Chapter VI: The 19th Century (3)

A sentence of Quintilian expresses the feeling of reverence for his genius and character, mixed with distaste for his rude workmanship, with which the Romans of the early empire regarded him: "Let us revere Ennius as we revere the sacred groves, hallowed by antiquity, whose massive and venerable oak trees are not so remarkable for beauty as for the religious awe which they inspire" (_Inst. or._ x. 1. 88).

Editions of the fragments by L. Muller (1884), L. Valmaggi (1900, with
notes), J. Vahlen (1903); monographs by L. Muller (1884 and 1893), C.
Pascal, _Studi sugli scrittori Latini_ (1900); see also Mommsen,
_History of Rome_, bk. iii. ch. 14. On Virgil's indebtedness to Ennius
see V. Crivellari, _Quae praecipue hausit Vergilius ex Naevio et
Ennio_ (1889).

ENNODIUS, MAGNUS FELIX (A.D. 474-521), bishop of Pavia, Latin rhetorician and poet. He was born at Arelate (Arles) and belonged to a distinguished but impecunious family. Having lost his parents at an early age, he was brought up by an aunt at Ticinum (Pavia); according to some, at Mediolanum (Milan). After her death he was received into the family of a pious and wealthy young lady, to whom he was betrothed. It is not certain whether he actually married this lady; she seems to have lost her money and retired to a convent, whereupon Ennodius entered the Church, and was ordained deacon (about 493) by Epiphanius, bishop of Pavia. From Pavia he went to Milan, where he continued to reside until his elevation to the see of Pavia about 515. During his stay at Milan he visited Rome and other places, where he gained a reputation as a teacher of rhetoric. As bishop of Pavia he played a considerable part in ecclesiastical affairs. On two occasions (in 515 and 517) he was sent to Constantinople by Theodoric on an embassy to the emperor Anastasius, to endeavour to bring about a reconciliation between the Eastern and Western churches. He died on the 17th of July 521; his epitaph still exists in the basilica of St Michael at Pavia (_Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum_, v. pt. ii. No. 6464).

Ennodius is one of the best representatives of the twofold (pagan and Christian) tendency of 5th-century literature, and of the Gallo-Roman clergy who upheld the cause of civilization and classical literature against the inroads of barbarism. But his anxiety not to fall behind his classical models--the chief of whom was Virgil--his striving after elegance and grammatical correctness, and a desire to avoid the commonplace have produced a turgid and affected style, which, aggravated by rhetorical exaggerations and popular barbarisms, makes his works difficult to understand. It has been remarked that his poetry is less unintelligible than his prose.

The numerous writings of this versatile ecclesiastic may be divided
into (1) letters, (2) miscellanies, (3) discourses, (4) poems. The
letters on a variety of subjects, addressed to high church and state
officials, are valuable for the religious and political history of the
period. Of the miscellanies, the most important are: _The Panegyric of
Theodoric_, written to thank the Arian prince for his tolerance of
Catholicism and support of Pope Symmachus (probably delivered before
the king on the occasion of his entry into Ravenna or Milan); like all
similar works, it is full of flattery and exaggeration, but if used
with caution is a valuable authority; _The Life of St Epiphanius_,
bishop of Pavia, the best written and perhaps the most important of
all his writings, an interesting picture of the political activity and
influence of the church; _Eucharisticon de Vita Sua_, a sort of
"confessions," after the manner of St Augustine; the description of
the enfranchisement of a slave with religious formalities in the
presence of a bishop; _Paraenesis didascalica_, an educational guide,
in which the claims of grammar as a preparation for the study of
rhetoric, the mother of all the sciences, are strongly insisted on.
The discourses (_Dictiones_) are sacred, scholastic, controversial and
ethical. The discourse on the anniversary of Laurentius, bishop of
Milan, is the chief authority for the life of that prelate; the
scholastic discourses, rhetorical exercises for the schools, contain
eulogies of classical learning, distinguished professors and pupils;
the controversial deal with imaginary charges, the subjects being
chiefly borrowed from the _Controversiae_ of the elder Seneca; the
ethical harangues are put into the mouth of mythological personages
(e.g. the speech of Thetis over the body of Achilles). Amongst the
poems mention may be made of two _Itineraria_, descriptions of a
journey from Milan to Brigantium (Briancon) and of a trip on the Po;
an apology for the study of profane literature; an epithalamium, in
which Love is introduced as execrating Christianity; a dozen hymns,
after the manner of St Ambrose, probably intended for church use;
epigrams on various subjects, some being epigrams proper--inscriptions
for tombs, basilicas, baptisteries--others imitations of Martial,
satiric pieces and descriptions of scenery.

There are two excellent editions of Ennodius by G. Hartel (vol. vi. of
_Corpus scriptorum ecclesiasticorum Latinorum_, Vienna, 1882) and F.
Vogel (vol. vii. of _Monumenta Germaniae historica_, 1885, with
exhaustive prolegomena). On Ennodius generally consult M. Fertig,
_Ennodius und seine Zeit_ (1855-1860); A. Dubois, _La Latinite
d'Ennodius_ (1903); F. Magani, _Ennodio_ (Pavia, 1886); A. Ebert,
_Allgemeine Geschichte der Litt. des Mittelalters im Abendlande_, i.
(1889); M. Manitius, Geschichte der christlich-lateinischen Poesie
(1891); Teuffel, _Hist. of Roman Literature_, S 479 (Eng. tr., 1892).
French translation by the abbe S. Leglise (Paris, 1906 foll.).

ENNS, a town of Austria, in upper Austria, 11 m. by rail S.E. of Linz. Pop. (1900) 4371. It is situated on the Enns near its confluence with the Danube and possesses a 15th-century castle, an old Gothic church, and a town hall erected in 1565. Three miles to the S.W. lies the Augustinian monastery of St Florian, one of the oldest and largest religious houses of Austria. Founded in the 7th century, it was occupied by the Benedictines till the middle of the 11th century. It was established on a firm basis in 1071, when it passed into the hands of the Augustinians. The actual buildings, which are among the most magnificent in Austria, were constructed between 1686 and 1745. Its library, with over 70,000 volumes, contains valuable manuscripts and also a fine collection of coins. Enns is one of the oldest towns in Austria, and stands near the site of the Roman _Laureacum_. The nucleus of the actual town was formed by a castle, called Anasiburg or Anesburg, erected in 900 by the Bavarians as a post against the incursions of the Hungarians. It soon attained commercial prosperity, and by a charter of 1212 was made a free town. In 1275 it passed into the hands of Rudolph of Habsburg. An encounter between the French and the Austrian troops took place here on the 5th of November 1805.

ENOCH ([Hebrew: hanockh, hanockh], Hanokh, Teaching or Dedication). (1) In Gen. iv. 17, 18 (J), the eldest son of Cain, born while Cain was building a city, which he named after Enoch; nothing is known of the city. (2) In Gen. v. 24, &c. (P), _seventh_ in descent from Adam in the line of Seth; he "walked with God," and after 365 years "was not for God took him." [(1) and (2) are often regarded as both corruptions of the _seventh_ primitive king Evedorachos (Enmeduranki in cuneiform inscriptions), the two genealogies, Gen. iv. 16-24, v. 12-17, being variant forms of the Babylonian list of primitive kings. Enmeduranki is the favourite of the sun-god, cf. Enoch's 365 years.[1]] Heb. xi. 5 says Enoch "was not found, because God _translated_ him." Later Jewish legends represented him as receiving revelations on astronomy, &c., and as the first author; apparently following the Babylonian account which makes Enmeduranki receive instruction in all wisdom from the sun-god.[1] Two apocryphal works written in the name of Enoch are extant, the _Book of Enoch_, compiled from documents written 200-50 B.C., quoted as the work of Enoch, Jude 14 and 15; and the _Book of the Secrets of Enoch_, A.D. 1-50. Cf. 1 Chron. i. 3; Luke iii. 37; Wisdom iv. 7-14; Ecclus. xliv. 16, xlix. 14. (3) Son, i.e. clan, of Midian, in Gen. xxv. 4; 1 Chron. i. 33. (4) Son, i.e. clan, of Reuben, E.V. _Hanoch_, _Henoch_, in Gen. xlvi. 9; Exod. vi. 14; Num. xxvi. 5; 1 Chron. v. 3. There may have been some historical connexion between these two clans with identical names.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Eberhard Schrader, _Die Keilinschriften und das A.T._, 3rd ed.,
pp. 540 f.

ENOCH, BOOK OF. The _Book of Enoch_, or, as it is sometimes called, the _Ethiopic Book of Enoch_, in contradistinction to the _Slavonic Book of Enoch_ (see later), is perhaps the most important of all the apocryphal or pseudapocryphal Biblical writings for the history of religious thought. It is not the work of a single author, but rather a conglomerate of literary fragments which once circulated under the names of Enoch, Noah and possibly Methuselah. In the _Book of the Secrets of Enoch_ we have additional portions of this literature. As the former work is derived from a variety of Pharisaic writers in Palestine, so the latter in its present form was written for the most part by Hellenistic Jews in Egypt.

The _Book of Enoch_ was written in the second and first centuries B.C. It was well known to many of the writers of the New Testament, and in many instances influenced their thought and diction. Thus it is quoted by name as a genuine production of Enoch in the Epistle of Jude, 14 sq., and it lies at the base of Matt. xix. 28 and John v. 22, 27, and many other passages. It had also a vast indirect influence on the Palestinian literature of the 1st century of our era. Like the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Megilloth, the Pirke Aboth, this work was divided into five parts, with the critical discussion of which we shall deal below. With the earlier Fathers and Apologists it had all the weight of a canonical book, but towards the close of the 3rd and the beginning of the 4th century it began to be discredited, and finally fell under the ban of the Church. Almost the latest reference to it in the early church is made by George Syncellus in his Chronography about A.D. 800. The book was then lost sight of till 1773, when Bruce discovered the Ethiopic version in Abyssinia.

_Original Language._--That the _Book of Enoch_ was written in Semitic is now accepted on all hands, but scholars are divided as to whether the Semitic language in question was Hebrew or Aramaic. Only one valuable contribution on this question has been made, and that by Halevy in the _Journal Asiatique_, Avril-Mai 1867, pp. 352-395. This scholar is of opinion that the entire work was written in Hebrew. Since this publication, however, fresh evidence bearing on the question has been discovered in the Greek fragment (i.-xxxii.) found in Egypt. Since this fragment contains three Aramaic words transliterated in the Greek, some scholars, and among them Schurer, Levi and N. Schmidt, have concluded that not only are chapters i.-xxxvi. derived from an Aramaic original, but also the remainder of the book. In support of the latter statement no evidence has yet been offered by these or any other scholars, nor yet has there been any attempt to meet the positive arguments of Halevy for a Hebrew original of xxxvii.-civ., whose Hebrew reconstructions of the text have been and must be adopted in many cases by every editor and translator of the book. A prolonged study of the text, which has brought to light a multitude of fresh passages the majority of which can be explained by retranslation into Hebrew, has convinced the present writer[1] that, whilst the evidence on the whole is in favour of an Aramaic original of vi.-xxxvi., it is just as conclusive on behalf of the Hebrew original of the greater part of the rest of the book.

_Versions--Greek, Latin and Ethiopic._--The Semitic original was translated into Greek. It is not improbable that there were two distinct Greek versions. Of the one, several fragments have been preserved in Syncellus (A.D. 800), vi.-x. 14, viii. 4-ix. 4, xv. 8-xvi. 1; of the other, i.-xxxii. in the Giza Greek fragment discovered in Egypt and published by Bouriant (_Fragments grecs du livre d'Enoch_); in 1892, and subsequently by Lods, Dillmann, Charles (_Book of Enoch_, 318 sqq.), Swete, and finally by Radermacher and Charles (_Ethiopic Text_, 3-75). In addition to these fragments there is that of lxxxix. 42-49 (see Gildemeister in the _ZDMG_, 1855, pp. 621-624, and Charles, _Ethiopic Text_, pp. 175-177). Of the Latin version only i. 9 survives, being preserved in the Pseudo-Cyprian's _Ad Novatianum_, and cvi. 1-18 discovered by James in an 8th-century MS. of the British Museum (see James, _Apoc. anecdota_, 146-150; Charles, _op. cit._ 219-222). This version is made from the Greek.

The Ethiopic version, which alone preserves the entire text, is a very faithful translation of the Greek. Twenty-eight MSS. of this version are in the different libraries of Europe, of which fifteen are to be found in England. This version was made from an ancestor of the Greek fragment discovered at Giza. Some of the utterly unintelligible passages in this fragment are literally reproduced in the Ethiopic. The same wrong order of the text in vii.-viii. is common to both. In order to recover the original text, it is from time to time necessary to retranslate the Ethiopic into Greek, and the latter in turn into Aramaic or Hebrew. By this means we are able to detect dittographies in the Greek and variants in the original Semitic. The original was written to a large extent in verse. The discovery of this fact is most helpful in the criticism of the text. This version was first edited by Laurence in 1838 from one MS., in 1851 by Dillmann from five, in 1902 by Flemming from fifteen MSS., and in 1906 by the present writer from twenty-three.

_Translations and Commentaries._--Laurence, _The Book of Enoch_
(Oxford, 1821); Dillmann, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1853); Schodde, _The Book
of Enoch_ (1882); Charles, _The Book of Enoch_ (1893); Beer, "Das Buch
Henoch," in Kautzsch's _Apok. u. Pseud. des A.T._ (1900), ii. 217-310;
Flemming and Radermacher, _Das Buch Henoch_ (1901); Martin, _Le Livre
d'Henoch_ (1906). _Critical Inquiries._--The bibliography will be
found in Schurer, _Gesch. d. judischen Volkes_^3, iii. 207-209, and a
short critical account of the most important of these in Charles, _op.
cit._ pp. 9-21.

_The different Elements in the Book, with their respective Characteristics and Dates._--We have remarked above that the _Book of Enoch_ is divided into five parts--i.-xxxvi., xxxvii.-lxxi., lxxii.-lxxxii., lxxxiii.-xc., xci-cviii. Some of these parts constituted originally separate treatises. In the course of their reduction and incorporation into a single work they suffered much mutilation and loss. From an early date the compositeness of this work was recognized. Scholars have varied greatly in their critical analyses of the work (see Charles, _op. cit._ 6-21, 309-311). The analysis which gained most acceptation was that of Dillmann (Herzog's _Realencyk._^2 xii. 350-352), according to whom the present books consist of--(1) the groundwork, i.e. i.-xxxvi., lxxii.-cv., written in the time of John Hyrcanus; (2) xxxvii.-lxxi., xvii.-xix., before 64 B.C.; (3) the Noachic fragments, vi. 3-8, viii. 1-3, ix. 7, x. 1, 11, xx., xxxix. 1, 2a, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix. 25, cvi.-cvii.; and (4) cviii., from a later hand. With much of this analysis there is no reason to disagree. The similitudes are undoubtedly of different authorship from the rest of the book, and certain portions of the book are derived from the _Book of Noah_. On the other hand, the so-called groundwork has no existence unless in the minds of earlier critics and some of their belated followers in the present. It springs from at least four hands, and may be roughly divided into four parts, corresponding to the present actual divisions of the book.

A new critical analysis of the book based on this view was given by Charles (_op. cit._ pp. 24-33), and further developed by Clemen and Beer. The analysis of the latter (see Herzog, _Realencyk._^3 xiv. 240) is very complex. The book, according to this scholar, is composed of the following separate elements from the Enoch tradition:--(1) Ch. i.-v.; (2) xii-xvi.; (3) xvii.-xix.; (4) xx.-xxxvi.; (5) xxxvii.-lxix. (from diverse sources); (6) lxx.-lxxi.; (7) lxxii.-lxxxii.; (8) lxxxiii.-lxxxiv.; (9) lxxxv.-xc.; (10) xciii., cxi. 12-17; (11) xci. 1-11, 18, 19, xcii., xciv.-cv.; (12) cviii., and from the Noah tradition; (13) vi.-xi.; (14) xxxix. 1-2a, liv. 7-lv. 2, lx., lxv.-lxix. 25; (15) cvi.-cvii. Thus while Clemen finds eleven separate sources, Beer finds fifteen. A fresh study from the hand of Appel (_Die Composition des athiopischen Henochbuchs_, 1906) seeks to reach a final analysis of our book. But though it evinces considerable insight, it cannot escape the charge of extravagance. The original book or ground-work of Enoch consisted of i.-xvi., xx.-xxxvi. This work called forth a host of imitators, and a number of their writings, together with the groundwork, were edited as a Book of Methuselah, i.e. lxxii.-cv. Then came the final redactor, who interpolated the groundwork and the Methuselah sections, adding two others from his own pen. The Similitudes he worked up from a series of later sources, and gave them the second place in the final work authenticating them with the name of Noah. The date of the publication of the entire work Appel assigns to the years immediately following the death of Herod.

We shall now give an analysis of the book, with the dates of the
various sections where possible. Of these we shall deal with the
easiest first. _Chap. lxxii.-lxxxii._ constitutes a work in itself,
the writer of which had very different objects before him from the
writers of the rest of the book. His sole aim is to give the law of
the heavenly bodies. His work has suffered disarrangements and
interpolations at the hands of the editor of the whole work. Thus
lxxvi.-lxxvii., which are concerned with the winds, the quarters of
the heaven, and certain geographical matters, and lxxxi., which is
concerned wholly with ethical matters, are foreign to a work which
professes in its title (lxxii. 1) to deal only with the luminaries of
the heaven and their laws. Finally, lxxxii. should stand before
lxxix.; for the opening words of the latter suppose it to be already
read. The date of this section can be partially established, for it
was known to the author of Jubilees, and was therefore written before
the last third of the 2nd century B.C.

_Chaps. lxxxiii.-xc._--This section was written before 161 B.C., for
"the great horn," who is Judas the Maccabee, was still warring when
the author was writing. (Dillmann, Schurer and others take the great
horn to be John Hyrcanus, but this interpretation does violence to the
text.) These chapters recount three visions: the first two deal with
the first-world judgment; the third with the entire history of the
world till the final judgment. An eternal Messianic kingdom at the
close of the judgment is to be established under the Messiah, with its
centre in the New Jerusalem set up by God Himself.

_Chaps. xci.-civ._--In the preceding section the Maccabees were the
religious champions of the nation and the friends of the Hasidim. Here
they are leagued with the Sadducees, and are the declared foes of the
Pharisaic party. This section was written therefore after 134 B.C.,
when the breach between John Hyrcanus and the Pharisees took place and
before the savage massacres of the latter by Jannaeus (95 B.C.); for
it is not likely that in a book dealing with the sufferings of the
Pharisees such a reference would be omitted. These chapters indicate a
revolution in the religious hopes of the nation. An eternal Messianic
kingdom is no longer anticipated, but only a temporary one, at the
close of which the final judgment will ensue. The righteous dead rise
not to this kingdom but to spiritual blessedness in heaven itself--to
an immortality of the soul. This section also has suffered at the
hands of the final editor. Thus xci. 12-17, which describe the last
three weeks of the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, should be read immediately
after xciii. 1-10, which recount the first seven weeks of the same
apocalypse. But, furthermore, the section obviously begins with xcii.
"Written by Enoch the scribe," &c. Then comes xci. 1-10 as a natural
sequel. The Ten-Weeks Apocalypse, xciii. 1-10, xci. 12-17, if it came
from the same hand, followed, and then xciv. The attempt (by Clemen
and Beer) to place the Ten-Weeks Apocalypse before 167, because it
makes no reference to the Maccabees, is not successful; for where the
history of mankind from Adam to the final judgment is despatched in
sixteen verses, such an omission need cause little embarrassment, and
still less if the author is the determined foe of the Maccabees, whom
he would probably have stigmatized as apostates, if he had mentioned
them at all, just as he similarly brands all the Sadducean priesthood
that preceded them to the time of the captivity. This Ten-Weeks
Apocalypse, therefore, we take to be the work of the writer of the
rest of xci.-civ.

_Chaps. i.-xxxvi._--This is the most difficult section of the book. It
is very composite. Chaps. vi.-xi. is apparently an independent
fragment of the Enoch Saga. It is itself compounded of the Semjaza and
Azazel myths, and in its present composite form is already presupposed
by lxxxviii.-lxxxix. 1; hence its present form is earlier than 166
B.C. It represents a primitive and very sensuous view of the eternal
Messianic kingdom on earth, seeing that the righteous beget 1000
children before they die. These chapters appear to be from the Book of
Noah; for they never refer to Enoch but to Noah only (x. 1). Moreover,
when the author of Jubilees is clearly drawing on the Book of Noah,
his subject-matter (vii. 21-25) agrees most closely with that of these
chapters in Enoch (see Charles' edition of Jubilees, pp. lxxi. sq.
264). xii.-xvi., on the other hand, belong to the Book of Enoch. These
represent for the most part what Enoch saw in a vision. Now whereas
vi.-xvi. deal with the fall of the angels, their destruction of
mankind, and the condemnation of the fallen angels, the subject-matter
now suddenly changes and xvii.-xxxvi. treat of Enoch's journeyings
through earth and heaven escorted by angels. Here undoubtedly we have
a series of doublets; for xvii.-xix. stand in this relation to
xx.-xxxvi., since both sections deal with the same subjects. Thus
xvii. 4 = xxiii.; xvii. 6 = xxii.; xviii. 1 = xxxiv.-xxxvi.; xviii.
6-9 = xxiv.-xxv., xxxii. 1-2; xviii. 11, xix. = xxi. 7-10; xviii.
12-16 = xxi. 1-6. They belong to the same cycle of tradition and
cannot be independent of each other. Chap. xx. appears to show that
xx.-xxxvi. is fragmentary, since only four of the seven angels
mentioned in xx. have anything to do in xxi.-xxxvi. Finally, i.-v.
seems to be of a different date and authorship from the rest.

_Chaps. xxxvii.-lxxi._--These constitute the well-known Similitudes.
They were written before 64 B.C., for Rome was not yet known to the
writer, and after 95 B.C., for the slaying of the righteous, of which
the writer complains, was not perpetrated by the Maccabean princes
before that date. This section consists of three
similitudes--xxxviii.-xliv., xlv.-lvii., lviii.-lxix. These are
introduced and concluded by xxxvii. and lxx. There are many
interpolations--lx., lxv.-lxix. 25 confessedly from the Book of Noah;
most probably also liv. 7-lv. 2. Whence others, such as xxxix. 1,
2a, xli. 3-8, xliii. sq., spring is doubtful. Chaps. 1, lvi. 5-lvii.
3a are likewise insertions.

In R.H. Charles's edition of Enoch, lxxi. was bracketed as an
interpolation. The writer now sees that it belongs to the text of the
Similitudes though it is dislocated from its original context. It
presents two visits of Enoch to heaven in lxxi. 1-4 and lxxi. 5-17.
The extraordinary statement in lxxi. 14, according to which Enoch is
addressed as "the Son of Man," is seen, as Appel points out, on
examination of the context to have arisen from the loss of a portion
of the text after verse 13, in which Enoch saw a heavenly being with
the Head of Days and asked the angel who accompanied him who this
being was. Then comes ver. 14, which, owing to the loss of this
passage, has assumed the form of an address to Enoch: "Thou art the
Son of Man," but which stood originally as the angel's reply to Enoch:
"This is the Son of Man," &c. Ver. 15, then, gives the message sent to
Enoch by the Son of Man. In the next verse the second person should be
changed into the third. Thus we recover the original text of this
difficult chapter. The Messianic doctrine and eschatology of this
section is unique. The Messiah is here for the first time described as
the pre-existent Son of Man (xlviii. 2), who sits on the throne of God
(xlv. 3; xlvii. 3), possesses universal dominion (lxii. 6), and is the
Judge of all mankind (lxix. 27). After the judgment there will be a
new heaven and a new earth, which will be the abode of the blessed.

THE BOOK OF THE SECRETS OR ENOCH, or _Slavonic Enoch_. This new fragment of the Enochic literature has only recently come to light through five MSS. discovered in Russia and Servia. Since about A.D. 500 it has been lost sight of. It is cited without acknowledgment in the _Book of Adam and Eve_, the _Apocalypses of Moses and Paul_, the _Sibylline Oracles_, the _Ascension of Isaiah_, the _Epistle of Barnabas_, and referred to by Origen and Irenaeus (see Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_, 1895, pp. xvii-xxiv). For Charles's _editio princeps_ of this work, in 1895, Professor Morfill translated two of the best MSS., as well as Sokolov's text, which is founded on these and other MSS. In 1896 Bonwetsch issued his _Das slavische Henochbuch_, in which a German translation of the above two MSS. is given side by side, preceded by a short introduction.

_Analysis._--Chaps. i.-ii. Introduction: life of Enoch: his dream, in
which he is told that he will be taken up to heaven: his admonitions
to his sons. iii.-xxxvi. What Enoch saw in heaven. iii.-vi. The first
heaven: the rulers of the stars: the great sea and the treasures of
snow, &c. vii. The second heaven: the fallen angels. viii.-x. The
third heaven: Paradise and place of punishment. xi.-xvii. The fourth
heaven: courses of the sun and moon: phoenixes. xviii. The fifth
heaven: the watchers mourning for their fallen brethren. xix. The
sixth heaven: seven bands of angels arrange and study the courses of
the stars, &c.: others set over the years, the fruits of the earth,
the souls of men. xx.-xxxvi. The seventh heaven. The Lord sitting on
His throne with the ten chief orders of angels. Enoch is clothed by
Michael in the raiment of God's glory and instructed in the secrets of
nature and of man, which he wrote down in 366 books. God reveals to
Enoch the history of the creation of the earth and the seven planets
and circles of the heaven and of man, the story of the fallen angels,
the duration of the world through 7000 years, and its millennium of
rest. xxxviii.-lxvi. Enoch returns to earth, admonishes his sons:
instructs them on what he had seen in the heavens, gives them his
books. Bids them not to swear at all nor to expect any intercession of
the departed saints for sinners. lvi.-lxiii. Methuselah asks Enoch's
blessing before he departs, and to all his sons and their families
Enoch gives fresh instruction. lxiv.-lxvi. Enoch addressed the
assembled people at Achuszan. lxvii.-lxviii. Enoch's translation.
Rejoicings of the people on behalf of the revelation given them
through Enoch.

_Language and Place of Writing._--A large part of this book was written for the first time in Greek. This may be inferred from such statements as (1) xxx. 13, "And I gave him a name (i.e. Adam) from the four substances: the East, the West, the North and the South." Thus Adam's name is here derived from the initial letters of the four quarters: [Greek: anatole, dusis, arktos, mesembria]. This derivation is impossible in Semitic. This context is found elsewhere in the Sibyllines iii. 24 sqq. and other Greek writings. (2) Again our author uses the chronology of the Septuagint and in 1, 4 follows the Septuagint text of Deuteronomy xxxii. 35 against the Hebrew. On the other hand, some sections may wholly or in part go back to Hebrew originals. There is a Hebrew Book of Enoch attributed to R. Ishmael ben Elisha who lived at the close of the 1st century and the beginning of the 2nd century B.C. This book is very closely related to the Book of the Secrets of Enoch, or rather, to a large extent dependent upon it. Did Ishmael ben Elisha use the Book of the Secrets of Enoch in its Greek form, or did he find portions of it in Hebrew? At all events, extensive quotations from a Book of Enoch are found in the rabbinical literature of the middle ages, and the provenance of these has not yet been determined. See _Jewish Encyc._ i. 676 seq.

But there is a stronger argument for a Hebrew original of certain sections to be found in the fact that the Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs appears to quote xxxiv. 2, 3 of our author in T. Napth. iv. 1, T. Benj. ix.

The book in its present form was written in Egypt. This may be inferred (1) from the variety of speculations which it holds in common with Philo and writings of a Hellenistic character that circulated mainly in Egypt. (2) The Phoenixes are Chalkydries (ch. xii.)--monstrous serpents with the heads of crocodiles--are natural products of the Egyptian imagination. (3) The syncretistic character of the creation account (xxv.-xxvi.) betrays Egyptian elements.

_Relation to Jewish and Christian Literature._--The existence of a kindred literature in Neo-Hebrew has been already pointed out. We might note besides that it is quoted in the Book of Adam and Eve, the Apocalypse of Moses, the Apocalypse of Paul, the anonymous work _De montibus Sina et Sion_, the Sibylline Oracles ii. 75, Origen, _De princip._ i. 3, 2. The authors of the Ascension of Isaiah, the Apoc. of Baruch and the Epistle of Barnabas were probably acquainted with it. In the New Testament the similarity of matter and diction is sufficiently strong to establish a close connexion, if not a literary dependence. Thus with Matt. v. 9, "Blessed are the peacemakers," cf. lii. 11, "Blessed is he who establishes peace": with Matt. v. 34, 35, 37, "Swear not at all," cf. xlix. 1, "I will not swear by a single oath, neither by heaven, nor by earth, nor by any other creature which God made--if there is no truth in man, let them swear by a word yea, yea, or nay, nay."

_Date and Authorship._--The book was probably written between 30 B.C. and A.D. 70. It was written after 30 B.C., for it makes use of Sirach, the (Ethiopic) Book of Enoch and the Book of Wisdom. It was written before A.D. 70; for the temple is still standing: see lix. 2.

The author was an orthodox Hellenistic Jew who lived in Egypt. He believed in the value of sacrifices (xlii. 6; lix. 1, 2, &c), but is careful to enforce enlightened views regarding them (xlv. 3, 4; lxi. 4, 5.) in the law, lii. 8, 9; in a blessed immortality, I. 2; lxv. 6, 8-10, in which the righteous should be clothed in "the raiment of God's glory," xxii. 8. In questions relating to cosmology, sin, death, &c, he is an eclectic, and allows himself the most unrestricted freedom, and readily incorporates Platonic (xxx. 16), Egyptian (xxv. 2) and Zend (lviii. 4-6) elements into his system of thought.

_Anthropological Views._--All the souls of men were created before the foundation of the world (xxiii. 5) and likewise their future abodes in heaven or hell (xlix. 2, lviii. 5). Man's name was derived, as we have already seen, from the four quarters of the world, and his body was compounded from seven substances (xxx. 8). He was created originally good: freewill was bestowed upon him with instruction in the two ways of light and darkness, and then he was left to mould his own destiny (xxx. 15). But his preferences through the bias of the flesh took an evil direction, and death followed as the wages of sin (xxx. 16).

LITERATURE.--Morfill and Charles, _The Book of the Secrets of Enoch_
(Oxford, 1896); Bonwetsch, "Das slavische Henochbuch," in the
_Abhandlungen der koniglichen gelehrten Gesellschaft zu Gottingen_
(1896). See also Schurer _in loc._ and the Bible Dictionaries.
(R. H. C.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The evidence is given at length in R.H. Charles' _Ethiopic Text
of Enoch_, pp. xxvii-xxxiii.

ENOMOTO, BUYO, VISCOUNT (1839-1909), Japanese vice-admiral, was born in Tokyo. He was the first officer sent by the Tokugawa government to study naval science in Europe, and after going through a course of instruction in Holland he returned in command of the frigate "Kaiyo Maru," built at Amsterdam to order of the Yedo administration. The salient episode of his career was an attempt to establish a republic at Hakodate. Finding himself in command of a squadron which represented practically the whole of Japan's naval forces, he refused to acquiesce in the deposition of the Shogun, his liege lord, and, steaming off to Yezo (1867), proclaimed a republic and fortified Hakodate. But he was soon compelled to surrender. The newly organized government of the empire, however, instead of inflicting the death penalty on him and his principal followers, as would have been the inevitable sequel of such a drama in previous times, punished them with imprisonment only, and four years after the Hakodate episode, Enomoto received an important post in Hokkaido, the very scene of his wild attempt. Subsequently (1874), as his country's representative in St Petersburg, he concluded the treaty by which Japan exchanged the southern half of Saghalien for the Kuriles. He received the title of viscount in 1885, and afterwards held the portfolios of communications, education and foreign affairs. He died at Tokyo in 1909.

ENOS (anc. _Aenos_), a town of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; on the southern shore of the river Maritza, where its estuary broadens to meet the Aegean Sea in the Gulf of Enos. Pop. (1905) about 8000. Enos occupies a ridge of rock surrounded by broad marshes. It is the seat of a Greek bishop, and the population is mainly Greek. It long possessed a valuable export trade, owing to its position at the mouth of the Maritza, the great natural waterway from Adrianople to the sea. But its commerce has declined, owing to the unhealthiness of its climate, to the accumulation of sandbanks in its harbour, which now only admits small coasters and fishing-vessels, and to the rivalry of Dedeagatch, a neighbouring seaport connected with Adrianople by rail.

ENRIQUEZ GOMEZ, ANTONIO (c. 1601-c. 1661), Spanish dramatist, poet and novelist of Portuguese-Jewish origin, was known in the early part of his career as Enrique Enriquez de Paz. Born at Segovia, he entered the army, obtained a captaincy, was suspected of heresy, fled to France about 1636, assumed the name of Antonio Enriquez Gomez, and became majordomo to Louis XIII., to whom he dedicated _Luis dado de Dios a Anna_ (Paris, 1645). Some twelve years later he removed to Amsterdam, avowed his conversion to Judaism, and was burned in effigy at Seville on the 14th of April 1660. He is supposed to have returned to France, and to have died there in the following year. Three of his plays, _El Gran Cardenal de Espana_, _don Gil de Albornoz_, and the two parts of _Fernan Mendez Pinto_ were received with great applause at Madrid about 1629; in 1635 he contributed a sonnet to Montalban's collection of posthumous panegyrics on Lope de Vega, to whose dramatic school Enriquez Gomez belonged. The _Academias morales de las Musas_, consisting of four plays (including _A lo que obliga el honor_, which recalls Calderon's _Medico de su honra_), was published at Bordeaux in 1642; _La Torre de Babilonia_, containing the two parts of _Fernan Mendez Pinto_, appeared at Rouen in 1647; and in the preface to his poem, _El Samson Nazareno_ (Rouen, 1656), Enriquez Gomez gives the titles of sixteen other plays issued, as he alleges, at Seville. There is no foundation for the theory that he wrote the plays ascribed to Fernando de Zarate. His dramatic works, though effective on the stage, are disfigured by extravagant incidents and preciosity of diction. The latter defect is likewise observable in the mingled prose and verse of _La Culpa del primer peregrino_ (Rouen, 1644) and the dialogues entitled _Politica Angelica_ (Rouen, 1647). Enriquez Gomez is best represented by _El Siglo Pitagorico y Vida de don Gregorio Guadana_ (Rouen, 1644), a striking picaresque novel in prose and verse which is still reprinted.

ENSCHEDE, a town in the province of Overysel, Holland, near the Prussian frontier, and a junction station 5 m. by rail S.E. of Hengelo. Pop. (1900) 23,141. It is important as the centre of the flourishing cotton-spinning and weaving industries of the Twente district; while by the railway via Gronau and Koesfeld to Dortmund it is in direct communication with the Westphalian coalfields. Enschede possesses several churches, an industrial trade school, and a large park intended for the benefit of the working classes. About two-thirds of the town was burnt down in 1862.

ENSENADA, CENON DE SOMODEVILLA, MARQUES DE LA (1702-1781), Spanish statesman, was born at Alesanco near Logrono on the 2nd of June 1702. When he had risen to high office it was said that his pedigree was distinguished, but nothing is known of his parents--Francisco de Somodevilla and his wife Francisca de Bengoechea,--nor is anything known of his own life before he entered the civil administration of the Spanish navy as a clerk in 1720. He served in administrative capacities at the relief of Ceuta in that year and in the reoccupation of Oran in 1731. His ability was recognized by Don Jose Patinos, the chief minister of King Philip V. Somodevilla was much employed during the various expeditions undertaken by the Spanish government to put the king's sons by his second marriage with Elizabeth Farnese, Charles and Philip, on the thrones of Naples and Parma. In 1736 Charles, afterwards King Charles III. of Spain, conferred on him the Neapolitan title of Marques de la Ensenada. The name can be resolved into the three Spanish words "en se nada," meaning "in himself nothing." The courtly flattery of the time, and the envy of the nobles who disliked the rise of men of Ensenada's class, seized upon this poor play on words; an _Ensenada_ is, however, a roadstead or small bay. In 1742 he became secretary of state and war to Philip, duke of Parma. In the following year (11th of April 1743), on the death of Patinos's successor Campillo, he was chosen by Philip V. as minister of finance, war, the navy and the Indies (i.e. the Colonies). Ensenada met the nomination with a becoming _nolo episcopari_, professing that he was incapable of filling the four posts at once. His reluctance was overborne by the king, and he became in fact prime minister at the age of forty-one. During the remainder of the king's reign, which lasted till the 11th of July 1746, and under his successor Ferdinand VI. until 1754, Ensenada was the effective prime minister. His administration is notable in Spanish history for the vigour of his policy of internal reform. The reports on the finances and general condition of the country, which he drew up for the new king on his accession, and again after peace was made with England at Aix-la-Chapelle on the 18th of October 1748, are very able and clear-sighted. Under his direction the despotism of the Bourbon kings became paternal. Public works were undertaken, shipping was encouraged, trade was fostered, numbers of young Spaniards were sent abroad for education. Many of them abused their opportunity, but on the whole the prosperity of the country revived, and the way was cleared for the more sweeping innovations of the following reign. Ensenada was a strong partizan of a French alliance and of a policy hostile to England. Sir B. Keene, the English minister, supported the Spanish court party opposed to him, and succeeded in preventing him from adding the foreign office to others which he held. Ensenada would probably have fallen sooner but for the support he received from the Portuguese queen, Barbara. In 1754 he offended her by opposing an exchange of Spanish and Portuguese colonial possessions in America which she favoured. On the 20th of July of that year he was arrested by the king's order, and sent into mild confinement at Granada, which he was afterwards allowed to exchange for Puerto de Santa Maria. On the accession of Charles III. in 1759, he was released from arrest and allowed to return to Madrid. The new king named him as member of a commission appointed to reform the system of taxation. Ensenada could not renounce the hope of again becoming minister, and entered into intrigues which offended the king. On the 18th of April 1766 he was again exiled from court, and ordered to go to Medina del Campo. He had no further share in public life, and died on the 2nd of December 1781. Ensenada acquired wealth in office, but he was never accused of corruption. Though, like most of his countrymen, he suffered from the mania for grandeur, and was too fond of imposing schemes out of all proportion with the resources of the state, he was undoubtedly an able and patriotic man, whose administration was beneficial to Spain.

For his administration see W. Coxe, _Memoirs of the Kings of Spain of
the House of Bourbon_ (London, 1815), but the only complete account of
Ensenada is by Don Antonio Rodriguez Villa, _Don Cenon de Somodevilla,
Marques de la Ensenada_ (Madrid, 1878). (D. H.)

ENSIGN (through the Fr. _enseigne_ from the Latin plural _insignia_), a distinguishing token, emblem or badge such as symbols of office, or in heraldry, the ornament or sign, such as the crown, coronet or mitre borne above the charge or arms. The word is more particularly used of a military or naval standard or banner. In the British navy, ensign has a specific meaning, and is the name of a flag having a red, white or blue ground, with the Union Jack in the upper corner next the staff. The white ensign (which is sometimes further distinguished by having the St George's Cross quartered upon it) is only used in the royal navy and the royal yacht squadron, while the blue and red ensigns are the badges of the naval reserve, some privileged companies, and the merchant service respectively (see FLAG). Until 1871 the lowest grade of commissioned officers in infantry regiments of the British army had the title of ensign (now replaced by that of second lieutenant). It is the duty of the officers of this rank to carry the colours of the regiment (see COLOURS, MILITARY). In the 16th century ensign was corrupted into "ancient," and was used in the two senses of a banner and the bearer of the banner. In the United States navy, the title ensign superseded in 1862 that of _passed midshipman_. It designates an officer ranking with second lieutenant in the army.

ENSILAGE, the process of preserving green food for cattle in an undried condition in a silo (from Gr. [Greek: siros], Lat. _sirus_, a pit for holding grain), i.e. a pit, an erection above ground, or stack, from which air has been as far as possible excluded. The fodder which is the result of the process is called silage. In various parts of Germany a method of preserving green fodder precisely similar to that used in the case of _Sauerkraut_ has prevailed for upwards of a century. Special attention was first directed to the practice of ensilage by a French agriculturist, Auguste Goffart of the district of Sologne, near Orleans, who in 1877 published a work (_Manuel de la culture et de l'ensilage des mais et autres fourrages verts_) detailing the experiences of many years in preserving green crops in silos. An English translation of Goffart's book by J.B. Brown was published in New York in 1879, and, as various experiments had been previously made in the United States in the way of preserving green crops in pits, Goffart's experience attracted considerable attention. The conditions of American dairy farming proved eminently suitable for the ensiling of green maize fodder; and the success of the method was soon indisputably demonstrated among the New England farmers. The favourable results obtained in America led to much discussion and to the introduction of the system in the United Kingdom, where, with different conditions, success has been more qualified.

It has been abundantly proved that ensilage forms a wholesome and nutritious food for cattle. It can be substituted for root crops with advantage, because it is succulent and digestible; milk resulting from it is good in quality and taste; it can be secured largely irrespective of weather; it carries over grass from the period of great abundance and waste to times when none would otherwise be available; and a larger number of cattle can be supported on a given area by the use of ensilage than is possible by the use of green crops.

Early silos were made of stone or concrete either above or below ground, but it is recognized that air may be sufficiently excluded in a tightly pressed stack, though in this case a few inches of the fodder round the sides is generally useless owing to mildew. In America round erections made of wood and 35 or 40 ft. in depth are most commonly used. The crops suitable for ensilage are the ordinary grasses, clovers, lucerne, vetches, oats, rye and maize, the latter being the most important silage crop in America; various weeds may also be stored in silos with good results, notably spurrey (_Spergula arvensis_), a most troublesome plant in poor light soils. As a rule the crop should be mown when in full flower, and deposited in the silo on the day of its cutting. Maize is cut a few days before it is ripe and is shredded before being elevated into the silo. Fair, dry weather is not essential; but it is found that when moisture, natural and extraneous, exceeds 75% of the whole, good results are not obtained. The material is spread in uniform layers over the floor of the silo, and closely packed and trodden down. If possible, not more than a foot or two should be added daily, so as to allow the mass to settle down closely, and to heat uniformly throughout. When the silo is filled or the stack built, a layer of straw or some other dry porous substance may be spread over the surface. In the silo the pressure of the material, when chaffed, excludes air from all but the top layer; in the case of the stack extra pressure is applied by means of planks or other weighty objects in order to prevent excessive heating.

The closeness with which the fodder is packed determines the nature of the resulting silage by regulating the chemical changes which occur in the stack. When closely packed, the supply of oxygen is limited; and the attendant acid fermentation brings about the decomposition of the carbohydrates present into acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This product is named "sour silage." If, on the other hand, the fodder be unchaffed and loosely packed, or the silo be built gradually, oxidation proceeds more rapidly and the temperature rises; if the mass be compressed when the temperature is 140 deg.-160 deg. F., the action ceases and "sweet silage" results. The nitrogenous ingredients of the fodder also suffer change: in making sour silage as much as one-third of the albuminoids may be converted into amino and ammonium compounds; while in making "sweet silage" a less proportion is changed, but they become less digestible. In extreme cases, sour silage acquires a most disagreeable odour. On the other hand it keeps better than sweet silage when removed from the silo.

ENSTATITE, a rock-forming mineral belonging to the group of orthorhombic pyroxenes. It is a magnesium metasilicate, MgSiO3, often with a little iron replacing the magnesium: as the iron increases in amount there is a transition to bronzite (q.v.), and with still more iron to hypersthene (q.v.). Bronzite and hypersthene were known long before enstatite, which was first described by G.A. Kenngott in 1855, and named from [Greek: enstates], "an opponent," because the mineral is almost infusible before the blowpipe: the material he described consisted of imperfect prismatic crystals, previously thought to be scapolite, from the serpentine of Mount Zdjar near Schonberg in Moravia. Crystals suitable for goniometric measurement were later found in the meteorite which fell at Breitenbach in the Erzgebirge, Bohemia. Large crystals, a foot in length and mostly altered to steatite, were found in 1874 in the apatite veins traversing mica-schist and hornblende-schist at the apatite mine of Kjorrestad, near Brevig in southern Norway. Isolated crystals are of rare occurrence, the mineral being usually found as an essential constituent of igneous rocks; either as irregular masses in plutonic rocks (norite, peridotite, pyroxenite, &c.) and the serpentines which have resulted by their alteration, or as small idiormorphic crystals in volcanic rocks (trachyte, andesite). It is also a common constituent of meteoric stones, forming with olivine the bulk of the material: here it often forms small spherical masses, or chondrules, with an internal radiated structure.

Enstatite and the other orthorhombic pyroxenes are distinguished from those of the monoclinic series by their optical characters, viz. straight extinction, much weaker double refraction and stronger pleochroism: they have prismatic cleavages (with an angle of 88 deg. 16') as well as planes of parting parallel to the planes of symmetry in the prism-zone. Enstatite is white, greenish or brown in colour; its hardness is 5-1/2, and sp. gr. 3.2-3.3. (L. J. S.)

ENTABLATURE (Lat. _in_, and _tabula_, a tablet), the architectural term for the superstructure carried by the columns in the classic orders (q.v.). It usually consists of three members, the architrave (the supporting member carried from column to column, pier or wall); the frieze (the decorative member); and the cornice (the projecting and protective member). Sometimes the frieze is omitted, as in the entablature of the portico of the caryatides of the Erechtheum. There is every reason to believe that the frieze did not exist in the archaic temple of Diana at Ephesus; and it is not found in the Lycian tombs, which are reproductions in the rock of timber structures based on early Ionian work.

ENTADA, in botany, a woody climber belonging to the family _Leguminosae_ and common throughout the tropics. The best-known species is _Entada scandens_, the sword-bean, so called from its large woody pod, 2 to 4 ft. in length and 3 to 4 in. broad, which contains large flat hard polished chestnut-coloured seeds or "beans." The seeds are often made into snuff-boxes or match-boxes, and a preparation from the kernel is used as a drug by the natives in India. The seeds will float for a long time in water, and are often thrown up on the north-western coasts of Europe, having been carried by the Gulf-stream from the West Indies; they retain their vitality, and under favourable conditions will germinate. Linnaeus records the germination of a seed on the coast of Norway.

ENTAIL (from Fr. _tailler_, to cut; the old derivation from _tales haeredes_ is now abandoned), in law, a limited form of succession (q.v.). In architecture, the term "entail" denotes an ornamental device sunk in the ground of stone or brass, and subsequently filled in with marble, mosaic or enamel.

ENTASIS (from Gr. [Greek: enteinein], to stretch a line or bend a bow), in architecture, the increment given to the column (q.v.), to correct the optical illusion which produces an apparent hollowness in an extended straight line. It was referred to by Vitruvius (iii. 3), and was first noticed in the columns of the Doric orders in Greek temples by Allason in 1814, and afterwards measured and verified by Penrose. It varies in different temples, and is not found in some: it is most pronounced in the temple of Jupiter Olympius, most delicate in the Erechtheum. The entasis is almost invariably introduced in the spires of English churches.

ENTERITIS (Gr. [Greek: enteron], intestine), a general medical term for inflammation of the bowels. According to the anatomical part specially attacked, it is subdivided into duodenitis, jejunitis, ileitis, typhlitis, appendicitis, colitis, proctitis. The chief symptom is diarrhoea. The term "enteric fever" has recently come into use instead of "typhoid" for the latter disease; but see TYPHOID FEVER.