tail, which is black above and white below.

South America is the home of the marsh-deer or guazu, _M. (Blastoceros) dichotoma_, representing a subgenus in which the complex antlers lack a basal snag, while the hair of the back is reversed. This species is about the size of a red-deer, with a foxy red coat with black legs. The pampas-deer, _M. (B.) bezoartica_, of the Argentine pampas is a much smaller animal, of paler colour, with three-tined antlers. The Chilean and Peruvian Andes and Patagonia are the homes of two peculiar deer locally known as guemals (huemals), and constituting the subgenus _Xenelaphus_, or _Hippocamelus_. They are about the size of fallow-deer, and have simply forked antlers. The Chilian species is _M. (B.) bisulca_ and the Peruvian _M. (B.) antisiensis_. Brockets, of which there are numerous species, such as _M. rufa_ and _M. nemorivaga_, are Central and South American deer of the size of roe-bucks or smaller, with simple spike-like antlers, tufted heads and the hair of the face radiating from two whorls on the forehead so that on the nose the direction is downwards. The smallest of all deer is the Chilian pudu (_Pudua pudu_), a creature not much larger than a hare, with almost rudimentary antlers.

The musk-deer forms the subject of a separate article.

For deer in general, see R. Lydekker, _The Deer of all Lands_ (London,
1898, 1908). (R. L.*)