Chapter XII: Act 1875: , but that power is now rarely exercised, and new urban (4)

Sancroft and eight bishops would not belie their belief in the doctrines of divine right and passive obedience by swearing allegiance to William and Mary, and the archbishop, five bishops and over 400 clergy were deprived. Certain of these nonjuring bishops consecrated others and a schism ensued. The loss to the church was heavy; for among the nonjurors were many men of holy lives and eminent learning, and the fact that some suffered for conscience' sake seemed a reproach on the rest of the clergy. After 1715 the secession became unimportant. Protestantism was secured from further royal attack by the Bill of Rights; and in 1701 the Act of Succession provided that all future sovereigns should be members of the Church of England. That the king's title rested on a parliamentary decision was destructive of the clerical theory of divine right, and encouraged Erastianism, then specially dangerous to the church; for William, a Dutch Presbyterian, gave bishoprics to men personally worthy, but more desirous of union with other Protestant bodies than jealous for the principles of their own church. A bill for union was rejected in the Commons, where the church party had a majority, though one for toleration of Protestant dissenters became law. William, anxious for concessions to dissenters, appointed a committee of convocation for altering the liturgy, canons and ecclesiastical courts, but the Tory party in the lower house of convocation was strong and the scheme was abortive. A long controversy began between the two houses: the bishops were mostly Whigs with latitudinarian tendencies, the lower clergy Tories and high churchmen. During most of the reign convocation was suspended and the church was governed by royal injunctions, a system injurious to its welfare. It had been the bulwark of the nation against Romanism under James II., and the affection of the nation enabled it to preserve its distinctive character amid dangers of an opposite kind under William III. Its religious life was active; associations for worship and the reformation of manners led to more frequent services, the establishment of schools for poor children, and the foundation of the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge (S.P.C.K.) and for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts (S.P.G.). This activity and the discord between the two houses of convocation continued during Anne's reign. Anne was a strong church-woman, and under her the church reached its highest point of popularity and influence. Its supposed interests were used by the Tories for political ends. Hence the Occasional Conformity Act, to prevent evasion of the Test Act, and a tyrannical Schism Act, both repealed in 1718, belong rather to the history of parties than to that of the church. So, too, does the case of Dr Sacheverell, who was prosecuted for a violently Tory sermon. His trial, in 1710, caused much excitement; mobs shouted for "High Church and Dr Sacheverell," and the lightness of his sentence was hailed as a Tory victory. Queen Anne is gratefully remembered by the church for her "Bounty," which gave it the first-fruits and tenths (see ANNATES and QUEEN ANNE'S BOUNTY).

The 18th century.

With the accession of the Hanoverian line the church entered on a period of feeble life and inaction: many church fabrics were neglected; daily services were discontinued; holy days were disregarded; Holy Communion was infrequent; the poor were little cared for; and though the church remained popular, the clergy were lazy and held in contempt. In accepting the settlement of the crown the clergy generally sacrificed conviction to expediency, and their character suffered. Promotion largely depended on a profession of Whig principles: the church was regarded as subservient to the state; its historic position and claims were ignored, and it was treated by politicians as though its principal function was to support the government. This change was accelerated by the silencing of convocation. A sermon by Hoadly, bishop of Bangor, impugned the existence of a visible church, and the "Bangorian controversy" which ensued threatened to end in the condemnation of his opinions by convocation, or at least by the lower house. As this would have weakened the government, convocation was prorogued, letters of business were withheld, and from 1717 until 1852 convocation, the church's constitutional organ of reform, existed only in name. Walpole during his long ministry, from 1721 to 1742, discouraged activity in the church lest it should become troublesome to his government. Preferment was shamelessly sought after even by pious men, and was begged and bestowed on the ground of political services. In this the clergy, apart from the sacredness of clerical office, were neither better nor worse than the laity; in morality and decency they were better even at the lowest point of their decline, about the middle of the century. While the church was inactive in practical work, it showed vigour in the intellectual defence of Christianity. Controversies of earlier origin with assailants of the faith were ably maintained by, among others, Daniel Waterland, William Law, a nonjuror, Bishop Butler, whose _Analogy_ appeared in 1736, and Bishop Berkeley. A revival of spirituality and energy at last set in. Its origin has been traced to Law's Serious Call, published in 1728. Law's teaching was actively carried out by John Wesley (q.v.), a clergyman who from 1739 devoted himself to evangelization. Though his preaching awoke much religious feeling, specially among the lower classes, the excitement which attended it led to a horror of religious enthusiasm, and his methods irritated the parochial clergy. Some of them seconded his efforts, but far more regarded them with violent and often unworthily expressed dislike. While he urged his followers to adhere to the church, he could not himself work in subordination to discipline; the Methodist organization which he founded was independent of the church's system and soon drifted into separation. Nevertheless, he did much to bring about a revival of life in the church. Several clergy became his allies, and some preached in Lady Huntingdon's chapels before her secession. These were among the fathers of the Evangelical party: they differed from the Methodists in not forming an organization, remaining in the church, working on the parochial system, and generally holding Calvinistic doctrine, being so far nearer to Whitfield than to Wesley, though Calvinism gradually ceased to be a mark of the party. The Evangelicals soon grew in number, and their influence for good was extensive. They laid stress on the depravity of human nature, and on the importance of conscious conversion, giving prominence to the necessity of personal salvation rather than of incorporation with, and abiding in, the church of the redeemed. Prominent among their early leaders after they became distinct from the Methodists were William Romaine, Henry Venn and John Newton. Bishop Porteus of London sympathized with them, Lord Dartmouth was a liberal patron, and Cowper's poetry spread their doctrines in quarters where sermons might have failed to attract. Religion was also forwarded in the church by the example of George III. During his reign the progress of toleration, though slow and fitful, greatly advanced both as regards Roman Catholics and Protestant dissenters. The spirit of rationalism, which had been manifested earlier in attacks on revelation, appeared in a movement against subscription to the Articles demanded of the clergy and others which was defeated in parliament in 1772. The alarm consequent on the French Revolution checked the progress of toleration and was temporarily fatal to free-thinking; it strengthened the position of the church, which was regarded as a bulwark of society against the spread of revolutionary doctrines; and this caused the Evangelicals to draw off more completely from the Methodists. The church was active: the Sunday-school movement, begun in 1780, flourished; the crusade against the slave-trade was vigorously supported by Evangelicals; and the Church Missionary Society (C.M.S.), a distinctly Evangelical organization, was founded. Excellent as were the results of the revival generally, the Evangelicals had defects which tended to weaken the church. Some characteristics of their teaching were repellent to the young; they were deficient in theological learning, and often in learning of any kind; they took a low view of the church, regarding it as the offspring of the Protestant reformation; they expounded the Bible without reference to the church's teaching, and paid little heed to the church's directions. Dissent consequently grew stronger. By the Act of Union with Ireland the Churches of England and Ireland were united from the 1st of January 1801, and the continuance of the united church was declared an essential part of the union. No provision, however, was made giving the Irish clergy a place in convocation, which was evidently held unlikely to revive. The union of the churches was dissolved in 1871 by an act of 1869 for disestablishing the Irish Church.

The Oxford Movement.

Apart from the Evangelical revival, religion was advanced in the church. In 1811 the education of the poor was provided for on church principles by the National Society; the Church Building Society was founded in 1818; and the colonial episcopate was started by the establishment of bishoprics in Calcutta in 1814, and in Jamaica and Barbados in 1824. Yet reforms were urgently needed. In 1813, out of about 10,800 benefices, 6311 are said to have been without resident incumbents (_The Black Book_, p. 34); the value of some great offices was enormous, while many of the parochial clergy were wretchedly poor. The repeal of the Test Act, long practically inoperative, in 1828, and Catholic emancipation in 1829, mark a change in the relations of church and state; and the Reform Bill of 1832 transferred political power from a class which generally supported the church to classes in which dissent was strong. The national zeal for reform was directed towards the church, not always in a friendly spirit. Yet wholesome changes were effected by legislation: dioceses were rearranged and two new bishoprics founded at Manchester and Ripon, the bishopric of Bristol, however, being suppressed; plurality and non-residence were abolished; tithes were commuted, and the Ecclesiastical Commission, which has effected reforms in respect of endowments, was permanently established in 1836. Some changes and proposals alarmed churchmen, specially as legislation for the church proceeded from parliament, while convocation remained silenced. Latitudinarian opinions revived, and the church was regarded merely as a human institution. Among the clergy generally ritual observance was neglected and rubrical directions disobeyed. A few churchmen, including Keble and Newman, set themselves to revive church feeling, and Oxford became the centre of a new movement. The publication of Keble's _Christian Year_ prepared its way, and its aims were declared in his assize sermon at Oxford on "National Apostasy" in 1833. Its promoters urged their views in _Tracts for the Times_, and were strengthened by the adhesion of Pusey. Hence they were nicknamed Tractarians or Puseyites. Their cardinal doctrine was that the Church of England was a part of the visible Holy Catholic Church and had unbroken connexion with the primitive church; they inculcated high views of the sacraments, and emphasized points of agreement with those branches of the Catholic Church which claim apostolic succession. Their party grew in spite of the opposition of low and broad churchmen, who, specially on the publication of Tract XC. by Newman in 1841, declared that its teaching was Romanizing. In 1845 Newman and several others seceded to Rome. Newman's apostasy was a severe blow to the church, though permanent injury was averted by the steadfastness of Pusey. The Oxford movement was wrecked, but its effect survived both in the new high church party and in the church at large. As a body the clergy rated more highly the responsibilities and dignity of their profession, and became more zealous in the performance of its duties and more ecclesiastically minded. High churchmen carried out rubrical directions, and after a while began to introduce changes into the performance of divine service which had not been adopted by the early leaders of the party, were deprecated by many bishops, and excited opposition.

The church and the law courts.

In 1833 the supreme jurisdiction of the Court of Delegates was transferred to the judicial committee of the privy council. Before this court came an appeal by a clerk named Gorham, whom the bishop of Exeter refused to institute to a benefice because he denied unconditional regeneration in baptism, and in 1850 the court decided in the appellant's favour. The decision was followed by some secessions to Rome, and high churchmen were dissatisfied that spiritual questions should be decided by a secular court. The "papal aggression" of that year, by which Pius IX. appeared to claim authority in England, roused violent popular indignation which was used against the high church party. However, it afforded an argument for the revival of convocation, and, chiefly owing to the exertions of Bishop Wilberforce of Oxford, convocation again met in 1852 (see CONVOCATION). Meanwhile broad church opinions were gaining ground to some extent owing to a reaction from the Oxford movement. Among the clergy the broad church party was comparatively small, but it included some men of mark. In 1860 appeared _Essays and Reviews_, a volume of essays by seven authors, of whom six were in orders. The book as a whole had a rationalistic tendency and was condemned by convocation: two of the essayists were suspended by the Court of Arches, but its judgment was reversed by the judicial committee. Crude attacks on the authority of the Scriptures and the position of the English Church with respect to it having been published by Colenso, bishop of Natal, he was deposed by his metropolitan, Bishop Gray of Cape Town, in 1863, but the judicial committee decided that the bishop of Cape Town had no coercive jurisdiction over Natal. Convocation declared Colenso's books erroneous, abstaining in face of this judgment from acknowledging as valid the excommunication which Bishop Gray pronounced against him. It followed from the decision of the council that the English Church in a self-governing colony is a voluntary association. Opposition to the dogmatic principle in the church was maintained. Some practices introduced by clergy desirous of bringing the services of the church to a higher level came before the judicial committee in the case of _Westerton_ v. _Liddell_ in 1857, with a result encouraging to the ritualists, as they then began to be called. An increase in ritual usages, such as eucharistic vestments, altar lights and incense, followed. In 1859-1860 disgraceful riots took place at St George's-in-the-East, London, where an advanced ritual was used. In 1860 the English Church Union was formed mainly to uphold high church doctrine and ritual, and assist clergy prosecuted for either cause, and in 1865 the Church Association, mainly to put down such doctrine and ritual by prosecution. A royal commission appointed in 1867 recommended that facilities should be granted for enabling parishioners aggrieved by ritual to gain redress, and in 1870 that a revised lectionary and a shortened form of service should be provided. A new lectionary was approved by the two convocations and enacted, and convocation having received letters of business in 1872 and 1874 drew up a shortened form of prayer which was also enacted, but the commission had no further direct results. Between 1867 and 1871 two decisions of the judicial committee were adverse to the ritualists, and by exciting dislike to the court among high churchmen indirectly led to an increase in ritual usages. Among those who adopted them were many self-devoted men; their practices, which they believed to be incumbent on them, were condemned as illegal, yet they saw the rubrics daily disregarded with impunity by others who trod the easy path of neglect. In 1873 a declaration against sacramental confession received the assent of the bishops, and in 1874 Archbishop Tait of Canterbury introduced a bill for enforcing the law on the ritualist clergy; it was transformed in committee, and was enacted as the Public Worship Regulation Act. It provided for the appointment of a new judge in place of the old ecclesiastical judges, the officials principal, of the two provinces. Litigation increased, the only check on prosecutions being the right of the bishop to veto proceedings, and in 1878-1881 four clergymen were imprisoned for disobedience to the orders of courts against whose jurisdiction they protested. In consequence of the scandal raised by this mode of dealing with spiritual causes, a royal commission on ecclesiastical courts was appointed in 1881, but its report in 1883 led to no results, and the bishops strove to mend matters by exercising their veto. Advanced and illegal usages became more frequent. Proceedings in respect of illegal ritual having been instituted against Bishop King of Lincoln, the archbishop of Canterbury (Benson) personally heard and decided the case in 1890, and his judgment was upheld by the judicial committee (see LINCOLN JUDGMENT). The spiritual character of the tribunal and the authority of the judgment which sanctioned certain usages and condemned others, had a quieting effect. Increase in ritualism, however, caused agitation in 1898, and in 1899 and 1900 the two archbishops, Temple of Canterbury and Maclagan of York, delivered "opinions" condemning the use of incense and processional lights, and the reservation of the consecrated elements. Finding himself unable to put down illegal practices, Bishop Creighton of London adopted a policy of compromise which was followed by other bishops, and encouraged illegality. Disregard of law both in excess and defect of ritual being common, a royal commission on ecclesiastical discipline was appointed in 1904. The commissioners presented a unanimous report in 1906, its chief recommendations being, briefly, that practices significant of doctrines repugnant to those of the English Church should be extirpated; that the convocations should prepare a new ornaments rubric, and frame modifications in the conduct of divine service; that the diocesan and provincial courts and the court of final appeal should be reformed in accordance with the recommendations of 1883, the last to consist of a permanent body of lay judges who on all doubtful questions touching the doctrine or use of the church should be bound by the decision of an episcopal assembly; that the Public Worship Regulation Act should be repealed, and the bishops' power of veto abolished.

Present life.

Since the Oxford movement the church has developed wonderful energy. Yet it is beset with difficulties and dangers both from within and without. Within, besides difficulties as regards ritual, it has to contend against rationalism, which has been stimulated by scientific discoveries and speculations, and far more by Biblical criticism. While this criticism has been used by many as a means to a fuller comprehension of divine revelation, much of it is simply destructive, and has led to ill-considered expressions of opinion adverse to the doctrine of the church. From without, the church has been threatened with disestablishment both wholly and as regards the dioceses within the Welsh counties; and the education of the poor, which from early days depended on its care, has largely been taken out of its hands (see EDUCATION). The amount contributed by the church to elementary education, including the maintenance of Sunday schools, in 1907-8 was L576,012. During the last sixty years the church has strengthened its hold on the loyalty of the nation by its increased efficiency. Its bishops are laborious and active. Since 1876 the home episcopate has been increased by the creation of the dioceses of Truro, St Albans, Liverpool, Newcastle, Southwell, Wakefield, Bristol, Southwark and Birmingham, so that there are now (1910) thirty-seven diocesan bishops, aided by twenty-eight suffragan and eight assistant bishops, and a further subdivision of dioceses is contemplated. At no other time probably have the clergy been so industrious. As a rule they are far better instructed in theology than forty years ago, but they have not advanced in secular learning. Changes in the university system have contributed to draw off able young men to other professions which offer greater worldly advantages. The poverty of many of the clergy stands in strong contrast to the wealth around them. Of 14,242 benefices 4704 are said to be below L200 a year net value. The value of L100 tithe rent charge has sunk (1909) to L69: 18 : 5-1/4, the average value since the Commutation Act of 1836 being L94 : 3 : 2-3/4. The number of assistant clergy is (1910) about 7500, in spite of the hardships often attending clerical life, the supply of men being kept up. The Queen Victoria Clergy Fund and other voluntary associations and various educational institutions have been founded to relieve clerical distress. In the church at home there is much energy in numberless directions: cathedral churches have become centres of religious activity, and in parish churches the administration of the Holy Communion and weekday services are frequent. Many of the laity co-operate in church work and liberally support it. During the years 1898-1907 598 churches were built or rebuilt, and during twenty-four years, 1884-1907, the voluntary offerings for church building were L27,612,709, and for endowments and parsonages L6,116,592, yet church extension fails to keep pace with the increase of the population. Evangelistic efforts, the relief of the sick and poor, and the inculcation of temperance are zealously carried on. Good work is done by twenty-six sisterhoods and several institutions of deaconesses, and one or two communities of celibate clergy. In the British colonies and India the episcopate consists (1909) of seven archbishops with two coadjutors; there are also seventy diocesan bishops, and in other parts of the world thirty missionary bishops. The S.P.G. has 847 ordained ministers, including thirty chaplains in Europe, besides many female missionaries; the C.M.S. has 793 ordained ministers, and many other missionaries of both sexes; the Zenana Missionary Society has a staff of 1288; other church societies for foreign missions are vigorous, and the S.P.C.K. in addition to its work at home spends large sums in furthering the church abroad. The benefits arising from conference have increasingly been valued since the revival of convocation. Appreciation of the importance of lay support and counsel has led to the institution of two voluntary elective assemblies called Houses of Laymen, one for each province, and in 1905 an association of the four houses of convocation and the two lay assemblies was formed with the name of the Representative Church Council. During the last forty years diocesan conferences, in which the laity are represented, have become universal, while ruridecanal and other meetings of a like kind are general. An annual church congress, established in 1861, held its forty-ninth meeting in 1909. Of wider importance are the Lambeth conferences, held since 1878 at intervals of ten years, to which the bishops of the English Church and the churches in communion with it are invited, and meet under the presidency of the archbishop of Canterbury. The first of these conferences, which illustrate the dignity of the see founded by St Augustine and now the head of a vast quasi-patriarchate, was held under the presidency of Archbishop Longley in 1867 (see LAMBETH CONFERENCES and ANGLICAN COMMUNION).

AUTHORITIES.--General Histories, Narrative: J. Collier,
_Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain_ (to 1685), ed. T. Lathbury
(9 vols., London, 1852); T. Fuller, _Church History_ (to 1648), ed. J.
S. Brewer (Oxford, 1845), valuable near the author's own time; C.
Dodd, _Church History of England_ (to 1625, by a Roman Catholic), ed.
M. A. Tierney (5 vols., London, 1839-1843); Dean W. F. Hook, Lives of
the _Archbishops of Canterbury_ (to 1663) (12 vols., London,
1860-1879); G. G. Perry, _Students' English Church History_ (to 1884)
(London, 1887), a carefully written book; _A History of the English
Church_, ed. Stephens and Hunt, in 8 vols., noticed below under
various periods; H. O. Wakeman, _An Introduction to the History of the
Church of England_ (London, 1896), a brightly written manual by a
pronounced high churchman. Documents: D. Wilkins, _Concilia_
(446-1717) (4 vols. fol., London, 1737), a splendid work; A. W. Haddan
and Bishop W. Stubbs, _Councils and Ecclesiastical Documents_ (3
vols., Oxford, 1869-1873), supersedes Wilkins so far as it goes, but
deals with English Church only to 870, with Welsh, Scottish and
Cumbrian churches to later dates; H. Gee and W. J. Hardy, _Documents
of English Church History_ (to 1700) (London, 1896), useful for
students. Constitutional: Bishop W. Stubbs, _Constitutional History of
England_ (parts of) (3 vols., revised ed., Oxford, 1895-1897), a work
of great learning; F. Makower, _Constitutional History of the Church
of England_, from the German (London, 1895); F. W. Maitland, _Roman
Canon Law in the Church of England_ (London, 1898), authoritative.
(See under CONVOCATION.)

From 597: Bede, _Historia ecclesiastica_, ed. C. Plummer (2 vols.,
Oxford, 1896), the primary authority to 731, trans. by J. A. Giles
(Bohn's Library) and others; see also Eddi's contemporary "Vita
Wilfridi," in _Historians of York_, ed. James Raine, Rolls series (3
vols., 1879-1894); W. Bright, _Early English Church History_ (to 709)
(3rd ed., Oxford, 1897), a learned and beautiful book; articles in
_Dictionary of Christian Biography_ (to 9th century), ed. W. Smith and
H. Wace (4 vols., London, 1877-1887). Later Anglo-Saxon: In Chronicles
and biographies, as _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, Two of the Saxon
Chronicles_, ed. C. Plummer (2 vols., 1892), trans. by B. Thorpe,
Rolls series (1861), and others; Asser, _Life of Alfred_, ed. W. H.
Stevenson (Oxford, 1904), trans. by Giles; _Memorials of Dunstan_,
ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls series (1874). Modern: J. Lingard, _History of
the Anglo-Saxon Church_ (2 vols., London, 2nd ed., printed 1858); W.
Hunt, _History of the English Church_, 597-1066, ed. Stephens and Hunt
(London, revised ed., 1901).

For later medieval times: (1) Chroniclers, &c., after 1066, as
Florence of Worcester, ed. B. Thorpe, Eng. Hist. Soc. (2 vols., 1878),
trans. by J. Stevenson in _Church Historians_ (London, 1853); Symeon
of Durham, ed. T. Arnold, Rolls series (2 vols., 1882); Eadmer (for
Archbishop Anselm), ed. M. Rule, Rolls series (1884); William of
Malmesbury, _Gesta regum_, &c. (to 1152), ed. W. Stubbs, Rolls series
(2 vols., 1887), and _Gesta pontificum_, ed. N. E. S. A. Hamilton,
Rolls series (1870); (John of Salisbury?) _Historia pontificalis_ (for
Archbishop Theobald, 1139-1161), ed. Pertz, _Rerum Germ. scriptt._
xx.; _Materials for the Life of Archbishop Becket_, ed. J. C.
Robertson, Rolls series (7 vols., 1875-1885); Giraldus Cambrensis
(12th century), _Gemma ecclesiastica and Speculum ecclesiae_, Works
ii. and iv., ed. J. S. Brewer, Rolls series (1862, 1873); Matthew
Paris, _Chronica majora_ (to 1259), ed. H. R. Luard, Rolls series (7
vols., 1880-1883), and many more. (2) Letters, as Archbishop Lanfranc,
_Epistolae_, ed. Giles (Oxford, 1844); Archbishop Anselm, _Epistolae_,
ed. Migne (Paris, 1863); Robert Grosseteste, _Epistolae_, ed. H. R.
Luard, Rolls series (1861), and others. (3) Bishops' Registers, as
_Registrum J. Peckham_ (Archbishop of Canterbury, 1279-1292), ed. C.
T. Martin, Rolls series (3 vols., 1882-1886); _Exeter Registers_, ed.
Hingeston-Randolph (5 vols., 1889); _Registers_ of Bishops Drokensford
and Ralph of Shrewsbury, ed. W. H. Dickinson and T. S. Holmes,
Somerset Record Soc. (3 vols., 1887, 1895-1896), and others. For
Wycliffe and early Lollards see WYCLIFFE. R. Pecock, _Repressor of
Overmuch Blaming of the Clergy_, ed. C. Babington, Rolls series (2
vols., 1860); and T. Gascoigne, _Loci e libro veritatum_, ed. J. T.
Rogers (Oxford, 1881), which gives ample notices of abuses, should be
consulted for 15th century. Modern books: W. R. W. Stephens, _The
English Church, 1066-1272_ (revised edition, 1904), and W. W. Capes,
_The English Church in the 14th and 15th Centuries_ (1900), both ed.
Stephens and Hunt (London); J. Raine, _Archbishops of York_ (ends at
1373) (London, 1863); F. A. Gasquet, _Henry III. and the Church_
(London, 1905). Biographical: Dean R. W. Church, _Anselm_ (London,
1870); M. Rule, _Life and Times of St Anselm_ (written from a Roman
Catholic standpoint) (2 vols., London, 1883); C. de Remusat, _Vie de
S. Anselme_ (Paris, 1868); G. G. Perry, _St Hugh, Bishop of Lincoln_
(London, 1879); F. S. Stevenson, _Robert Grosseteste, Bishop of
Lincoln_ (London, 1899), and others.

For the Reformation Period: Documentary: Notices in Letters and
Papers, Henry VIII., ed. J. S. Brewer, J. Gairdner, R. H. Brodie,
Record Publ. (19 vols., 1862-1905), and _Calendars of State Papers_
for Henry VIII., Edward VI., ed. R. Lemon (1856) and M. A. Green
(1870), for Mary, ed. Lemon (1856), Record Publ., and for Elizabeth,
Hatfield MSS., Hist. MSS. Comm.; _Acts of the Privy Council_, ed. J.
R. Dasent (1890), in progress; _Records of the Reformation_, ed. N.
Pocock (2 vols., Oxford, 1870); E. Cardwell, _Documentary Annals_
(Oxford, 1839); _Original Letters_, ed. H. Ellis (11 vols.,
1824-1846); _Zurich Letters_ (2 vols.), _Original Letters_ (2 vols.),
ed. Robinson (1842-1847); Latimer's _Sermons_ (1844), and _Archbishop
Parker's Correspondence_, ed. J. Bruce and T. T. Perowne, all Parker
Soc. Publ., Cambridge; see also _General Index to Parker Soc.'s Publ._
(1855); R. Pole (Cardinal), _Epistolae_, ed. Quirini (5 vols.,
Brescia, 1744-1757); G. W. Prothero, _Select Statutes_, &c.;
_Elizabeth and James I._ (3rd ed., Oxford, 1906). Supplementary:
Strype, _Ecclesiastical Memorials_ (6 vols., 1513-1556); _Annals_
(Elizabeth) (7 vols.); _Memorials of Cranmer_ (2 vols.); _Lives_ of
Parker (3 vols.), Grindal, Whitgift (3 vols.), all with a large
repertory of documents, also of Cheke, T. Smith and Aylmer (all
Oxford, 1820-1824); Burnet, _History of the Reformation_, ed. N.
Pocock (7 vols., Oxford, 1865), with many documents. Chronicles and
early Histories: W. Camden, _Annales_ (Elizabeth), ed. T. Hearne (3
vols., 1717); _Chronicle of Queen Jane and Queen Mary_, ed. J. G.
Nichols (Camden Soc., 1850); E. Hall, _Chronicle_ (Henry VIII.), ed.
C. Whibley (2 vols., London, 1904); N. Harpsfield, _Treatise on the
Pretended Divorce of Henry VIII._, ed. N. Pocock (Camden Soc., 1878);
J. Foxe, _Acts and Monuments_ (often called "The Book of Martyrs"),
ed. S. R. Cattley and G. Townsend (a book with many facts
industriously gathered, many documents and some errors) (8 vols.,
London, 1843-1849); H. Machyn, _Diary_ (1550-1563), and _Narratives of
the Reformation_, both ed. J. G. Nichols (Camden Soc., 1854, 1859); W.
Roper, _The Life of Sir Thomas More_, ed. S. Singer (1817), and other
editions, a beautiful book by More's son-in-law; N. Sander, _De
origins ac progressu schismatis Anglicani_, continued by E. Rishton
(Rome, 1586), translated by D. Lewis (London, 1877) (Sander was a
Roman Catholic priest who wrote in 1576; his language is violent but
the narrative generally trustworthy); _The Presbyterian Movement in
the Reign of Queen Elizabeth_, ed. R. G. Usher (R. Hist. Soc., 1905).
Modern histories: J. H. Blunt, _History of the English Reformation_
(London, 1878), a careful work, though of no great historical
importance; T. E. Bridgett, _Life of Blessed John Fisher_ (London,
1888); R. W. Dixon, _History of the Church of England from the
Abolition of the Roman Jurisdiction_ (5 vols., London, 1878-1892), a
book showing great knowledge and insight; V. M. Doreau, _Henry VIII et
les martyres de la Chartreuse_ (Paris, 1890); H. Fisher, _History of
England 1485-1547_, presents a brilliant and trustworthy narrative of
ecclesiastical affairs during the reign of Henry VIII., and forms
vol. v. of the _Political History of England_, ed. W. Hunt and R. L.
Poole (London, 1906); P. Friedmann, _Anne Boleyn_ (London, 1884), an
important work; W. H. Frere, _History of the English Church,
1558-1625_, ed. W. R. W. Stephens and W. Hunt (1904), scholarly; J. A.
Froude, _History of England_ (1527-1588), a work of literary beauty,
research and historical grasp, from an anti-ecclesiastical standpoint,
with some blemishes, but of increasing value after the reign of Henry
VIII. (12 vols., London, 1856-1870, cheap editions, 1881-1882, 1893);
J. Gairdner, _History of the English Church_, Henry VIII. to Mary, ed.
Stephens and Hunt (London, 1902), by the highest authority on the
period; H. E. Jacobs, _The Lutheran Movement in England_
(Philadelphia, 1890), chiefly on progressive doctrinal change; A. F.
Pollard, _Henry VIII._ (London, with illustrations 1902, with
references 1905), an excellent general history of the reign, _England
under Protector Somerset_ (London, 1900), and _Life of Cranmer_
(London, 1904). For Rebellion Period: Contemporary and early: _State
Papers_, Domestic, 1625-1649, ed. J. Bruce, W. D. Hamilton, Mrs S. C.
Lomas (23 vols.), from 1649, ed. E. Green (13 vols.), and _Calendars
of Committees for Plundered Ministers_, &c., all Record Publ.;
_Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution_, ed. S. R.
Gardiner (Oxford, 1899); J. Evelyn, _Diary_, ed. A. Dobson (3 vols.,
London, 1906); also ed. W. Bray and ed. H. B. Wheatley; J. Hacket,
_Scrinia reserata_, Life of Archbishop Williams (London, 1715); P.
Heylyn, _Cyprianus Anglicanus_, Life of Archbishop Laud (Dublin,
1668); W. Laud, Works, ed. W. Scott and W. Bliss, Library of
Anglo-Catholic Theology (7 vols., Oxford, 1847-1860); J. Milton,
various _Prose Works_, ed. C. Symmons (7 vols., London, 1806);
_Puritan Visitations of Oxford_, ed. M. Burrows (Camden Soc., 1881).
Later: W. H. Hutton, _History of the English Church_, 1625-1714, ed.
Stephen and Hunt (London, 1903), and _William Laud_ (London, 1895); S.
R. Gardiner, _History of England_, under various titles, _1603-1657_
(London, 1863-1903), and cr. 8vo edition begun 1883, a work of vast
research and learning, contains fair and careful accounts of religious
matters; D. Masson, _Life of Milton_ (7 vols., London, 1859-1894); D.
Neal, _History of the Puritans_, ed. J. Toulmin (3 vols., 1837); W. A.
Shaw, _The English Church, 1640-1660_ (2 vols., London, 1900), and on
the Westminster Assembly, _Cambridge Modern History_, iv. c. 12
(Cambridge, 1906); J. Stoughton, _Ecclesiastical History of England_,
_Civil Wars_, &c. (4 vols., London, 1867-1870), by a dissenting
divine, a careful and unprejudiced history; J. Walker, _Sufferings of
the Clergy_ (London, 1714). For Restoration and Revolution Period: R.
Baxter, _Reliquiae Baxterianae_, ed. M. Sylvester (London, 1696); and
E. Calamy, _Abridgment of Life of Baxter_ (2 vols., 1713); R. Bentley,
_Life of Bishop Stillingfleet_, with _Works_ in 6 vols. (London,
1710); Bishop G. Burnet, _History of his Own Time_ (6 vols., Oxford,
1783); G. Doyly, _Life of Archbishop Sancroft_ (2 vols., London,
1821); W. Kennett (Bishop), _Compleat History_, vol. iii. (London,
1710); T. Lathbury, _History of the Nonjurors_ (London, 1843); T. B.
Macaulay, _History of England_ (5 vols., London, 1858-1861); _Magdalen
College and James II._, ed. J. R. Bloxam, Oxford Historical Society
(Oxford, 1886); R. Nelson, _Life of Bishop Bull_, ed. Burton (Oxford,
1827); J. H. Overton, _The Nonjurors_ (London, 1902), and _Life in the
English Church, 1660-1714_ (2 vols., London, 1885); E. H. Plumptre,
_Life of Bishop Ken_ (2 vols., London, 1888); I. Walton, _Lives_
(Bishop G. Morley and others) (London, 1898, and frequently). For 18th
century: C. J. Abbey, _The English Church and its Bishops, 1700-1800_
(2 vols., London, 1887); C. J. Abbey and J. H. Overton, _The English
Church in the 18th Century_ (London, revised ed., 1887), a pleasant
and useful book; R. Cecil, _Life of John Newton_ (London, 1827); A.
C. Fraser, _Life of Bishop Berkeley_, vol. iv. of _Works_ (Oxford,
1871); Lord Hervey, _Memoirs of the Reign of George II._, ed. J. W.
Croker (3 vols., London, 1884); A. H. Hore, _The Church of England
from William III. to Victoria_ (2 vols., Oxford, 1886); J. Hunt,
_Religious Thought in England_ (3 vols., London, 1873); _Huntingdon,
Selina, Countess of, Life and Times_ (2 vols., London, 1839-1840); J.
Keble, _Life of Bishop Wilson_ (Oxford, 1863): W. E. H. Lecky,
_History of England in the 18th Century_, vols. i.-iii. and v. (8
vols., London, 1879-1890); Bishop T. Newton, _Autobiography_, with
_Works_ (6 vols., London, 1787); J. H. Overton and F. Relton, _History
of the English Church, 1714-1800_, ed. Stephens and Hunt (London,
1906); W. Roberts, _Memoir of Hannah More_ (4 vols., London, 1834); W.
A. Spooner, _Bishop Butler_ (London, 1891); Sir J. Stephen, _Essays in
Ecclesiastical Biography_ (2 vols., London, 1853), for an account of
the Evangelicals early in the 19th century; Sir L. Stephen, _English
Thought in the 18th Century_ (2 vols., London, 1881), for theological
controversies; H. Thompson, _Life of Hannah More_ (London, 1838); R.
Watson, _Anecdotes of the Life of Bishop R. Watson_ (2 vols., London,
1818), presents a curious picture of a bishop's life 1782-1816; R. and
S. Wilberforce, _Memoir of W. Wilberforce_ (5 vols., London, 1838).
See under METHODISM; WESLEY (family); and WHITEFIELD, GEORGE.

For the Oxford Movement and onwards: A. W. Benn, _English Rationalism
in the 19th Century_ (2 vols., London, 1906); A. C. Benson, _Life of
Archbishop E. W. Benson_ (2 vols., London, 1899); J. W. Burgon, _Lives
of Twelve Good Men_ (2 vols., London, 1888); R. W. Church, _History of
the Oxford Movement_ (London, 1891); J. T. Coleridge, _Life of Keble_
(Oxford, 1869); R. T. Davidson and W. Benham, _Life of Archbishop A.
C. Tait_ (2 vols., London, 1892); H. P. Liddon and J. O. Johnston,
_Life of Pusey_ (4 vols., London, 1893-1895); T. Mozley,
_Reminiscences of Oriel and the Oxford Movement_ (2 vols., London,
1882); J. H. Newman, _Apologia pro Vita sua_ (London, 1864); R.
Prothero, _Correspondence of Dean A. P. Stanley_ (2 vols., London,
1893); R. G. Wilberforce and A. Ashwell, _Life of Bishop S.
Wilberforce_ (3 vols., London, 1879) _Report of the Royal Commission
on Ecclesiastical Courts_ (1883), and _Report of the Royal Commission
on Ecclesiastical Discipline_ (1906), both H.M. Stationery Office;
_Official Year Book of the Church of England_, S.P.C.K. (1906).
(W. HU.)

ENGLEFIELD, SIR FRANCIS (c. 1520-1596), English Roman Catholic politician, born probably about 1520, was the eldest son of Sir Thomas Englefield of Englefield, Berkshire, justice of the common pleas. His mother was Elizabeth, daughter of Sir Robert Throckmorton, one of the well-known Catholic family of Coughton, Warwickshire. Francis, who succeeded his father in 1537, was too young to have taken any part in the opposition to the abolition of the Roman jurisdiction and dissolution of the monasteries; and he acquiesced in these measures to the extent of taking the oath of royal supremacy, serving as sheriff of Berkshire and Oxfordshire in 1546-1547, and accepting in 1545 a grant of the manor of Tilehurst, which had belonged to Reading Abbey. He was even knighted at the coronation of Edward VI. in February 1547. But the progress of the Reformation during that reign alienated him, and he attached his fortunes to the cause of the princess Mary, whose service he entered before 1551. In August of that year he was sent to the Tower for permitting Mass to be celebrated in Mary's household. He was released in the following March, and permitted to resume his duties in Mary's service. But in February 1553 he was again summoned before the privy council, and may have been in confinement at the crisis of July; perhaps he was only released on Mary's triumph, for his name does not appear among those who exerted themselves on her behalf before the middle of August. He was then sworn a member of the privy council like many others who owed their promotion to their loyalty rather than to their political abilities. Their numbers swelled the privy council and sadly impaired its efficiency; but Mary resisted the various attempts to get rid of them because she liked staunch friends, and regarded them as a salutary check upon the abler but less scrupulous members who had served Edward VI. as well as herself. Englefield sat as M.P. for Berkshire in all Mary's parliaments except that of April 1554, but received no higher political office than the lucrative mastership of the court of wards.

He was an ardent believer in persecution, was present at Hooper's trial, sought Ascham's ruin, and naturally lost his office and his seat on the privy council at Elizabeth's succession. He retired to the continent before May 1559, and from that time until his death was an active participant in all schemes for the restoration of Roman Catholicism. At first his ideas took such comparatively mild forms as inducing the pope to send a legate to persuade Elizabeth to return to the fold; but gradually they grew more violent and treasonable, until Englefield became the close confidant of Cardinal Allen, Parsons and the "jesuited" Catholics, who advocated forcible intervention by Spain and the succession of the infanta; in 1585 Englefield thought that Mary's succession, peaceful or other, would not be satisfactory unless it were owing to Spanish support and she were dependent on Philip. Englefield lived first at Rome, then in the Low Countries, and finally at Valladolid. He was blind for the last twenty years of his life, and received a pension of six hundred crowns from Philip. He had been outlawed in 1564 and his estates sequestered, but they were not forfeited until 1585, when an act of attainder was passed against Englefield. Even then some legal difficulties stood in the way of their appropriation by the crown, for Englefield, obviously with an eye to this contingency, had conditionally settled them on his nephew Francis. The long arguments on the point are given in Coke's _Reports_, and a further act was passed in 1592 confirming the forfeiture to the crown. The nephew, however, eventually recovered some of the family estates, and was created a baronet in 1612. His uncle was alive in September 1596, but apparently died at Valladolid about the end of that year. His tomb there used to be shown to visitors as that of an eminent man.

See _Dict. of Nat. Biog._ xvii. 372-374; but additional light has been
thrown on Englefield's career since the date of that article by the
publication of the Spanish and Venetian Calendars, the Hatfield MSS.,
the Acts of the Privy Council, and the Letters and Papers of Henry
VIII. (A. F. P.)

ENGLEHEART, GEORGE (1752-1829), English miniature painter, the great rival of Richard Cosway, was born at Kew in October 1752, and received his artistic training first under George Barret, R.A., and then under Sir Joshua Reynolds. He started on his own account in 1773, and exhibited in that year at the Royal Academy. He continued the active pursuit of his profession down to 1813, when he retired, and his fee-book, still in existence, records the names of his sitters, and the amount paid for each portrait, proving that he painted 4853 miniatures during that period of thirty-nine years, and that his professional income for many years exceeded L1200 a year. During the greater part of his life he resided in Hertford Street, Mayfair, where he lived till he retired. He died at Blackheath in 1829, and was buried at Kew.

He painted George III. twenty-five times, and had a very extensive circle of patrons, comprising nearly all the important persons connected with the court. He made careful copies in miniature of many of the famous paintings executed by Sir Joshua Reynolds, and in some cases these constitute the only information we possess respecting portraits by Sir Joshua that are now missing. His fee-book, colours, appliances and a large collection of his miniatures still remain in the possession of his descendants.

His nephew, JOHN COX DILLMAN ENGLEHEART (1784-1862), also a miniature painter, entered George Engleheart's studio when he was but fourteen years of age. He first exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1801, and sent in altogether 157 works. He was a man of substantial means, and in his time a very popular painter, but his health broke down when he was forty-four years old, and he had to relinquish the pursuit of his profession. He lived at Tunbridge Wells for some years and died there in 1862.

See _George Engleheart_, by G. C. Williamson and H. L. D. Engleheart
(1902). (G. C. W.)

ENGLEWOOD, a city of Bergen county, New Jersey, U.S.A., near the Hudson river, 14 m. N. by E. of Jersey City. Pop. (1900) 6253, of whom 1548 were foreign-born and 386 negroes; (1905) 7922; (1910) 9924. It is served by a branch of the Erie railway, and by an electric line connecting with a ferry (at Fort Lee) to New York. Englewood is primarily a residential suburb of New York. The site rises terrace above terrace from the marshes in the valley of the Hackensack to the top of the palisades overlooking the Hudson, from which Englewood is separated by the borough of Englewood Cliffs (pop. in 1905, 266). There are several fine residences, a hospital, a public library and the Dwight school for girls (1859). The site of Englewood was for a long time a part of "English Neighbourhood," and was known as Liberty Pole; but until 1859, when the place was laid out, there were only a few houses here, one of which was the "Liberty Pole Tavern." In 1871 Englewood was set off from the township of Hackensack and was incorporated as a separate township, and in 1896 it was chartered as a city; but the act under which it was chartered was declared unconstitutional, and in 1899 Englewood was rechartered as a city by a special act of the state legislature.

ENGLISH CHANNEL (commonly called "The Channel"; Fr. _La Manche_, "the sleeve"), the narrow sea separating England from France. If its entrance be taken to lie between Ushant and the Scilly Isles, its extreme breadth (between those points) is about 100 m., and its length about 350. At the Strait of Dover, its breadth decreases to 20 m. Along both coasts of the Channel, cliffs and lowland alternate, and the geological affinities between successive opposite stretches are well marked, as between the Devonian and granitic rocks of Cornwall and Brittany, the Jurassic of Portland and Calvados, and the Cretaceous of the Pays de Caux and the Isle of Wight and the Sussex coast, as well as either shore of the Strait of Dover. The English Channel is of comparatively recent geological formation. The land-connexion between England and the continent was not finally severed until the latter part of the Pleistocene period. The Channel covers what was previously a wide valley, and may be described now as a headless gulf. The action of waves and currents, both destructive and constructive, is well seen at many points; thus Shakespeare Cliff at Dover is said to have been cut back more than a mile during the Christian era, and the cliffs of Grisnez have similarly receded. Of the opposite process notable examples are the building of the pebbly beaches of Chesil Bank and near Treguier in Cotes du Nord, and the promontory of Dungeness. The total drainage area of the English rivers flowing into the Channel is about 8000 sq. m.; of the French rivers, including as they do the Seine, it is about 41,000 sq. m.

From the Strait of Dover the bottom slopes fairly regularly down to the western entrance of the Channel, the average depths ranging from 20 to 30 fathoms in the Strait to 60 fathoms at the entrance. An exception to this condition, however, is found in Hurd's Deep, a narrow depression about 70 m. long, lying north and north-west of the Channel Islands, and at its nearest point to them only 5 m. distant from their outlying rocks, the Casquets. Towards its eastern end Hurd's Deep has an extreme depth of 94 fathoms, and in it are found steeper slopes from shoal to deep water than elsewhere within the Channel. Nearing the entrance to the Channel from the Atlantic, the 100 fathoms line may be taken to mark the edge of soundings. Beyond this depth the bottom falls away rapidly. The 100 fathoms line is laid down about 180 m. W. to 120 m. S.W. of the Scilly Isles, and 80 m. W. of Ushant. Within it there are considerable irregularities of the bottom; thus a succession of narrow ridges running N.E. and S.W. occurs west of the Scillies, while only 4 m. N.W. of Ushant there is a small depression in which a depth of 105 fathoms has been found. As a general rule the slope from the English coast to the deepest parts of the Channel is more regular than that from the French coast, and for that reason, and in consideration of the greater dangers to navigation towards the French shore, the fairway is taken to lie between 12 and 24 m. from the principal promontories of the English shore, as far up-channel as Beachy Head. These promontories (the Lizard, Start Point, Portland Bill, St Alban's Head, St Catherine's Point of the Isle of Wight, Selsey Bill, Beachy Head, Dungeness, the South Foreland) demarcate a series of bays roughly of sickle-shape, the shores of which run north and south, or nearly so, at their western sides, turn eastward somewhat abruptly at their heads, and then trend more gently towards the south-east. On the French coast the arrangement is similar but reversed; Capes Grisnez, Antifer and La Hague, and the Pointe du Sillon demarcating a series of bays (larger than those on the English coast) whose shores run north and south on the eastern side, and have a gentler trend westward from the head.

The configuration of the coasts is perhaps the chief cause of the peculiarities of tides in the Channel. From the entrance as far as Portland Bill the time of high water is found to be progressively later in passing from west to east, being influenced by the oceanic tidal stream from the west under conditions which are on the whole normal. But eastward of a line between Portland Bill and the Gulf of St Malo these conditions are changed and great irregularities are observed. On the English coast between Portland Bill and Selsey a double tide is found. At Portland this double tide corresponds approximately with the time of low water in the regular tidal progression, and the result is the occurrence of two periods of low water, separated by a slight rise known locally as "gulder." But farther east the double tide corresponds more nearly with the time of high water, and in consequence either the effect is produced of a prolonged period of high water, or there are actually two periods of high water, as at Southampton. Various causes apparently contribute to this phenomenon. The configuration of the coast line is such as to present at intervals barriers to the regular movement of the tidal wave (west to east), so that reflex waves (east to west) are set up. In the extreme case at Southampton the tidal effect is carried from the outer Channel first by way of the Solent, the strait west of the Isle of Wight, and later by way of Spithead, the eastern strait. Finally the effect of the tidal stream entering the Channel through the Strait of Dover from the North Sea must be considered. The set of this stream towards the Strait of Dover from the east corresponds in time with that of the Channel stream (i.e. the stream within an area defined by Start Point, the Casquets, Beachy Head and the mouth of the Somme) towards the strait from the west; the set of the two streams away from the strait also corresponds, and consequently they alternately meet and separate. The area in which the meeting and separation take place lies between Beachy Head and the North Foreland, the mouth of the Somme and Dunkirk. Within this area, therefore, a stream is formed, known as the intermediate stream, which, running at first with the Channel stream and then with the North Sea stream, changes its direction throughout its length almost simultaneously, and is never slack. Under these conditions, the time of high water eastward of Selsey Bill as far as Dover is almost the same at all points, though somewhat earlier at the east than at the west of this stretch of coast. The configuration of the French coast causes a very strong tidal flow in the Gulf of St Malo, with an extreme range at spring tides of 42 ft. at St Germain, compared with a range of 12 ft. at Exmouth and 7 ft. at Portland. In the neighbourhood of Beer Head and Portland and Weymouth Roads the streams are found to form vortices with only a slight movement. On the eastern (Selsey-Dover) section of the English coast the _maximum_ range of tide is found at Hastings, with a decrease both eastward and westward of this point.

Westerly winds are most prevalent in the Channel. The total number of gales recorded in the period 1871-1885 was 190, of which 104 were south-westerly. Gales are most frequent from October to January (November during the above period had more than any other month, with an average of 2.1), and most rare from May to July. It appears that gales are generally more violent and prolonged when coincident with spring tides than with neaps. The winds have naturally a powerful effect on the tidal streams and currents, the latter being in these seas simply movements of the water set up by gales, which may themselves be far distant. Thus under the influence of westerly winds prevailing west of the Iberian Peninsula a current may be set up from the Bay of Biscay across the entrance of the Channel; this is called Rennell's current. Fogs and thick weather are common in the Channel, and occur at all seasons of the year. Observations during the period 1876-1890 at Dover, Hurst Castle and the Scilly Isles showed that at the two first stations fogs most frequently accompany anticyclonic conditions in winter, but at the Scilly Isles they are much more common in summer than in winter, and accompany winds of moderate strength more frequently than in the case of the up-Channel stations. (O. J. R. H.)