Chapter IV: Part 4

Tohil, who gave the Quiches fire by shaking his sandals, was, like
the Mexican Quetzelcoatl, represented by a flint stone. Guamansuri,
the father of the Peruvians, produced the thunder and the lightning by
hurling stones with his sling. The thunderbolts are his children.
Kudai, the great god of the Altaian Tartars, disclosed "the secret of
the stone's edge and the iron's hardness." The Slavonian god of
thunder was depicted with a silex in his hand, or even protruding from
his head. The Lapp Tiermes struck with his hammer upon his own head;
the Scandinavian Thor held a mallet in one hand, a flint in the other.
Taranis, the Gaul, had upon his head a huge mace surrounded by six
little ones. Finnish poems describe how "fire, the child of the sun,
came down from heaven, where it was rocked in a tub of yellow copper,
in a large pail of gold." Ukko, the Esthonian god, sends forth
lightnings, as he strikes his stone with his steel. According to the
Kalewala, the same mighty Ukko struck his sword against his nail, and
from the nail issued the "fiery babe." He gave it to the Wind's
daughter to rock it, but the unwary maiden let it fall in the sea,
where it was swallowed by the great pike, and fire would have been
lost for ever if the child of the sun had not come to the rescue. He
dragged the great pike from the water, drew out his entrails, and
found there the heavenly spark still alive. Prometheus brought to
earth the torch he had lighted at the sun's chariot.

Human culture may be said to have begun with fire, of which the uses increased in the same ratio as culture itself. To save the labour expended on the initial process of procuring light, or on carrying it about constantly, primitive men hit on the expedient of a fire which should burn night and day in a public building. The Egyptians had one in every temple, the Greeks, Latins and Persians in all towns and villages. The Natchez, the Aztecs, the Mayas, the Peruvians had their "national fires" burning upon large pyramids. Of these fires the "eternal lamps" in the synagogues, in the Byzantine and Catholic churches, may be a survival. The "Regia," Rome's sacred centre, supposed to be the abode of Vesta, stood close to a fountain; it was convenient to draw from the same spot the two great requisites, fire and water. All civil and political interests grouped themselves around the prytaneum which was at once a temple, a tribunal, a town-hall, and a gossiping resort: all public business and most private affairs were transacted by the light and in the warmth of the common fire. No wonder that its flagstones should become sacred. Primitive communities consider as holy everything that ensures their existence and promotes their welfare, material things such as fire and water not less than others. Thus the prytaneum grew into a religious institution. And if we hear a little more of fire worship than of water worship, it is because fire, being on the whole more difficult to obtain, was esteemed more precious. The prytaneum and the state were convertible terms. If by chance the fire in the Roman temple of Vesta was extinguished, all tribunals, all authority, all public or private business had to stop immediately. The connexion between heaven and earth had been broken, and it had to be restored in some way or other--either by Jove sending down divine lightning on his altars, or by the priests making a new fire by the old sacred method of rubbing two pieces of wood together, or by catching the rays of the sun in a concave mirror. No Greek or Roman army crossed the frontier without carrying an altar where the fire taken from the prytaneum burned night and day. When the Greeks sent out colonies the emigrants took with them living coals from the altar of Hestia, and had in their new country a fire lit as a representative of that burning in the mother country.[1] Not before the three curiae united their fires into one could Rome become powerful; and Athens became a shining light to the world only, we are told, when the twelve tribes of Attica, led by Theseus, brought each its brand to the altar of Athene Polias. All Greece confederated, making Delphi its central hearth; and the islands congregated around Delos, whence the new fire was fetched every year.

_Periodic Fires._--Because the sun loses its force after noon, and after midsummer daily shortens the length of its circuit, the ancients inferred, and primitive populations still believe, that, as time goes on, the energies of fire must necessarily decline. Therefore men set about renewing the fires in the temples and on the hearth on the longest day of summer or at the beginning of the agricultural year. The ceremony was attended with much rejoicing, banqueting and many religious rites. Houses were thoroughly cleansed; people bathed, and underwent lustrations and purifications; new clothes were put on; quarrels were made up; debts were paid by the debtor or remitted by the creditor; criminals were released by the civil authorities in imitation of the heavenly judges, who were believed to grant on the same day a general remission of sins. All things were made new; each man turned over a new page in the book of his existence. Some nations, like the Etruscans in the Old World and the Peruvians and Mexicans in the New, carried these ideas to a high degree of development, and celebrated with magnificent ceremonies the renewal of the _saecula_, or astronomic periods, which might be shorter or longer than a century. Some details of the festival among the Aztecs have been preserved. On the last night of every period (52 years) every fire was extinguished, and men proceeded in solemn procession to some sacred spot, where, with awe and trembling, the priests strove to kindle a new fire by friction. It was as if they had a vague idea that the cosmos, with its sun, moon and stars, had been wound up like a clock for a definite period of time. And had they failed to raise the vital spark, they would have believed that it was because the great fire was being extinguished at the central hearth of the world. The Stoics and many other ancient philosophers thought that the world was doomed to final extinction by fire. The Scandinavian bards sung the end of the world, how at last the wolf Fenrir would get loose, how the cruel fire of Loki would destroy itself by destroying everything. The Essenes enlarged upon this doctrine, which is also found in the Sibylline books and appears in the Apocrypha (2 Esdras xvi. 15).

See Dupuis, _Origine de tous les cultes_ (1794); Burnout, _Science des
religions_; Grimm, _Deutsche Mythologie_, cap. xx. (1835); Adalbert
Kuhn. _Die Herabkunft des Feuers und des Gottertranks_ (1859);
Steinthal, _Uber die ursprungliche Form der Sage von Prometheus_
(1861); Albert Reville, "Le Mythe de Promethee," in _Revue des deux
mondes_ (August 1862); Michel Breal, _Hercule et Cacus_ (1863); Tylor,
_Researches into the Early History of Mankind_, ch. ix. (1865);
Bachofen, _Die Sage von Tanaquil_ (1870); Lord Avebury, _Prehistoric
Times_ (6th ed., 1900); Haug, _Religion of the Parsis_ (1878).
(E. Re.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Curiously enough we see the same institution obtaining among the
Damaras of South Africa, where the chiefs, who sway their people with
a sort of priestly authority, commit to their daughters the care of a
so-called eternal fire. From its hearth younger scions separating
from the parent stock take away a burning brand to their new home.
The use of a common prytaneum, of circular form, like the Roman
temple of Vesta, testified to the common origin of the North American
Assinais and Maichas. The Mobiles, the Chippewas, the Natchez, had
each a corporation of Vestals. If the Natchez let their fire die out,
they were bound to renew it from the Mobiles. The Moquis, Pueblos and
Comanches had also their perpetual fires. The Redskins discussed
important affairs of state at the "council fires," around which each
_sachem_ marched three times, turning to it all the sides of his
person. "It was a saying among our ancestors," said an Iroquois chief
in 1753, "that when the fire goes out at Onondaga"--the Delphi of the
league--"we shall no longer be a people."

FIRE AND FIRE EXTINCTION. Fire is considered in this article, primarily, from the point of view of the protection against fire that can be accorded by preventive measures and by the organization of fire extinguishing establishments.

History is full of accounts of devastation caused by fires in towns and cities of nearly every country in the civilized world. The following is a list of notable fires of early days:--

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND

798. _London_, nearly destroyed.

982. " greater part of the city burned.

1086. " all houses and churches from the east to the west gate
burned.

1212. " greater part of the city burned.

1666. " "The Great Fire," September 2-6.
It began in a wooden house in Pudding Lane, and burned
for three days, consuming the buildings on 436 acres,
400 streets, lanes, &c., 13,200 houses, with St Paul's
church, 86 parish churches, 6 chapels, the guild-hall,
the royal exchange, the custom-house, many hospitals
and libraries, 52 companies' halls, and a vast number
of other stately edifices, together with three of the
city gates, four stone bridges, and the prisons of
Newgate, the Fleet, and the Poultry and Wood Street
Compters. The fire swept from the Tower to Temple
church, and from the N.E. gate to Holborn bridge. Six
persons were killed. The total loss of property was
estimated at the time to be L10,731,500.

1794. _London_, 630 houses destroyed at Wapping. Loss above
L1,000,000.

1834. " Houses of Parliament burned.

1861. " Tooley Street wharves, &c., burned. Loss estimated at
L2,000,000.

1873. " Alexandra palace destroyed.

1137. _York_, totally destroyed.

1184. _Glastonbury_, town and abbey burned.

1292. _Carlisle_, destroyed.

1507. _Norwich_, nearly destroyed; 718 houses burned.

1544. _Leith_, burned.

1598. _Tiverton_, 400 houses and a large number of horses burned; 33
persons killed. Loss, L150,000.

1612. " 600 houses burned. Loss over L200,000.

1731. " 300 houses burned.

1700. _Edinburgh_, "the Great Fire."

1612. _Cork_, greater part burned, and again in 1622.

1613. _Dorchester_, nearly destroyed. Loss, L200,000.

1614. _Stratford-on-Avon_, burned.

1644. _Beaminster_, burned. Again in 1684 and 1781.

1675. _Northampton_, almost totally destroyed.

1683. _Newmarket_, large part of the town burned.

1694. _Warwick_, more than half burned; rebuilt by national contribution.

1707. _Lisburn_, burned.

1727. _Gravesend_, destroyed.

1738. _Wellingborough_, 800 houses burned.

1743. _Crediton_, 450 houses destroyed.

1760. _Portsmouth_, dockyard burned. Loss, L400,000.

1770. " " " Loss, L100,000.

1802. _Liverpool_, destructive fire. Loss, L1,000,000.

1827. _Sheerness_, 50 houses and much property destroyed.

1854. _Gateshead_, 50 persons killed. Loss, L1,000,000.

1875. _Glasgow_. Great fire. Loss, L300,000.

FRANCE

59. _Lyons_, burned to ashes. Nero offers to rebuild it.

1118. _Nantes_, greater part of the city destroyed.

1137. _Dijon_, burned.

1524. _Troyes_, nearly destroyed.

1720. _Rennes_, on fire from December 22 to 29. 850 houses burned.

1784. _Brest_. Fire and explosion in dockyard. Loss, L1,000,000.

1862. _Marseilles_, destructive fire.

1871. _Paris_. Communist devastations. Property destroyed,
L32,000,000.

CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN EUROPE

64. _Rome_ burned during 8 days. 10 of the 14 wards of the city were
destroyed.

1106. _Venice_, greater part of the city was burned.

1577. " fire at the arsenal, greater part of the city ruined by
an explosion.

1299. _Weimar_, destructive fire; also in 1424 and 1618.

1379. _Memel_ was in large part destroyed, and again in 1457, 1540,
1678, 1854.

1405. _Bern_ was destroyed.

1420. _Leipzig_ lost 400 houses.

1457. _Dort_, cathedral and large part of the town burned.

1491. _Dresden_ was destroyed.

1521. _Oviedo_, large part of the city destroyed.

1543. _Komorn_ was burned.

1634. _Furth_ was burned by Austrian Croats.

1680. _Furth_ was again destroyed.

1686. _Landau_ was almost destroyed.

1758. _Pirna_ was burned by Prussians. 260 houses destroyed.

1762. _Munich_ lost 200 houses.

1764. _Konigsberg_, public buildings, &c., burned. Loss, L600,000.

1769. " almost destroyed.

1784. _Rokitzan_ (Bohemia) was totally destroyed. Loss, L300,000.

1801. _Brody_, 1500 houses destroyed.

1859. " 1000 houses destroyed.

1803. _Posen_, large part of older portion of city burned.

1811. Forest fires in Tyrol destroyed 64 villages and hamlets.

1818. _Salzburg_ was partly destroyed.

1842. _Hamburg_. A fire raged for 100 hours, May 5-7.
During the fire the city was in a state of anarchy. 4219
buildings, including 2000 dwellings, were destroyed.
One-fifth of the population was made homeless, and 100
persons lost their lives. The total loss amounted to
L7,000,000. After the fire, contributions from all Germany
came in to help to rebuild the city.

1861. _Glarus_ (Switzerland), 500 houses burned.

NORTHERN EUROPE

1530. _Aalborg_, almost entirely destroyed.

1541. _Aarhuus_, almost entirely destroyed, and again in 1556.

1624. _Opslo_, nearly destroyed. Christiania was built on the site.

1702. _Bergen_, greater part of the town destroyed.

1728. _Copenhagen_, nearly destroyed. 1650 houses burned, 77 streets.

1794. " royal palace with contents burned.

1795. " 50 streets, 1563 houses burned.

1751. _Stockholm_, 1000 houses destroyed.

1759. " 250 houses burned. Loss, 2,000,000 crowns.

1775. _Abo_, 200 houses and 15 mills burned.

1827. " 780 houses burned, with the university.

1790. _Carlscrona_, 1087 houses, churches, warehouses, &c., destroyed.

1802. _Gothenburg_, 178 houses burned.

1858. _Christiania_. Loss estimated at L250,000.

1865. _Carlstadt_ (Sweden), everything burned except the bishop's
residence, hospital and jail. 10 lives lost.

RUSSIA

1736. _St Petersburg_, 2000 houses burned.

1862. " great fire. Loss, L1,000,000.

1752. _Moscow_, 18,000 houses burned.

1812. " The Russians fired the city on September 14 to drive
out the army of Napoleon. The fire continued five
days. Nine-tenths of the city was destroyed. Number
of houses burned, 30,800. Loss, L30,000,000.

1753. _Archangel_, 900 houses burned.

1793. " 3000 buildings and the cathedral burned.

1786. _Tobolsk_, nearly destroyed.

1788. _Milau_, nearly destroyed.

1812. _Riga_, partly destroyed.

1834. _Tula_, destructive fire.

1848. _Orel_, large part of the town destroyed.

1850. _Cracow_, large part of the town burned.

1864. _Novgorod_, large amount of property destroyed.

TURKEY

The following fires have occurred at _Constantinople_:--

1729. A great fire destroyed 12,000 houses and 7000 people.

1745. A fire lasted five days.

1750. In January, 10,000 houses burned; in April, property destroyed
estimated from L1,000,000 to L3,000,000. Later in the year
10,000 houses were destroyed.

1751. 4000 houses were burned.

1756. 15,000 houses and 100 people destroyed. During the years 1761,
1765 and 1767 great havoc was made by fire.

1769. July 17. A fire raged for twelve hours, extending nearly 1 m.
in length. Many of the palaces, some small mosques and nearly
650 houses were destroyed.

1771. A fire lasting 15 hours consumed 2500 houses and shops.

1778. 2000 houses were burned.

1782. August 12. A fire burned three days: 10,000 houses, 50
mosques and 100 corn mills destroyed; 100 lives lost. In
February, 600 houses burned; in June, 7000 more.

1784. August 5. A fire burned for 26 hours and destroyed 10,000
houses, most of which had been rebuilt since the fires of
1782. In the same year, March 13, a fire in the suburb of
Pera destroyed two-thirds of that quarter. Loss estimated at
2,000,000 florins.

1791. Between March and July 32,000 houses are said to have been
burned, and as many in 1795.

1799. In the suburb of Pera 13,000 houses were burned and many
magnificent buildings.

1816. August 16. 12,000 houses and 3000 shops in the finest quarter
were destroyed.

1818. August 13. A fire destroyed several thousand houses.

1826. A fire destroyed 6000 houses.

1848. 500 houses and 2000 shops destroyed. Loss estimated at
L3,000,000.

1865. A great fire destroyed 2800 houses, public buildings, &c.
Over 22,000 people were left homeless.

1870. June 5. The suburb of Pera, occupied by the foreign population
and native Christians, was swept by a fire which destroyed
over 7000 buildings, many of them among the best in the city,
including the residence of the foreign legations. Loss
estimated at nearly L5,000,000.

1797. _Scutari_, the town of 3000 houses totally destroyed.

1763. _Smyrna_, 2600 houses consumed. Loss, L200,000.

1772. " 3000 dwellings burned. 3000 to 4000 shops, &c.
consumed. Loss, L4,000,000.

1796. " 4000 shops, mosques, magazines, &c., burned.

1841. " 12,000 houses were burned.

INDIA

1631. _Rajmahal_. Palace and great part of the town burned.

1799. _Manilla_, vast storehouses were burned.

1833. " 10,000 huts were burned, March 26. 30,000 people
rendered homeless, and 50 lives lost.

1803. _Madras_, more than 1000 houses burned.

1803. _Bombay_. Loss by fire of L600,000.

CHINA AND JAPAN

1822. _Canton_ was nearly destroyed by fire.

1866. _Yokohama_, two-thirds of the native town and one-sixth of the
foreign settlement destroyed.

1872. _Yeddo_. A fire occurred in April during a gale of wind,
destroying buildings covering a space of 6 sq. m.
20,000 persons were made homeless.

1873. " A fire destroyed 10,000 houses.

UNITED STATES

1679. _Boston_. All the warehouses, 80 dwellings, and the vessels in
the dockyards were consumed. Loss, L200,000.

1760. " A fire caused a loss estimated at L100,000.

1787. " A fire consumed 100 buildings, February 20.

1794. " 96 buildings were burned. Loss, L42,000.

1872. " Great fire, November 9-10. By this fire the richest
quarter of Boston was destroyed.
The fire commenced at the corner of Summer and Kingston
streets. The area burned over was 65 acres. 776 buildings,
comprising the largest granite and brick warehouses of the
city, filled with merchandise, were burned. The loss was about
L15,000,000. Before the end of the year 1876 the burned
district had been rebuilt more substantially than ever.

1778. _Charleston_ (S.C.). A fire caused the loss of L100,000.

1796. " 300 houses were burned.

1838. " One-half the city was burned on April 27. 1158
buildings destroyed. Loss, L600,000.

1802. _Portsmouth_ (N.H.), 102 buildings destroyed.

1813. " 397 buildings destroyed.

1820. _Savannah_, 463 buildings were burned. Loss, L800,000.

1835. _New York_. The great fire of New York began in Merchant
Street, December 16, and burned 530 buildings in
the business part of the city. 1000 mercantile
firms lost their places of business. The area
burned over was 52 acres. The loss was L3,000,000.

1845. " A fire in the business part of the city, July 20,
destroyed 300 buildings. The loss was L1,500,000.
35 persons were killed.

1845. _Pittsburg_. A large part of the city burned, April 11. 20
squares, 1100 buildings destroyed. Loss, L2,000,000.

1846. _Nantucket_ was almost destroyed.

1848. _Albany_. 600 houses burned, August 17. Area burned over 37
acres, one-third of the city. Loss, L600,000.

1849. _St Louis_. 23 steamboats at the wharves, and the whole or part
of 15 blocks of the city burned, May 17. Loss,
L600,000.

1851. " More than three-quarters of the city was burned,
May 4. 2500 buildings. Loss, L2,200,000.

1851. " 500 buildings burned. Loss, L600,000.

1850. _Philadelphia_. 400 buildings burned, July 9. 30 lives lost.
Loss, L200,000.

1865. " 50 buildings burned, February 8. 20 persons
killed. Loss, L100,000.

1851. _Washington_. Part of the Capitol and the whole of the
Congressional Library were burned.

1851. _San Francisco_. On May 4-5 a fire destroyed 2500 buildings.
A number of lives lost. More than three-fourths of the city
destroyed. Loss, upwards of L2,000,000. In June another fire
burned 500 buildings. Loss estimated at L600,000.

1857. _Chicago_. A fire destroyed over L100,000. 14 lives lost.

1859. " Property destroyed worth L100,000, Sept. 15.

1866. " Two fires on August 10 and November 18. Loss,
L100,000 each.

1871. " The greatest fire of modern times.
It began in a barn on the night of the 8th of October and
raged until the 10th. The area burned over was 2124 acres, or
3-1/3 sq. m., of the very heart of the city. 250 lives were
lost, 98,500 persons were made homeless, and 17,430 buildings
were consumed. The buildings were one-third in number and
one-half in value of the buildings of the city. Before the
end of 1875 the whole burned district had been rebuilt. The
loss was estimated at L39,000,000.

1862. _Troy_ (N.Y.) was nearly destroyed by fire.

1866. _Portland_ (Maine). Great fire on July 4. One-half of the city
was burned; 200 acres were ravaged; 50 buildings were blown
up to stop the progress of the fire. Loss, L2,000,000 to
L2,250,000.

1871. October. Forest and prairie fires in Wisconsin and Michigan.
15,000 persons were made homeless; 1000 lives lost. Loss
estimated at L600,000.

BRITISH NORTH AMERICA

1815. _Quebec_ was injured to the extent of L260,000.

1845. " 1650 houses were burned, May 28. One-third of the
population made homeless. Loss from L400,000 to
L750,000. Another fire, on June 28, consumed 1300
dwellings. 6000 persons were made homeless. 30
streets destroyed. Insurance losses, L60,770.

1866. " 2500 houses and 17 churches in French quarter burned.

1825. _New Brunswick_. A tract of 4,000,000 acres, more than 100 m. in
length, was burned over; it included many towns. 160 persons
killed, and 875 head of cattle. 590 buildings burned. Loss,
about L60,000. Towns of Newcastle, Chatham and Douglastown
destroyed.

1837. _St John_ (New Brunswick). 115 houses burned, January 13, and
nearly all the business part of the city. Loss, L1,000,000.

1877. _St. John._ Great fire on June 21. The area burned over was 200
acres. 37 streets and squares totally or in part destroyed;
10 m. of streets; 1650 dwellings. 18 lives lost. Total loss,
L2,500,000. Two-fifths of the city burned.

1846. _St John's_ (Newfoundland) was nearly destroyed, June 9. Two
whole streets burned upwards of 1 m. long. Loss estimated at
L1,000,000.

1850. _Montreal_. A fire destroyed the finest part of the city on
June 7. 200 houses were burned.

1852. " A fire on July 9 rendered 10,000 people destitute.
The space burned was 1 m. in length by 1/2 m. in
width, including 1200 houses. Loss, L1,000,000.

SOUTH AMERICA

1536. _Cuzco_ was nearly consumed.

1861. _Mendoza_. A great fire followed an earthquake which had
destroyed 10,000 people.

1862. _Valparaiso_ was devastated by fire.

1863. _Santiago_. Fire in the Jesuit church; 2000 persons, mostly
women and children, perished.

WEST INDIES

1752. _Pierre_ (Martinique) had 700 houses burned.

1782. _Kingston_ (Jamaica) had 80 houses burned. Loss, L500,000.

1795. _Montego Bay_ (Jamaica). Loss by fire of L400,000.

1805. _St Thomas._ 900 warehouses consumed. Loss, L6,000,000.

1808. _Spanish Town_ (Trinidad) was totally destroyed. Loss estimated
at L1,500,000.

1828. _Havana_ lost 350 houses; 2000 persons reduced to poverty.

1843. _Port Republicain_ (Haiti). Nearly one-third of the town was
burned.

Since this list was compiled, there have been further notable fires, more particularly in North America, the great conflagrations at Chicago, Baltimore and San Francisco being terrible examples. But speaking generally, these conflagrations, extensive as they were, only repeated the earlier lessons as to the necessity of combating the general negligence of the public by attaching far greater importance to the development of fire-preventive measures even than to the better organization of the fire-fighting establishments.

It may be of interest to mention notable fires in the British empire, and London in particular, during the decade 1890 to 1899:--

Port of Spain (Trinidad) March 4, 1895
New Westminster (British Columbia) Sept. 10, 1898
Toronto (Ontario) Jan. 6, 10, and
March 3, 1895
Windsor (Nova Scotia) Oct. 17, 1897
St John's (Newfoundland) July 8, 1892
London--Charterhouse Square Dec. 25, 1889
" St Mary Axe July 18, 1893
" Old Bailey and Fleet Street Nov. 15, 1893
" Tabernacle Street, Finsbury June 21, 1894
" Bermondsey Leather Market Sept. 13, 1894
" " " " May 17, 1895
" Minories Nov. 10, 1894
" South-West India Docks Feb. 8, 1895
" Charlotte and Leonard
Streets, Finsbury June 10, 1896
" Cripplegate Nov. 19, 1897
Nottingham Nov. 17, 1894
Sheffield Dec. 21, 1893
Bradford Nov. 30, 1896
Sunderland July 18, 1898
Dublin May 4, 1894
Glasgow--Anderston Quay Jan. 16, 1897
" Dunlop Street April 25, 1898

As to fires in any one specific class of building, the extraordinary number of fires that occurred in theatres and similar places of public entertainment up to the close of the 19th century calls for mention. Since that time, however, there has been a considerable abatement in this respect, owing to the adoption of successful measures of fire prevention. A list of some 1100 fires was published by Edwin O. Sachs in 1897 (_Fires at Public Entertainments_), and the results of these fires analysed. They involved a recorded loss of life to the extent of 9350 souls. About half of them (584) occurred in Europe, and the remainder in other parts of the world. Since the publication of that list extraordinary efforts have been made in all countries to reduce the risk of fires in public entertainments. The only notable disaster that has occurred since was that at the Iroquois Theatre at Chicago.

The annual drain in loss of life and in property through fires is far greater than is generally realized, and although the loss of life and property is being materially reduced from year to year, mainly by the fire-preventive measures that are now making themselves felt, the annual fire wastage of the world still averages quite L50,000,000 sterling. It is extremely difficult to obtain precise data as to the fire loss, insured and uninsured, but it may be assumed that in Great Britain the annual average loss by fire, towards the end of the 19th century (say 1897), was about L17,000,000 sterling, and that this had been materially reduced by 1909 to probably somewhere about L12,000,000 sterling. This extraordinary diminution in the fire waste of Great Britain,--in spite of the daily increasing number of houses, and the increasing amount of property in buildings--is in the main owing to the fire-preventive measures, which have led to a better class of new building and a great improvement in existing structures, and further, to a greater display of intelligence and interest in general fire precautionary measures by the public.

Notable improvements in the fire service have been effected, more particularly in London and in the country towns of the south of England since 1903. The International Fire Exhibition held in 1903 at Earl's Court, and the Fire Prevention Congress of the same year, may be said to have revolutionized thought on the subject of fire brigade organization and equipment in the British empire; but, for all that, the advance made by the fire service has not been so rapid as the development of the fire-preventive side of fire protection.

_Fire Protection._--The term "Fire Protection" is often misunderstood. Fire-extinguishing--in other words, fire brigade work--is what the majority understand by it, and many towns consider themselves well protected if they can boast of an efficiently manned fire-engine establishment. The fire brigade as such, however, has but a minor role in a rational system of protection. Really well-protected towns owe their condition in the first place to properly applied preventive legislation, based on the practical experience and research of architects, engineers, fire experts and insurance and municipal officials. Fire protection is a combination of fire prevention, fire combating and fire research.

Under the heading of "Fire Prevention" should be classed all preventive measures, including the education of the public; and under the heading "Fire Combating" should be classed both self-help and outside help.

Preventive measures may be the result of private initiative, but as a rule they are defined by the local authority, and contained partly in Building Acts, and partly in separate codes of fire-survey regulations--supplemented, if necessary, by special rules as to the treatment of extraordinary risks, such as the storage of petroleum, the manufacture of explosives, and theatrical performances. The education of the public may be simply such as can be begun informally at school and continued by official or semi-official warnings, and a judicious arrangement with the newspapers as to the tendency of their fire reports.

Such forms of training have already been successfully introduced.
There are English towns where the authorities have, for instance, had
some of the meaningless fables of the old elementary school _Standard
Reader_ replaced by more instructive ones, which warn children not to
play with matches, and teach them to run for help in case of an
emergency. Instructive copy-book headings have been arranged in place
of the meaningless sentences so often used in elementary schools.
There are a number of municipalities where regular warnings are issued
every December as to the dangerous Christmas-tree. In such places
every inhabitant has at least an opportunity of learning how to throw
a bucket of water properly, and how to trip up a burning woman and
roll her up without fanning the flames. The householder is officially
informed where the nearest fire-call point is, and how long he must
expect to wait till the first engine can reach his house. If he is a
newspaper reader, he will also have ample opportunity of knowing the
resources of his town, and the local reporter's fire report will give
him much useful information based on facts or hints supplied by the
authorities.

Both self-help and outside help must be classed under the heading of "Fire Combating." Self-help mainly deals with the protection of large risks, such as factories, stores and public places of amusement, which lend themselves to regulation. The requirements of the fire survey code may allow for hydrants or sprinklers in certain risks, and also for their regular inspection, and the means for self-help may thus be given. These means will, however, probably not be properly employed unless some of the employes engaged on the risk are instructed as to their purpose, and have confidence in the apparatus at their disposal. The possibility of proper self-help in dangerous risks may be encouraged by enforcing regular drills for the employes, and regular inspections to test their efficiency. There are towns where great reliance is placed on the efforts of such amateur firemen. In some cities they even receive extra pay and are formed into units, properly uniformed and equipped, and retained by the fire brigade as a reserve force for emergencies.

Self-help for the shopkeeper, the lodger or the householder can scarcely be regulated. The opportunities already mentioned for the education of the public, if properly utilized, would assure intelligent behaviour on the part of a large percentage of the community. There are places where, without any regulation being attempted, and thanks entirely to the influence referred to, most residences can boast of a hand-pump, a bucket, and a crowbar, the proper use of which is known to most of the household. Self-help in small risks may, however, be distinctly encouraged by the authorities, without any irksome interference with personal liberty, simply by the provision of street pillar-boxes, with the necessaries of first aid, including perhaps a couple of scaling ladders, and, further, by opportunities being given to householders to learn how to handle them. If a street pillar-box of this kind be put in a fire-station, and certain afternoons in the year be reserved on which this elementary instruction will be given, and the students afterwards shown over the fire-station or treated to a "turn-out," a considerable number will be found to take advantage of the opportunity. No matter whether curiosity or real interest brings them, the object in view will be attained.

Under "outside" help should be understood what is organized, and not simply such as is tendered by the casual passer-by or by a neighbour. The link between self-help and outside help is the fire-call.

_The Fire-Call._--The efficiency of the fire-call depends not only on the instrument employed and its position, but also on its conspicuous appearance, and the indications by which its situation may be discovered. These indications are quite as important as the instruments themselves. The conspicuousness of the instrument alone does not suffice. Of the official notifications given in the press, those in regard to the position of the call-points are among the most useful. An indication at every street corner as to the direction to take to reach the point--or perhaps better, the conspicuous advertisement Of the nearest call-point over every post pillar-box and inside every front door--may enable the veriest stranger to call assistance, and minimize the chances of time being lost in search of the instrument. It is immaterial for the moment whether the helpers are called by bell outside a fire-station, by a messenger from some special messenger service, by a call through a telephone, or by an electric or automatic appliance. Any instrument will do that ensures the call being transmitted with maximum speed and certainty and in full accord with the requirements of the locality.

_Outside Help._--Organized outside help may not be limited simply to the attendance of the fire brigade. Special arrangements can be made for the attendance of the local police force, a public or private salvage corps, an ambulance, or, in some cases, a military guard. Then in some instances arrangements are made for the attendance of the water and gas companies' servants, and even officials from the public works office, insurance surveyors, and the Press. There are places where the salvage corps arrives on the scene almost simultaneously with the fire brigade, and others where the police are generally on the spot in good force five minutes after the arrival of the first engines. There are several cities where the ambulance wagon and the steamers arrive together, and another city where the military authorities always send a fire piquet which can be turned out in a few minutes.

If all these helpers come together, no matter how high the rank of the individual commanders, the senior officer of the fire brigade, even if he holds only non-commissioned officer's rank, should have control, and his authority be fully recognized. Unfortunately, there are not many countries where this is the case. The efficiency of outside help depends in the first instance on the clear definition of the duties and powers of all concerned--on the legal foundation, in fact; then on the organization, the theoretically as well as practically correct executive; and, last but by no means least, on the prestige, the social standing, the education of commanders and their ability to handle men. Among the rank and file of the brigade, clear-headedness, pluck, smartness and agility will be as invaluable as reckless dare-devilry; showy acrobatism, or an unhealthy ambition for public applause, will be dangerous.

_Research._--Under the heading "Fire Research" should be included theoretical and experimental investigation as to materials and construction, combined with the chronicling of practical experience in fires, then the careful investigation and chronicling of the causes of fires, assisted where necessary by a power for holding fire inquests in interesting, suspicious or fatal cases. Experimental investigation as to natural and accidental causes as distinct from criminal causes can be included. Research in criminal cases may be assisted not only by a fire inquest, but also by immediate formal inquiries held on the spot, by the senior fire brigade and police officers present, or by immediate government investigations held on the same lines as inquiries into explosions and railway accidents.[1] As to general research work, there are several cities which contribute substantially towards the costs of fire tests at independent testing stations. Some towns also have special commissions of experts who visit all big fires occurring within easy travelling distance, take photographs and sketches, and issue reports as to how the materials were affected. Then there are the usual statistics as to outbreaks, their recurrence and causes, and in some places such tables are supplemented by reports on experiments with oil lamps, their burners and wicks, electric wiring, and the like.

_The British Fire Prevention Committee._--The British Fire Prevention
Committee is an organization founded a few days after the great
Cripplegate (London) fire in 1897, and incorporated in February 1899.
It comprises some 500 members and subscribers. The members include
civil engineers, public officials holding government appointments,
fire chiefs, insurance surveyors and architects, whilst the
subscribers in the main include the great public departments, such as
the admiralty and war office, and municipalities, such as the
important corporations of Glasgow, Liverpool and the like. Colonial
government departments and municipalities are also on the roll,
together with a certain number of colonial members. New Zealand has
formed a special section having its own local honorary secretary. The
ordinary work of the committee is carried out by a council and an
executive, and the necessary funds are provided by the subscription of
members and subscribers. The services of the members of council and
executive are given gratuitously, no out-of-pocket expenses of any
kind being refunded. Whilst the routine work deals mainly with
questions of regulations, rules and publications of general technical
interest, the tests are probably what have brought the committee into
prominence and given it an international reputation. They are not only
the recognized fire tests of Great Britain, but they rank as universal
standard tests for the whole of the civilized world, and Americans,
just as much as Danes, Germans or Austrians, pride themselves when
some product of their country has passed the official procedure of a
test by the committee. The reports of the tests, which state facts
only without giving criticisms or recommendations, are much
appreciated by all who have the control of public works or the
specification of appliances. The committee does not limit itself
solely to testing proprietary forms of construction or appliances, but
has a number of tests--quite equal to the proprietary tests--of
articles in general use. The ordinary concrete floor or the ordinary
wooden joist floor protected by asbestos boards or slag wool receives
as much attention as a patent floor; and similarly the ordinary
everyday hydrant receives equal attention with the patent hydrant, or
ordinary bucket of water with the special fire extinguisher. The door
tests of the committee, which cover some thirty different types of
doors, deal with no less than twenty ordinary wooden doors that can be
made by any ordinary builder or cabinet-maker. These so-called
non-proprietary tests are made at the expense of the general funds of
the committee, whilst for the proprietary tests the owners have to pay
about two-thirds of the expenses incurred in the form of a testing
fee. The expenses incurred in a test, of course, not only comprise the
actual testing operation of testing, but also the expense of producing
the report, which is always a very highly finished publication with
excellent blocks. The expense incurred also includes the establishment
expenses of the testing station at Regent's Park.

The British Fire Prevention Committee organized the great Fire
Exhibition and International Fire Congress of London in 1903, in both
of which it enjoyed the support and assistance of the National Fire
Brigades Union and the Association of Professional Fire Chiefs. It
from time to time despatches special commissions to the continent of
Europe, and these visits are followed by the issue of official
reports, well illustrated, presenting the appliances, rules and
methods of the countries visited, and serving as most useful reference
publications.

Taken generally, the whole of the work of the committee, both in
respect of scientific investigations and propagandism, has been most
beneficial. Fire waste has been materially reduced, regardless of the
fact of the greater fire hazards and the ever-growing amount of
property. In Great Britain alone the sum saved in fire wastage
annually is about L5,000,000. This great annual saving has been
obtained at an expenditure in research work, as far as the British
Fire Prevention Committee is concerned, of about L23,000, of which
more than half was provided by the membership in voluntary
contributions or subscriptions.

There is no similar institution anywhere in the world, although
several government laboratories occasionally undertake fire tests,
notably the Gross Lichterfelde laboratory near Berlin, and several
insurance corporations have testing plants, notably the American
Underwriters at Chicago. The efforts at research work outside Great
Britain have, however, been spasmodic and in no way compare with the
systematic series of inquiries conducted without any substantial state
aid in London.

_Distribution of Losses._--Property destroyed by fire is practically an absolute loss. This loss may actually only affect the owner, or it may be distributed among a number of people, who are taxed for it in the form of a contribution to their national or local fire fund, a share in some mutual insurance "ring," or the more usual insurance companies' premium. In the first two cases some expenses have also to be met in connexion with the management of the fund, "tariff" organization, or "ring." In the last case, not only the expenses of management have to be covered, but also the costs incurred in running the insurance enterprise as such, and then a further amount for division amongst those who share the risk of the venture--namely, the insurance company's shareholders.

It is well to distinguish between loss and mere expenditure. The
sinking fund of the large property owner should cover a loss with a
minimum extra expense; insurance in an extravagantly managed company
paying large dividends will cover a loss, but with an unnecessarily
large extra outlay. In every case the loss remains; and as property
may always be considered part of the community, the province or
nation, as the case may be, suffers. It is always in the interest of a
nation to minimize its national losses, no matter whether they fall on
one individual's shoulders or on many, and whether such losses are
good for certain trades or not. With a suitable system of fire
protection it is possible to bring these losses to a minimum, but this
minimum would probably only be reached by an extra expense, which
would fall heavier on the insurers' pockets in the form of municipal
rates than the higher premium for the greater risk. A practical
minimum is all that can be attempted, and that practical minimum
varies according to circumstances.

Practical protection must mean smaller annual insurance dues, and the
actual extra cost of this protection should be something less than the
saving off these dues. Then not only has the nation a smaller dead
loss, but the owner also has a smaller annual expenditure for his
combined contributions toward the losses, the management of his
insurance, and the protective measures. Where there is mutual
insurance or municipal insurance in its best sense, the losses by fire
and the costs of the protection are often booked in one account, and
the better protection up to a certain point should mean a smaller
individual annual share. Where there is company insurance the
municipal rates are increased to cover the cost of extra protection,
while a proportionate decrease is expected in the insurance premiums.
Competition and public opinion generally impose this decrease of the
insurance rates as soon as there is a greater immunity from fire.
Where the insurance companies are well managed and the shareholders
are satisfied with reasonable dividends, practical protection can be
said to find favour with all concerned, but if the protection is
arranged for and the companies do not moderate their charges
accordingly, the reverse is the case.

The position of insurance companies subscribing towards the
maintenance of a fire brigade should here be referred to, as there is
considerable misunderstanding on the subject. The argument which
municipalities or fire brigade organizations often use is to the
effect that the insurance companies derive all the profit from a good
fire service, and should contribute towards its cost. Where properly
managed companies have the business, a better fire service, however,
means a smaller premium to the ratepayer. If the ratepayer has to pay
for extra protection in the form of an increased municipal rate, or in
the form of an increased premium raised to meet the contribution
levied, this is simply juggling with figures.

_Cost._--As to the cost of a practical system of fire protection, better and safer building from the fire point of view means better and more valuable structures of longer life from the economic aspect. Such better and safer constructional work pays for itself and cannot be considered in the light of an extra tax on the building owner. The compilation and administration of the fire protective clauses in a Building Act would be attended to by the same executive authorities as would in any case superintend general structural matters, and the additional work would at the most require some increased clerical aid. If the execution of the fire survey regulations were delegated to the same authority there would again simply be some extra clerical aid to pay for, and the salaries of perhaps a few extra surveyors. To make the inspections thoroughly efficient, it has been found advisable in several instances to form parties of three for the rounds. The second man would, in this case, be a fire brigade officer, and the third probably a master chimney-sweep, who would have to receive a special retaining fee.

The cost of the public training referred to would be small, as the elementary part would simply be included in the schoolmaster's work, and the Press matters could be easily managed in the fire brigade office. Payments would have only to be made for advertisements, such as the official warnings, lists for fire-call points, &c., and perhaps for the publication of semi-official hints. Self-help, as far as inspection and drills for amateurs are concerned would be under the control of the fire brigade. There would, however, be an extra expense for the purchase and maintenance of the street first-aid appliances referred to.

The most expensive items in the system of fire protection undoubtedly come under the headings "Fire-Call" and "Fire Brigade." As to the former, there are a number of cities where the cost is modified by having the whole of the electrical service for the police force, the ambulance and fire brigade, managed by a separate department. The same wires call up each of these services, and, as the same staff attend to their maintenance, the fire protection of a city need only be debited with perhaps a third of the outlay it would occasion if managed independently. The combined system has also the great advantage of facilitating the mutual working of the different services in case of an emergency. The indicators which have been referred to involve an outlay; but here again, if the three services work together, the expenses on the count of fire protection can be lessened. The money rewards given in some cities to the individuals who first call the fire-engines may become a heavy item. Their utility is doubtful, and they have formed an inducement for arson.

As to the outlay on fire brigade establishment, a strong active force should be provided, supported by efficient reserves. The latter should be as inexpensive as possible, but should at least constitute a part-paid and disciplined body which could be easily called in for emergencies. Fire brigade budgets cannot allow for an active force being ready for such coincidences as an unusual number of large fires starting simultaneously, but they must allow for an ample strength always being forthcoming for the ordinary emergencies, and this with all due consideration for men's rest and possible sickness. An undermanned fire brigade is an anomaly which is generally fatal, not only to the property owner, but also to the whole efficiency and esprit of the force. The budget must also allow for an attractive rate of pay, as the profession is one which requires men who have a maximum of the sterling qualities which we look for in the pick of a nation. It must also not be forgotten that the fire service is one of the few where a system of pensions is the only fair way of recognizing the risks of limb and health, and at the same time securing that stability in which practical experience from long service is so essential a factor. The budget must allow for an ample reserve of appliances.

Whether or not a fire brigade should be so strong as to permit of its having a separate section for salvage corps purposes depends on circumstances. Economically a salvage corps is required, and should be part and parcel of the municipal brigade and organized on the same lines with a reserve, no matter whether the insurance of the locality be managed by the authorities or by companies. If a corps is necessary, it matters little whether it be paid for out of premiums or out of rates.

Of further expenses which have to be considered, there are items for fire research and fire inquest. If managed economically, due confidence being placed in the opinions of the fire officers and surveyors, there is no reason why the outlay should be great. The statistical work would only require some clerical aid. Where special coroners are retained for criminal cases some extra money will of course be required; but even here the costs need not be excessive, as there are many retired fire brigade officers and fire surveyors who are well suited for the work, and would be satisfied with a small emolument.

As to the cost of the water supply, there are but few places where special fire high-pressure mains are laid on in the interests of fire protection. As a rule the costs which are debited to the heading "Fire Protection" have simply to cover the maintenance of hydrants and tablets, or at the most the cost of the water actually used for fire-extinguishing purposes. Sometimes the cost of hydrants is shared with the scavenging department or the commission of sewers, which also have the use of them. Where the provision of water and hydrants falls to a private water company, the property owners will be paying their share for them, indirectly, in the form of water rates.

The protective measures referred to will serve both for life-saving and for the protection of property. It should be remembered that a good staircase and a ladder are often as useful for the manoeuvring of the firemen as for life-saving purposes, and that they are practically as essential for the saving of property as for saving life. No distinction need be made between the two risks when speaking of fire protection in general; but as the safety of the most valueless life is generally classed higher than that of the most valuable property, it may be well to give life-saving the first place when alluding to the two separately.

Criminal fire-raising only prevails where the fire-protective system is defective. With good construction and a fire survey, the quick arrival of the firemen, and careful inquests, the risks of detection are as a rule far too great to encourage its growth.

_Saving of Life._--Under "Fire Prevention" special requirements in the Building Act can greatly influence the safety of life by requiring practical exits and sufficient staircase accommodation. The risks in theatres and assembly halls require separate legislation. In ordinary structures no inmate of a building should be more than sixty feet away from a staircase, and preferably there should be two staircases at his disposal in the event of one being blocked. Generally, attention is only given to the construction of staircases; but it must be pointed out that their ventilation is equally important. Smoke is even a greater danger than fire, and may hamper the helpers terribly. The possibility of opening a window has saved many a life.

_Safety of Property._--As far as the protection of property is concerned, the prevention of outbreaks can be influenced by the careful construction of flues, hearths, stoves, and in certain classes of buildings by the construction of floors and ceilings, the arrangement of skylights, shutters and lightning conductors. Then comes the prevention of the fire spreading, first, by the division of risks, and secondly, by the materials used in construction.

The legislator's first ambition must be to prevent a fire in one house from spreading to another, and a stranger's property, so to say, from being endangered. This is quite possible, given good party walls carried well over the roof to a height regulated by the nature of the risk, the provision of the shutters to windows where necessary, and the use of fire-resisting glass. Again, a thoroughly good roof--or still better, a fire-resisting attic floor--can do much. If the locality has a fire brigade and the force is efficiently handled, "spreads" from one house to another should never occur. Narrow thoroughfares and courts are, however, a source of danger which may baffle all efforts to localize a fire. This should be remembered by those responsible for street improvements.