Chapter VI: Front Matter (6)

The Friars Preachers came to England and were established at Oxford in 1221, and by the end of the century fifty friaries were founded all over England, usually in the towns, and several in Ireland and Scotland. In London they were first on the site of Lincoln's Inn, but in 1275 they migrated to that now occupied by Printing-house Square, and their name survives in Blackfriars Bridge. The only nunnery was at Dartford. At the Dissolution there were fifty-seven friaries (see lists in F. A. Gasquet's _English Monastic Life_, _Catholic Dictionary_ and C. F. Palmer's _Life of Cardinal Howard_, where historical notes are added). In Mary's reign some of the scattered friars were brought together and established in Smithfield, and the remnant of the nuns were restored to Dartford. In 1559 these houses were suppressed and the nuns and two friars expatriated, and for a hundred years there was no English Dominican community. But throughout the reigns of Elizabeth and the early Stuarts there were usually some Dominicans, either Englishmen professed in foreign monasteries or foreigners, labouring on the English mission or attached to the foreign embassies. In 1658 Friar Thomas Howard (afterwards Cardinal) succeeded in establishing at Bornhem near Antwerp a house for the English friars. From that time there has always been an organized body of English Dominicans, again and again reduced almost to extinction, but ever surviving; it now has half a dozen thriving friaries. The Irish province also survived the days of persecution and possesses a dozen friaries. In 1840 Lacordaire restored the French province. In 1900 there were 4350 Dominicans, including lay brothers, and 300 friaries, scattered all over the world. Missionary work still holds a prominent place in Dominican life; there are missions in Annam, Tongking and China, and in Mesopotamia, Mosul and Kurdistan. They have also a remarkable school for Biblical studies and research at Jerusalem, and the theological faculty in the Roman Catholic university at Fribourg in Switzerland is in their hands. There have been four Dominican popes: Innocent V. (+ 1276), Benedict XI. (+ 1304), Pius V. (+ 1572), Benedict XIII. (+ 1730).

The friars form the "First Order"; the nuns, or Dominicanesses, the "Second Order." The latter may claim to have chronological precedence over the friars, for the first nunnery was established by St Dominic in 1206 at Prouille in the diocese of Toulouse, as a refuge for women converted from the Albigensian heresy. The second convent was at San Sisto in Rome, also founded by Dominic himself. From that time the institute spread widely. The rule resembled that of the friars, except that the nuns were to be strictly enclosed and purely contemplative; in course of time, however, they undertook educational work. In 1909 there were nearly 100 nunneries of the Second Order, with some 1500 nuns. They have schools and orphanages in South Africa, especially in the Transvaal.

A considerable number of other convents for women follow the Rule of the "Third Order." This rule was not written until the 15th century, and it is controverted whether, and in what sense, it can be held that the "Third Order" really goes back to St Dominic, or whether it grew up in imitation of the Franciscan Tertiaries. Besides the conventual Tertiaries, there are confraternities of lay men and women who strive to carry out this rule while living their family life in the world (see TERTIARIES). St Catharine of Siena was a Dominican Tertiary.

See the authorities cited in the article DOMINIC, SAINT; also Helyot,
_Hist. des ordres religieux_ (1714), iii. cc. 24-29, and Max
Heimbucher, _Orden u. Kongregationen_ (1896), SS 86-91; and C. F.
Palmer, _Life of Cardinal Howard_ (1867), which gives a special
account of the English Dominican province. (E. C. B.)

DOMINIS, MARCO ANTONIO DE (1560-1624), Italian theologian and natural philosopher, was born of a noble Venetian family in 1560 in the island of Arbe, off the coast of Dalmatia. He was educated by the Jesuits in their colleges at Loreto and Padua, and is supposed by some to have joined their order; the more usual opinion, however, is that he was dissuaded from doing so by Cardinal Aldobrandini. For some time he was employed as a teacher at Verona, as professor of mathematics at Padua, and professor of rhetoric and philosophy at Brescia. In 1596 he was appointed to the bishopric of Segnia (Zengg) in Dalmatia, and two years later was raised to the archbishopric of Spalato and primacy of Dalmatia and Croatia. His endeavours to reform the Church soon brought him into conflict with his suffragans; and the interference of the papal court with his rights as metropolitan, an attitude intensified by the quarrel between the papacy and Venice, made his position intolerable. This, at any rate, is the account given in his own apology--the _Consilium profectionis_--in which he also states that it was these troubles that led him to those researches into ecclesiastical law, church history and dogmatic theology, which, while confirming him in his love for the ideal of "the true Catholic Church," revealed to him how far the papal system was from approximating to it. After a visit to Rome, when he in vain attempted to gain the ear of Pope Paul V., he resigned his see in September 1616, wrote at Venice his _Consilium profectionis_, and then went by way of Switzerland, Heidelberg and Rotterdam to England, where he arrived in December. He was welcomed by the king and the Anglican clergy with great respect, was received into the Church of England in St Paul's cathedral, and was appointed master of the Savoy (1618) and dean of Windsor (1619); he subsequently presented himself to the living of West Ilsley, Berkshire. Contemporary writers give no pleasant account of him, describing him as fat, irascible, pretentious and very avaricious; but his ability was undoubted, and in the theological controversies of the time he soon took a foremost place. His published attacks on the papacy succeeded each other in rapid succession: the _Papatus Romanus_, issued anonymously (London, 1617; Frankfort, 1618), the _Scogli del naufragio Christiano_, written in Switzerland (London, (?) 1618), of which English, French and German translations also appeared, and a _Sermon preached in Italian, &c._, before the king. But his principal work was the _De republica ecclesiastica_, of which the first part--after revision by Anglican theologians--was published under royal patronage in London (1617), in which he set forth with a great display of erudition his theory of the church. In the main it is an elaborate treatise on the historic organization of the church, its principal note being its insistence on the divine prerogatives of the Catholic episcopate as against the encroachments of the papal monarchy. In 1619 Dominis published in London, with a dedication to James I., Paolo Sarpi's _Historia del Concilio Tridentino_, the MS. of which he had brought with him from Venice. It is characteristic of the man that he refused to hand over to Sarpi a penny of the money present given to him by the king as a reward for this work.

Three years later the ex-archbishop was back again in Rome, doing penance for his heresies in St Peter's with a cord round his neck. The reasons for this sudden revolution in his opinions, which caused grave scandal in England, have been much debated; it is probably no libel on his memory, however, to say that they were connected with the hopes raised by the elevation of his kinsman, Alessandro Ludovisi, to the papal throne as Gregory XV. (1621). It is said that he was enticed back to Rome by the promise of pardon and rich preferment. If so, he was doomed to bitter disappointment. He had barely time to publish at Rome (1623) his _Sui reditus ex Angliae consilium_, an abject repudiation of his anti-papal works as written "non ex cordis sinceritate, non ex bona conscientia, non ex fide," when Gregory died (July 1623). During the interregnum that followed, the proceedings of the Inquisition against the archbishop were revived, and they continued under Urban VIII. Before they were concluded, however, Dominis died in prison, on the 8th of September 1624. Even this did not end his trial, and on the 20th of December judgment was pronounced over his corpse in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva. By order of the Inquisition his body was taken from the coffin, dragged through the streets of Rome, and publicly burnt in the Campo di Fiore. By a strange irony of fate the publication of his _Reditus consilium_ was subsequently forbidden in Venice because of its uncompromising advocacy of the supremacy of the pope over the temporal powers. As a theologian and an ecclesiastic Dominis was thoroughly discredited; as a man of science he was more happy. He was the first to put forward a true theory of the rainbow, in his _De radiis visus et lucis in vitris perspectivis et iride_ (Venice, 1611).

See the article by Canon G. G. Perry in the Dict. _Nat. Biog._, and
that by Benrath in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencyklopadie_ (ed. 1898), iv. p.
781, where a full bibliography is given. Also H. Newland, _Life and
Contemporaneous Church History of Antonio de Dominis_ (Oxford, 1859).

DOMINOES, a game unknown until the 18th century, and probably invented in Italy, played with twenty-eight oblong pieces, or dominoes, known also as _cards_ or _stones_, having ivory faces backed with ebony; from this ebony backing, as resembling the cloak (usually black) called a domino (see MASK), the name is said to be derived. Cardboard dominoes to be held in the hand are also in use. The face of each card is divided into two squares by a black line, and in each square half the value of the card is indicated by its being either a blank or marked with one or more black pips, generally up to six, but some sets run as high as double-nine. There are various ways of playing dominoes described below.

_The Block and Draw Games._--The dominoes are shuffled face downwards
on the table. The lead is usually decided by drawing for the highest
card, but it is sometimes held that any doublet takes precedence. The
cards are then reshuffled, and each player draws at random the number
of cards required for the particular form of the game, usually seven.
The cards left behind are called the _stock_. To play a card is known
technically as to _pose_. The leader poses first, generally playing
his highest domino, since at the end the player loses according to the
number of pips in the cards he has left in his hand. By some rules, a
player after playing a double may play another card which matches it:
e.g. if he plays double-six he may play another card which has a six
at one end. The second player has to match the leader's pose by
putting one of his cards in juxtaposition at one end, i.e. if the
leader plays four-five, the second player has to play a card which
contains either a four or a five, the five being applied to the five,
or the four to the four. Doublets are placed _a cheval_ (_crosswise_).
If a player cannot match, he says "go," and his opponent plays, unless
the Draw game--the usual game--is being played, in which case the
player who cannot match draws from the stock (two cards must always be
left in the stock) till he takes a card that matches. If a player
succeeds in posing all his cards, he calls "Domino!" and wins the
hand, scoring as many points as there are pips on the cards still held
by his opponent. If neither player can match, that player wins who has
the fewest pips left in his hand, and he scores as many points as are
left in the two hands combined (sometimes only the excess held by his
opponent); but when a player has called "Go!" his adversary must match
if he can, in which case the other player may be able to match in
turn. A game is generally 100 points.

_All Fives_ (or _Muggins_).--Each player takes five cards. If the
leader poses either double-five, six-four, five-blank, or three-two,
he scores the number of pips that are on the card. If in the course of
play a player can play such a card as makes the sum of the end pips,
5, 10, 15 or 20, he scores that number; e.g. if to two-four he can
play double-four (_a cheval_) he scores 10; if to six-one he plays
six-four he scores 5. He must pose if he can match; if he cannot, he
draws till he can. Scores are called and taken immediately. At the
point of domino, the winner scores in points the multiple of five
which is nearest to the number of pips in his adversary's hand: e.g.
he scores 25 if his adversary has 27 pips, 30 if he has 28. If neither
hand can match, the lowest number of pips wins, and the score is taken
as before, without addition or subtraction, according to the
adversary's pips.

_All Threes_ is played in the same manner as Muggins, save that three
or some multiple of three are aimed at.

_Threes-and-Fives_ is similar, but only one point is scored for each
five or three made at the two ends, though they can be scored in
combination. Thus A plays six-five; B six-one; B scores 2 points for
5-1 (two threes). A plays one-five; B double five; B now scores 8
more, 5 for five threes and 3 for three fives.

_Domino-Whist_ is played by four players. Partners are drawn for as at
Whist, the player drawing the highest card leading. Each player takes
seven cards. There are no tricks, trumps or honours. The cards are
played as in ordinary dominoes, a hand being finished when one of the
players plays his last card, or when both ends are blocked. Pips are
then counted, and the holder or holders of the highest number score to
their debit the aggregate number of points. The side that is first
debited with 100 points loses the game. Strength in a _suit_ is
indicated by the lead; _i.e._ a lead of double-blank or double-six
implies strength in blanks or sixes respectively.

_Matador_ (from the Spanish word meaning "killer," i.e. of the bull in
a bull-fight). This is a favourite and perhaps the most scientific
form of the game. It is played on a different principle from the
preceding variations, the object being not to match the end number,
but to pose such a number, as, added to the end, will make seven;
_e.g._ to a five a two must be played, to a three a four, &c. Seven
dominoes are drawn and the highest double begins. When a player cannot
make a seven on either end he must draw from the stock until he
secures a card that will enable him to make seven, two cards remaining
in the stock. As Matador is played with dominoes no higher than six, a
blank means the blocking of that end. In this case no further play can
take place at that end excepting by posing a _matador_, which may be
played at any time. There are four matadors, the 6-1, 5-2, 4-3 and
double-blank. It is often better to draw one or more fresh cards than
to play one's last matador, as it may save the game at a critical
juncture. In posing a double counts as a single number only, but in
scoring the full number of pips is counted. When the game has been
definitely blocked the player whose pips aggregate the lower number
scores the number of the combined hands (sometimes only the excess in
his opponent's hand), the game being usually 100. Matador can be
played by three persons, in which case the two having the lowest
scores usually combine against the threatening winner; and also by
four, either each for himself or two on a side.

Other varieties of the game not often played are the Bergen game,
Sevastopol and Domino Loo.

See _Card and Table Games_ by Hoffmann (London, G. Routledge & Sons).

DOMINUS (from an Indo-European root _dam-_, cf. Gr. [Greek: daman], to subdue, and Eng. "tame"), the Latin word for master or owner. As a title of sovereignty the term under the republic at Rome had all the associations of the Greek [Greek: tyrannos]; refused during the early principate, it finally became an official title of the Roman emperors under Diocletian. _Dominus_, the French equivalent being _sieur_, was the Latin title of the feudal (superior and mesne) lords, and also an ecclesiastical and academical title. The ecclesiastical title was rendered in English "sir," which was a common prefix before the Reformation for parsons, as in "Sir Hugh Evans" in Shakespeare's _Merry Wives of Windsor_. The academical use was for a bachelor of arts, and so is still used at Cambridge and other universities. The shortened form "dom" is used as a prefix of honour for ecclesiastics of the Roman Church, and especially for members of the Benedictine and other religious orders. The same form is also a title of honour in Portugal, as formerly in Brazil, used by members of the blood royal and others on whom it has been conferred by the sovereign. The Spanish form "don" is also a title, formerly applicable only to the nobility, and now one of courtesy and respect applied to any member of the better classes. The feminine form "donna" is similarly applied to a lady. The English colloquial use of "don" for a fellow or tutor of a college at a university is derived either from an application of the Spanish title to one having authority or position, or from the academical use of _dominus_. The earliest use of the word in this sense appears, according to the _New English Dictionary_, in South's _Sermons_ (1660). An English corruption "dan" was in early use as a title of respect, equivalent to "master." The particular literary application to poets is due to Spenser's use of "Dan Chaucer, well of English undefyled" (_Faery Queen_, IV. ii. 32).

DOMITIAN (TITUS FLAVIUS DOMITIANUS), Roman emperor A.D. 81-96, the second son of Titus Flavius Vespasianus and Flavia Domitilla, twelfth of the Caesars, and third of the Flavian dynasty, was born at Rome on the 24th of October A.D. 51. When Vespasian was proclaimed emperor at Alexandria, Domitian escaped with difficulty from the temple of the Capitol, which had been set on fire by the Vitellians, and remained in hiding till his father's party proved victorious. After the fall of Vitellius he was saluted as Caesar, or prince imperial, by the troops, obtained the city praetorship, and was entrusted with the administration of Italy till his father's return from the East. But although in his father's lifetime he several times filled the office of consul, and after his death was nominally the partner in the empire with his brother Titus, he never took any part in public business, but lived in great retirement, devoting himself to a life of pleasure and of literary pursuits till he succeeded to the throne. The death of Titus, if not hastened by foul means, was at least eagerly welcomed by his brother. Domitian's succession (on the 13th of September 81) was unquestioned, and it would seem that he had intended, so far as his weak volition and mean abilities would allow, to govern well. Like Augustus, he attempted a reformation of morals and religion. As chief pontiff he inquired rigorously into the character of the vestal virgins, three of whom were buried alive; he enforced the laws against adultery, mutilation, and the grosser forms of immorality, and forbade the public acting of mimes. He erected many temples and public buildings (amongst them the Odeum, a kind of theatre for musical performances) and restored the temple of the Capitol. He passed many sumptuary laws, and issued an edict forbidding the over-cultivation of vines to the neglect of corn-growing. Finally, he took a personal share in the administration of justice at Rome, checked the activity of the informers (_delatores_), and exercised a jealous supervision over the governors of provinces. Such public virtues at first counterbalanced his private vices in the eyes of the people. Domitian was the first emperor who arrogated divine honours in his lifetime, and caused himself to be styled _Our Lord and God_ in public documents. Doubtless in the poems of writers like Martial this deification was nothing but fulsome flattery, but in the case of the provincials it was a sincere tribute to the impersonation of the Roman Empire, as the administrator of good government and the peacemaker of the world. Even when Rome and Italy smarted beneath his proscriptions and extortions, the provinces were undisturbed.

Though he took the title of imperator more than twenty times, and enjoyed at least one triumph, Domitian's military achievements were insignificant. He defeated the Chatti, annexed the district of the Taunus, and established the _Limes_ as a line of defence; but he suffered defeats at the hands of the Quadi, Sarmatae and Marcomanni; in Dacia he received a severe check, and was obliged to purchase peace (90) from Decebalus by the payment of a large sum of money and by guaranteeing a yearly tribute--the first instance in Roman history. His jealousy was provoked by the successes of Agricola in Britain, who was recalled to Rome (85) in the midst of his conquests, condemned to retirement, and perhaps removed by poison. The revolt of Antonius Saturninus, the commander of the Roman forces in Upper Germany (88 or 89), marks the turning-point in his reign (on the date see H. Schiller, _Geschichte der romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. pt. 2, p. 524, note 2). It was speedily crushed; but from that moment Domitian's character changed. He got rid of all whom he disliked on the charge of having taken part in the conspiracy, and no man of eminence was safe against him. He was in constant fear of assassination and distrusted all around him. During the last three years of his life his behaviour was that of a madman. He sentenced to death his own cousin and nephew by marriage, Flavius Clemens, whose wife he banished for her supposed leaning towards Judaism (Christianity). A conspiracy among his own freedmen--set on foot, it is said, by his wife Domitia Longina, who knew her own life to be threatened--cut short his career. He was stabbed in his bedroom by a freedman of Clemens named Stephanus on the 18th of September 96.

AUTHORITIES. _Ancient._--Tacitus, _Histories_, iii. iv.; Suetonius,
_Domitian_; Dio Cassius lxvi., lxvii.; Tacitus, _Agricola_, 18-22.
Modern accounts by A. Imhof, _T. Flavius Domitianus_ (Halle, 1857),
which, while not claiming any special originality, is based on a
conscientious study of authorities; A. Halberstadt, _De imperatoris
Domitiani moribus et rebus_ (Amsterdam, 1877), an attempt to
rehabilitate Domitian; S. Gsell, _Essai sur le regne de l'empereur
Domitien_ (1894), very complete in every respect; H. Schiller (as
above), pp. 520-538; C. Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the
Empire_, ch. 61, 62. For Domitian's attitude towards Christianity see
V. Schultze in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie fur protestantische
Theologie_, iv. (1898); Sir W. M. Ramsay, _The Church in the Roman
Empire_ (1903); E. G. Hardy, _Christianity and the Roman Government_
(1894); J. B. Bury, Appendix 8 to vol. ii. of his edition of Gibbon.

DOMREMY-LA-PUCELLE, a village of eastern France, in the department of Vosges, on the left bank of the Meuse, 7 m. N. of Neufchateau by road. Pop. (1906) 233. Domremy was the birthplace of Joan of Arc, and the cottage in which she was born still stands. Above the door are the arms of France and of Joan of Arc and an inscription of 1481 reading "Vive labeur; vive le roi Louys." There are several monuments to the heroine, and a modern basilica has been erected in her honour on a neighbouring hill, where she is said to have heard the voices in obedience to which she took up the sword. The story of the heroine is annually celebrated by a play in which the villagers take part.

DON (anc. _Tanais_), a river of European Russia, called _Tuna_ or _Duna_ by the Tatars, rising in Lake Ivan (580 ft. above sea-level) in the government of Tula, where it has communication with the Volga by means of the Yepifan Canal, which links it with the Upa, a tributary of the Oka, which itself enters the Volga. The Don, after curving east through the government of Ryazan, flows generally south through the governments of Tambov, Orel, Voronezh and the Don Cossacks territory, describing in the last-named a sweeping loop to the east, in the course of which it approaches within 48 m. of the Volga in 49 deg. N. In the middle of the Don Cossacks territory it turns definitely south-west, and finally enters the north-east extremity of the Sea of Azov, forming a delta 130 sq. m. in extent. Its total length is 1325 m., and its drainage area is calculated at 166,000 sq. m. The average fall of the river is about 5-1/4 in. to the mile. In its upper course, which may be regarded as extending to the confluence of the Voronezh in 51 deg. 40', the Don flows for the most part through a low-lying, fertile country, though in the government of Ryazan its banks are rocky and steep, and in some places even precipitous. In the middle division, or from the mouth of the Voronezh to the point where it makes its nearest approach to the Volga, the stream cuts its way for the most part through Cretaceous rocks, which in many places rise on either side in steep and elevated banks, and at intervals encroach on the river-bed. A short distance below the town of Rostov it breaks up into several channels, of which the largest and most southern retains the name of the river. Before it receives the Voronezh the Don has a breadth of 500 to 700, or even in a few places 1000 ft., while its depth varies from 4 to 20 ft.; by the time it reaches its most eastern point the depth has increased to 8-50 ft., and the ordinary breadth to 700-1000 ft., with an occasional maximum of 1400 ft.; in the lowest division the depth is frequently 70 ft., and the breadth in many places 1870 ft. Generally speaking, the right bank is high and the left flat and low. Shallow reaches are not uncommon, and there are at least seven considerable shoals in the south-western part of the course; partly owing to this cause, and partly to the scarcity of ship-timber in the Voronezh government, the Don, although navigable as far up as Voronezh, does not attain any great importance as a means of communication till it reaches Kachalinskaya in the vicinity of the Volga. From that point, or rather from Kalach, where the railway (built in 1862) from the Volga has its western terminus, the traffic is very extensive. Of the tributaries of the river, the Voronezh, the Khoper, the Medvyeditsa and the Donets are navigable--the Donets having a course of 680 m., and during high water affording access to the government of Kharkov. The Manych, another large affluent on the left, marks the ancient line of water connexion between the Sea of Azov and the Caspian Sea. The lower section of the Don is subject to two annual floods, of which the earlier, known as the "cold water," is caused by the melting of the snow in the country of the Don Cossacks, and the later, or the "warm water," is due to the same process taking place in the region drained by the upper parts of the stream. About the beginning of June the river begins to subside with great rapidity; in August the water is very low and navigation almost ceases; but occasionally after the September rains the traffic with small craft is again practicable. Since the middle of the 18th century there have been five floods of extraordinary magnitude,--namely, in 1748, 1786, 1805, 1820 and 1845. The river is usually closed by ice from November or December to March or April, and at rare intervals it freezes in October. At Aksai, in the delta, it remains open on the average for 250 days in the year, at the mouth of the Medvyeditsa for 239, and at Novo-Cherkask, on another arm of the delta, for 246. This river supports a considerable fishing population, who despatch salt fish and caviare all over Russia. Salmon and herrings are taken in large numbers. (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

DON, a river in the south of Aberdeenshire, Scotland, rising in peat-moss to the east of Glen Avon on the borders of Banffshire, at a height of nearly 2000 ft. above the sea. It follows a generally easterly course, roughly parallel with that of the Dee, and a few miles to the south of it, falling into the North Sea close to Old Aberdeen, after a run of 82 m. At the mouth the two rivers are only 2-1/3 m. apart. Like its greater neighbour, the Don is an excellent salmon stream. On the left its chief affluents are the Ernan, Nochty, Bucket and Urie; on the right, the Conrie, Carvie, Deskry and Strow. The principal places of interest on its banks are Strathdon, Towie, Kildrummy, Alford, Keig, Monymusk, Inverurie, Kintore and Dyce.

DONAGHADEE, a market town of Co. Down, Ireland, in the north parliamentary division, near the south of Belfast Lough, on the Irish Channel, 25 m. E. by N. of Belfast by a branch of the Belfast and Co. Down railway. Pop. (1901) 2073. It is the nearest port in Ireland to Great Britain, being 21-1/2 m. S.W. of Portpatrick in Wigtownshire. Telegraph and telephone cables join these ports, but a regular passenger route does not exist owing to the unsuitability of Portpatrick. Donaghadee harbour admits vessels up to 200 tons. On the north-east side of the town there is a rath or encampment 70 ft. high, in which a powder magazine is erected. The parish church dates from 1626. There are two holy wells in the town. The town is frequented as a seaside watering-place in the summer months.

DONALDSON, SIR JAMES (1831- ), Scottish classical scholar, educational and theological writer, was born at Aberdeen on the 26th of April 1831. He was educated at Aberdeen University and New College, London. In 1854 he was appointed rector of the Stirling high school, in 1866 rector of that of Edinburgh, in 1881 professor of humanity in the university of Aberdeen, and in 1890 principal of the university of St Andrews, by the Universities (Scotland) Act. His chief works are: _Modern Greek Grammar_ (1853); _Lyra Graeca_ (1854), specimens of Greek lyric poetry from Callinus to Soutsos; _A Critical History of Christian Literature and Doctrine from the Death of the Apostles to the Nicene Council_ (i.-iii., 1864-1866; new ed. of i. as _The Apostolical Fathers_, 1874), a book unique of its kind in England at the time of its appearance and one which adds materially to the knowledge of Christian antiquities as deduced from the apostolic fathers; _Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia and England_ (1874); _The Westminster Confession of Faith and the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Church of England_ (1905); _Woman, her position and influence in ancient Greece and Rome_ (1907). He was knighted in 1907.

DONALDSON, JOHN WILLIAM (1811-1861), English philologist and biblical critic, was born in London on the 7th of June 1811. He was educated at University College, London, and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which society he subsequently became fellow. In 1841 he was elected headmaster of King Edward's school, Bury St Edmunds. In 1855 he resigned his post and returned to Cambridge, where his time was divided between literary work and private tuition. He died on the 10th of February 1861. He is remembered as a pioneer of philology in England, and as a great scholar in his day, though much of his work is now obsolete. The _New Cratylus_ (1839), the book on which his fame mainly rests, was an attempt to apply to the Greek language the principles of comparative philology. It was founded mainly on the comparative grammar of Bopp, but a large part of it was original, Bopp's grammar not being completed till ten years after the first edition of the _Cratylus_. In the _Varronianus_ (1844) the same method was applied to Latin, Umbrian and Oscan. His _Jashar_ (1854), written in Latin as an appeal to the learned world, and especially to German theologians, was an attempt to reconstitute the lost biblical book of Jashar from the remains of old songs and historical records, which, according to the author, are incorporated in the existing text of the Old Testament. His bold views on the nature of inspiration, and his free handling of the sacred text, aroused the anger of the theologians. Of his numerous other works the most important are _The Theatre of the Greeks; The History of the Literature of Ancient Greece_ (a translation and completion of C. O. Muller's unfinished work); editions of the _Odes_ of Pindar and the _Antigone_ of Sophocles; a Hebrew, a Greek and a Latin Grammar.

DONATELLO (diminutive of Donato) (c. 1386-1466), Italian sculptor, was the son of Niccolo di Betto Bardi, a member of the Florentine Woolcombers' Gild, and was born in Florence probably in 1386. The date is conjectural, since the scanty contemporary records of Donatello's life are contradictory, the earliest documentary reference to the master bearing the date 1406, when a payment is made to him as an independent sculptor. That Donatello was educated in the house of the Martelli family, as stated by Vasari, and that he owed to them his introduction to his future friend and patron, Cosimo de' Medici, is very doubtful, in view of the fact that his father had espoused the cause of the Albizzi against the Medici, and was in consequence banished from Florence, where his property was confiscated. It is, however, certain that Donatello received his first training, according to the custom of the period, in a goldsmith's workshop, and that he worked for a short time in Ghiberti's studio. He was too young to enter the competition for the baptistery gates in 1402, from which Ghiberti issued victorious against Brunelleschi, Jacopo della Quercia, Niccolo d'Arezzo and other rivals. But when Brunelleschi in his disappointment left Florence and went to Rome to study the remains of classic art he was accompanied by young Donatello. Whilst pursuing their studies and excavations on classic soil, which made them talked about amongst the Romans of the day as "treasure seekers," the two young men made a living by working at the goldsmiths' shops. This Roman sojourn was decisive for the entire development of Italian art in the 15th century, for it was during this period that Brunelleschi undertook his measurements of the Pantheon dome and of other Roman buildings, which enabled him to construct the noble cupola of S. Maria del Fiore in Florence, while Donatello acquired his knowledge of classic forms and ornamentation. The two masters, each in his own sphere, were to become the leading spirits in the art movement of the 15th century. Brunelleschi's buildings and Donatello's monuments are the supreme expression of the spirit of the early Renaissance in architecture and sculpture and exercised a potent influence upon the painters of that age.

Donatello probably did not return to Florence before 1405, since the earliest works in that city that can be traced to his chisel are two small statues of "prophets" for the north door of the cathedral, for which he received payment in November 1406 and in the beginning of 1408. In the latter year he was entrusted with the important commissions for the marble "David," now at the Bargello, and for the colossal seated figure of "St John the Evangelist," which until 1588 occupied a niche of the old cathedral facade, and is now placed in a dark chapel of the Duomo. We find him next employed at Or San Michele, where between 1340 and 1406 only four of the fourteen niches had been filled. As the result of a reminder sent by the Signory to the gilds who had undertaken to furnish the statues, the services of Ciuffagni, Nanni di Banco, Ghiberti and Donatello were enlisted, and Donatello completed between 1412 and 1415 the "St Peter," the "St George" (the original, now in the Bargello, has been replaced by a copy) and the "St Mark." He probably also assisted Nanni di Banco in his group of four saints. To this early period--in spite of Dr Bode's contention, who places it about twenty years later--belongs the wooden crucifix in S. Croce, the most striking instance of Donatello's realism in rendering the human form and his first attempt at carving the nude. It is said that this crucifix was executed in rivalry with Brunelleschi's noble work at S. Maria Novella, and that Donatello, at the sight of his friend's work, exclaimed, "It has been left to you to shape a real Christ, whilst I have made a peasant." In this early group of statues, from the prophets for the cathedral door to the "St George," can be followed the gradual advance from Gothic stiffness of attitude and draping to a forceful rendering of the human form and of movement, which is a distinct approach to the classic ideal; from the massiveness of the heavily draped figure to easy poise and muscular litheness. All these figures were carved in marble and are admirably conceived in relation to their architectural setting. In fact, so strong is this tendency that the "St Mark," when inspected at the master's workshop, was disapproved of by the heads of the Gild of Linen-weavers, but aroused public enthusiasm when placed _in situ_, and at a later date received Michelangelo's unstinted admiration.

Between the completion of the niches for Or San Michele and his second journey to Rome in 1433, Donatello was chiefly occupied with statuary work for the campanile and the cathedral, though from this period dates the bronze figure of the Baptist for the christening font of Orvieto Cathedral, which was never delivered and is now among the treasures of the Berlin museum. This, and the "St Louis of Toulouse," which originally occupied a niche at Or San Michele and is now badly placed at S. Croce, were the first works in bronze which owed their origin to the partnership of Donatello with Michelozzo, who undertook the casting of the models supplied by his senior. The marble statues for the campanile, which are either proved to be Donatello's by documentary evidence or can be recognized as his work from their style, are the "Abraham," wrought by the master in conjunction with Giovanni di Bartolo (il Rosso); the "St John the Baptist"; the so-called "Zuccone" (Jonah?); "Jeremiah"; "Habakuk" (?); the unknown "prophet" who is supposed to bear the features of the humanist Poggio Bracciolini; and possibly he may have had a share in the completion of the "Joshua" commenced by Ciuffagni in 1415. All these statues, and the "St John" at the Bargello, mark a bold departure from the statuesque balance of the "St Mark" and "St George" to an almost instantaneous impression of life. The fall of the draperies is no longer arranged in harmonious lines, but is treated in an accidental, massive, bold manner. At the same time the heads are no longer, as it were, impersonal, but almost cruelly realistic character portraits of actual people, just as the arms and legs and necks are faithfully copied from life with all their angularities and deviations from the lines of beauty. During this period Donatello executed some work for the baptismal font at S. Giovanni in Siena, which Jacopo della Quercia and his assistants had begun in 1416. Though the Florentine's share in it is confined to a relief which may have been designed, or even begun, by Jacopo, and a few statuettes, it is of considerable importance in Donatello's life-work, as it includes his first attempt at relief sculpture--except the marble relief on the socle of the "St George"--his first female figures,--"Faith" and "Hope," and his first _putti_. The relief, "Herod's Feast," shows already that power of dramatic narration and the skill of expressing the depth of space by varying the treatment from plastic roundness to the finest _stiacciato_, which was to find its mature expression in the panels of the altar of S. Antonio in Padua and of the pulpit of S. Lorenzo in Florence. The casting of the pieces for the Siena font was probably done by Michelozzo, who is also credited with an important share in the next two monumental works, in the designing of which Donatello had to face a new problem--the tomb of John XXIII. in the baptistery (begun about 1425), and that of Cardinal Brancacci at S. Angelo a Nilo in Naples (executed in Pisa, 1427). The noble recumbent figure of the defunct on the former, the relief on the sarcophagus, and the whole architectural design, are unquestionably due to Donatello; the figure of the pope is the most beautiful tomb figure of the 15th century, and served as the model on which Rossellino, Desiderio, and other sculptors of the following period based their treatment of similar problems. Donatello's share in the Naples monument is probably confined to the characteristic low relief of the "Ascension." The baptistery tomb shows how completely Donatello had mastered the forms of Renaissance architecture, even before his second visit to Rome. An earlier proof of his knowledge of classic art is his niche for the "St Louis" at Or S. Michele, now occupied by Verrocchio's "Christ and St Thomas." Similar in treatment to the "Ascension" relief is the "Charge to St Peter" at South Kensington, which is almost impressionistic in its suggestion of distance and intervening atmosphere expressed by the extreme slightness of the relief. Another important work of this period, and not, as Vasari maintains, of Donatello's youth, is the "Annunciation" relief, with its wealth of delicately wrought Renaissance _motifs_ in the architectural setting.

When Cosimo, the greatest art patron of his time, was exiled from Florence in 1433, Michelozzo accompanied him to Venice, whilst Donatello for the second time went to Rome to drink once more at the source of classic art. The two works which still testify to his presence in this city, the "Tomb of Giovanni Crivelli" at S. Maria in Aracoeli, and the "Ciborium" at St Peter's, bear the stamp of classic influence. Donatello's return to Florence in the following year almost coincides with Cosimo's. Almost immediately, in May 1434, he signed a contract for the marble pulpit on the facade of Prato cathedral, the last work executed in collaboration with Michelozzo, a veritable bacchanalian dance of half-nude _putti_, pagan in spirit, passionate in its wonderful rhythmic movement--the forerunner of the "singing tribune" for Florence cathedral, at which he worked intermittently from 1433 to 1440, and which is now restored to its original complete form at the museum of the Opera del Duomo. But Donatello's greatest achievement of his "classic period" is the bronze "David" at the Bargello, the first nude statue of the Renaissance, the first figure conceived in the round, independent of any architectural surroundings--graceful, well-proportioned, superbly balanced, suggestive of Greek art in the simplification of form, and yet realistic, without any striving after ideal proportions. The same tendencies are to be noted in the bronze _putto_ at the Bargello.

In 1443 Donatello was invited to Padua to undertake the decoration of the high altar of S. Antonio, but in the period preceding his departure he not only assisted Brunelleschi in the decoration of the sacristy of S. Lorenzo, towards which the bronze doors are his chief contribution, but found time to chisel, or model in wax or terra-cotta, for Cosimo and other private patrons, most of the portrait busts and small reliefs, which are now distributed over the museums of the world. His first work in Padua was the bronze crucifix for the high altar, a work immeasurably superior to the early wooden crucifix at S. Croce, both as regards nobility of expression and subtlety of form. In the very year when Donatello arrived in Padua the famous Condottiere Erasmo de' Narni, called Gattamelata, had died, and when it was decided to honour his memory with an equestrian statue, it was only natural that this master should be chosen to undertake a task from the difficulties of which all others may well have shrunk--had shrunk, indeed, since classic times. This commission, and the reliefs and figures for the high altar, kept Donatello in Padua for ten years, though during that time he visited Venice (where he carved the wooden "St John" at the Frari) and probably Mantua, Ferrara and Modena. At least, he was in communication with of Borso d'Este of Modena about a project for an equestrian statue, and had to give expert opinion about two equestrian statues at Ferrara. In his workshop in Padua he gathered around him quite a small army of assistants, stone-carvers, metal-workers, painters, gilders and bronze-casters. The Gattamelata was finished and set up in 1453--a work powerful and majestic in its very repose; there is no striving for dramatic effect, no exaggerated muscular action, but the whole thing is dominated by the strong, energetic head, which is modelled with the searching realism of the Zuccone and the Poggio heads. The high altar, for which Donatello executed twenty-two reliefs, seven statues and the crucifix, was completed in 1450, but had subsequently to undergo many changes, in the course of which the original disposition of the sculptures was entirely lost sight of, the present arrangement being due to Camillo Boito (1895). The chief features of the altar are the wonderfully animated and dramatic bronze reliefs, four in number, of the "Miracles of St Anthony."

With the exception of another visit to Siena in 1457, of which the bronze "St John" in the cathedral is a reminder, Donatello spent the remaining years of his life in Florence. Closely akin to the rugged "St John" at Siena, and therefore probably contemporaneous, is the repulsively ugly, emaciated "Magdalen" at the baptistery in Florence. The dramatic intensity of the "Judith" group in the Loggia de' Lanzi, which was originally placed in the court of the Medici Palace, marks it as belonging to the post-Paduan period of the master's life. His last work of importance was the bronze reliefs for the pulpit of S. Lorenzo, commissioned about 1460, and finished after Donatello's death by his pupil Bertoldo. The reliefs of the "Flagellation" and "Crucifixion" at the Victoria and Albert Museum are typical examples of the master's style at this closing period of his life. He died on the 13th of December 1466.

As happened subsequently to Velazquez and Frans Hals, Donatello, whose supreme mastery had been acknowledged by Michelangelo, Raphael and the other giants of the late Renaissance, almost sank into oblivion during the 18th and early 19th centuries, and only in comparatively recent times has he been restored to the eminent position which is his due in the history of art. The full power of his genius was only revealed to the world when, at the quincentenary celebration of his birth, the greater part of his life-work was brought together in Florence. The large hall at the Bargello has ever since been devoted to the display of his works, the numerous original bronzes and marbles and terra-cottas being supplemented by casts of works at other places, such as the colossal Gattamelata monument.

AUTHORITIES.--Before the date of the Florence exhibition in 1886 the
only books on the subject of Donatello--apart from references in
general histories of art--were Pastor's _Donatello_ (Giessen, 1882)
and Semper's _Donatello, seine Zeit und seine Schule_ (Vienna, 1875).
Since then the great Florentine sculptor has received attention from
many of the leading art writers, though England has only contributed a
not very complete record of his life and work by Hope Rea, _Donatello_
(London, 1900), and an excellent critical study by Lord Balcarres,
_Donatello_ (London, 1903), besides a translation of A. G. Meyer's
fully illustrated and exhaustive monograph in the Knackfuss series
(London, 1904). Other notable books on the subject are:--Eugene Muntz,
_Donatello_ (Paris, 1885), and in the series of _Les Artistes
celebres_ (Paris, 1890); Schmarzow, _Donatello_ (Breslau, 1886);
Cavalucci, _Vita ed opere del Donatello_ (Milan, 1886); Tschudi,
_Donatello e la critica moderna_ (Turin, 1887); Reymond, _Donatello_
(Florence, 1899); and Bode, _Florentiner Bildhauer der Renaissance_
(_Donatello als Architekt und Dekorator, Die Madonnenreliefs
Donatellos_) (Berlin, 1902). (P. G. K.)

DONATI, GIOVANNI BATTISTA (1826-1873), Italian astronomer, was born at Pisa on the 16th of December 1826. He entered the observatory of Florence as a student in 1852, became assistant to G. B. Amici in 1854, and was appointed in 1864 to succeed him as director. A new observatory at Arcetri near Florence, built under his supervision, was completed in 1872. During the ten years 1854-1864 Donati discovered six comets, one of which, first seen on the 2nd of June 1858, bears his name (see COMET). He observed the total solar eclipse of the 18th of July 1860, at Torreblanca in Spain, and in the same year began experiments in stellar spectroscopy. In 1862 he published a memoir, _Intorno alle strie degli spettri stellari_, which indicated the feasibility of a physical classification of the stars; and on the 5th of August 1864 discovered the gaseous composition of comets by submitting to prismatic analysis the light of one then visible. An investigation of the great aurora of the 4th of February 1872 led him to refer such phenomena to a distinct branch of science, designated by him "cosmical meteorology"; but he was not destined to prosecute the subject. Attending the International Meteorological Congress of August 1873 at Vienna, he fell ill of cholera, and died a few hours after his arrival at Arcetri, on the 20th of September 1873.

See _Vierteljahrsschrift der astr. Gesellschaft_ (Leipzig), ix. 4;
_Monthly Notices Roy. Astr. Society_, xxxiv. 153; _Memorie degli
spettroscopisti italiani_, ii. 125 (G. Cacciatore); _Nature_, viii.
556; &c. (A. M. C.)

DONATIO MORTIS CAUSA (grant in case of death), in law, a gift of personal property made in contemplation of death and intended either expressly or impliedly to take complete effect only if the donor dies of the illness affecting him at the time of the gift. The conception as well as the name is borrowed from Roman law, and the definition given by Justinian (_Inst._ ii. 7. 1) applies equally to a _donatio mortis causa_ in Roman and English law. A distinction, however, has arisen between the English and civil codes; by English law delivery either actual or (when from the nature of the thing actual delivery is impossible) constructive is essential, and this delivery must pass not only the possession but the dominion of the thing given; by the civil law, in some cases at least, delivery of possession was not essential (see the judgment of Lord Chancellor Hardwicke in _Ward_ v. _Turner_, 1751, 2 Ves. sen. 431, where the whole question is exhaustively discussed). A _donatio mortis causa_ stands halfway between a gift _inter vivos_ and a legacy, and has some of the characteristics of each form of disposition. It resembles a legacy in that (1) it is revocable during the donor's life, (2) it is subject to legacy and estate duty, and (3) it is liable to satisfy debts of the testator in default of other assets. On the other hand, it resembles a gift _inter vivos_ in that it takes effect from delivery; therefore the consent of the executor is not necessary. Anything may be the subject of a _donatio mortis causa_, the absolute property in which can be made to pass by delivery after the donor's death either in law or equity; this will cover bankers' deposit notes, bills of exchange, and notes and cheques of a third person, but not promissory notes and cheques of the donor in favour of the donee, for the donor's signature is merely an authority for his banker to pay, which is revoked by his death.