Chapter V: Part 5

[1] Ed. H. Suchier (Paderborn, 1878, 5th ed. 1903); modern French by
G. Michaut, with preface by J. Bedier (Tours, 1901); English by
Andrew Lang (1887), by F.W. Bourdillon (Oxford, 1896), and by
Laurence Housman (1902).

FLORENCE, WILLIAM JERMYN (1831-1891), American actor, of Irish descent, whose real name was Bernard Conlin, was born on the 26th of July 1831 at Albany, N.Y., and first attracted attention as an actor at Brougham's Lyceum in 1851. Two years later he married Mrs Malvina Pray Littell (d. 1906), in association with whom, until her retirement in 1889, he won all his successes, notably in Benjamin Woolf's _The Mighty Dollar_, said to have been presented more than 2500 times. In 1856 they had a successful London season, Mrs Florence being one of the first American actresses to appear on the English stage. In 1889 Florence entered into partnership with Joseph Jefferson, playing Sir Lucius O'Trigger to his Bob Acres and Mrs John Drew's Mrs Malaprop on a very successful tour. His last appearance was with Jefferson on the 14th of November 1891, as Ezekiel Homespun in _The Heir-at-law_, and he died on the 18th of November in Philadelphia.

FLORENCE OF WORCESTER (d. 1118), English chronicler, was a monk of Worcester, who died, as we learn from his continuator, on the 7th of July 1118. Beyond this fact nothing is known of his life. He compiled a chronicle called _Chronicon ex chronicis_ which begins with the creation and ends in 1117. The basis of his work was a chronicle compiled by Marianus Scotus, an Irish recluse, who lived first at Fulda, afterwards at Mainz. Marianus, who began his work after 1069, carried it up to 1082. Florence supplements Marianus from a lost version of the English Chronicle, and from Asser. He is always worth comparing with the extant English Chronicles; and from 1106 he is an independent annalist, dry but accurate. Either Florence or a later editor of his work made considerable borrowings from the first four books of Eadmer's _Historia novorum_. Florence's work is continued, up to 1141, by a certain John of Worcester, who wrote about 1150. John is valuable for the latter years of Henry I. and the early years of Stephen. He is friendly to Stephen, but not an indiscriminate partisan.

The first edition of these two writers is that of 1592 (by William
Howard). The most accessible is that of B. Thorpe (Eng. Hist. Soc., 2
vols., 1848-1849); but Thorpe's text of John's continuation needs
revision. Thorpe gives, without explanations, the insertions of an
ill-informed Gloucester monk who has obscured the accurate chronology
of the original. Thorpe also prints a continuation by John Taxter
(died c. 1295), a 13th-century writer and a monk of Bury St Edmunds.
Florence and John of Worcester are translated by J. Stevenson in his
_Church Historians of England_, vol. ii. pt. i. (London, 1853); T.
Forester's translation in Bohn's _Antiquarian Library_ (London, 1854)
gives the work of Taxter also. (H. W. C. D.)

FLORENCE, the county-seat of Lauderdale county, Alabama, U.S.A., on the N. bank of the Tennessee river, at the foot of Muscle Shoals Canal, and about 560 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1880) 1359; (1890) 6012; (1900) 6478 (1952 negroes); (1910) 6689. It is served by the Southern, the Northern Alabama (controlled by the Southern), and the Louisville & Nashville railways, and by electric railway to Sheffield and Tuscumbia, and the Tennessee river is here navigable. Florence is situated in the fertile agricultural lands of the Tennessee river valley on the edge of the coal and iron districts of Alabama, and has various manufactures, including pig-iron, cotton goods, wagons, stoves, fertilizers, staves and mercantile supplies. At Florence are the state Normal College, the Florence University for Women, and the Burrell Normal School (for negroes; founded in 1903 by the American Missionary Association). Florence was founded in 1818, Andrew Jackson, afterwards president of the United States, and ex-president James Madison being among the early property holders. For several years Florence and Nashville, Tennessee, were commercial rivals, being situated respectively at the head of navigation on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers. The first invasion of Alabama by Federal troops in the Civil War was by a gunboat raid up the Tennessee to Florence on the 8th of February 1862. On the 11th of April 1863 another Federal gunboat raid was attempted, but the vessels were repulsed by a force under Gen. S.A. Wood. On the 26th of May following, Federal troops entered Florence, and destroyed cotton mills and public and private property; but they were driven back by Gen. Philip D. Roddy (1820-1897). On the 11th of December 1863 the town was again raided, but the Federals did not secure permanent possession. Florence was chartered as a city in 1889.

FLORENCE (Ital. _Firenze_, Lat. _Florentia_), formerly the capital of Tuscany, now the capital of a province of the kingdom of Italy, and the sixth largest city in the country. It is situated 43 deg. 46' N., 11 deg. 14' E., on both banks of the river Arno, which at this point flows through a broad fertile valley enclosed between spurs of the Apennines. The city is 165 ft. above sea-level, and occupies an area of 3 sq. m. (area of the commune, 16-1/2 sq. m.). The geological formation of the soil belongs to the Quaternary and Pliocene period in its upper strata, and to the Eocene and Cretaceous in the lower. _Pietra forte_ of the Cretaceous period is quarried north and south of the city, and has been used for centuries as paving stone and for the buildings. _Pietra serena_ or _macigno_, a stone of a firm texture also used for building purposes, is quarried at Monte Ceceri below Fiesole. The soil is very fertile; wheat, Indian corn, olives, vines, fruit trees of many kinds cover both the plain and the surrounding hills; the chief non-fruit-bearing trees are the stone pine, the cypress, the ilex and the poplar, while many other varieties are represented. The gardens and fields produce an abundance of flowers, which justify the city's title of _la citta dei fiori_.

_Climate and Sanitary Conditions._--The climate of Florence is very variable, ranging from severe cold accompanied by high winds from the north in winter to great heat in the summer, while in spring-time sudden and rapid changes of temperature are frequent. At the same time the climate is usually very agreeable from the end of February to the beginning of July, and from the end of September to the middle of November. The average temperature throughout the year is about 57 deg. Fahr.; the maximum heat is about 96.8 deg., and the minimum 36.5 deg., sometimes sinking to 21 deg. The longest day is 15 hours and 33 minutes, the shortest 8 hours and 50 minutes. The average rainfall is about 37-1/2 inches. Epidemic diseases are rare and children's diseases mild; cholera has visited Florence several times, but the city has been free from it for many years. Diphtheria first appeared in 1868 and continued as a severe epidemic until 1872, since when it has only occurred at rare intervals and in isolated cases. Typhoid, pneumonia, tuberculosis, measles and scarlatina, and influenza are the commonest illnesses. The drainage system is still somewhat imperfect, but the water brought from the hills or from the Arno in pipes is fairly good, and the general sanitary conditions are satisfactory.

Churches.

_Public Buildings._--Of the very numerous Florentine churches the Duomo (Santa Maria del Fiore) is the largest and most important, founded in 1298 on the plans of Arnolfo di Cambio, completed by Brunelleschi, and consecrated in 1436; the facade, however, was not finished until the 19th century--it was begun in 1875 on the designs of de Fabris and unveiled in 1888. Close by the Duomo is the no less famous Campanile built by Giotto, begun in 1332, and adorned with exquisite bas-reliefs. Opposite is the Baptistery built by Arnolfo di Cambio in the 13th century on the site of an earlier church, and adorned with beautiful bronze doors by Ghiberti in the 15th century. The Badia, Santo Spirito, Santa Maria Novella, are a few among the many famous and beautiful churches of Florence. The existence of these works of art attracts students from all countries, and a German art school subsidized by the imperial government has been instituted.

The streets and piazze of the city are celebrated for their splendid palaces, formerly, and in many cases even to-day the residences of the noble families of Florence. Among others we may mention the Palazzo Vecchio, formerly the seat of the government of the Republic and now the town hall, the Palazzo Riccardi, the residence of the Medici and now the prefecture, the palaces of the Strozzi, Antinori (one of the most perfect specimens of Florentine _quattrocento_ architecture), Corsini, Davanzati, Pitti (the royal palace), &c. The palace of the Arte della Lana or gild of wool merchants, tastefully and intelligently restored, is the headquarters of the Dante Society. The centre of Florence, which was becoming a danger from a hygienic point of view, was pulled down in 1880-1890, but, unfortunately, sufficient care was not taken to avoid destroying certain buildings of historic and artistic value which might have been spared without impairing the work of sanitation, while the new structures erected in their place, especially those in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele, are almost uniformly ugly and quite out of keeping with Florentine architecture. The question aroused many polemics at the time both in Italy and abroad. After the new centre was built, a society called the _Societa per la difesa di Firenze antica_ was formed by many prominent citizens to safeguard the ancient buildings and prevent them from destruction, and a spirit of intelligent conservatism seems now to prevail in this connexion. The city is growing in all directions, and a number of new quarters have sprung up where the houses are more sanitary than in the older parts, but unfortunately few of them evince much aesthetic feeling. The _viali_ or boulevards form pleasant residential streets with gardens, and the system of building separate houses for each family (villini) instead of large blocks of flats is becoming more and more general.

Libraries.

Florence possesses four important libraries besides a number of smaller collections. The _Biblioteca Nazionale_, originally founded by Antonio Magliabecchi in 1747, enjoys the right, shared by the _Vittorio Emanuele_ library of Rome, of receiving a copy of every work printed in Italy, since 1870 (since 1848 it had enjoyed a similar privilege with regard to works printed in Tuscany). It contains some 500,000 printed volumes, 700,000 pamphlets, over 9000 prints and drawings (including 284 by Albert Durer), nearly 20,000 MSS., and 40,000 letters. The number of readers in 1904 was over 50,000. Unfortunately, however, the confusion engendered by a defective organization has long been a byword among the people; there is no printed catalogue, quantities of books are buried in packing-cases and unavailable, the collection of foreign books is very poor, hardly any new works being purchased, and the building itself is quite inadequate and far from safe; but the site of a new one has now been purchased and the plans are agreed upon, so that eventually the whole collection will be transferred to more suitable quarters. The _Biblioteca Marucelliana_, founded in 1752, contains 150,000 books, including 620 incunabula, 17,000 engravings and 1500 MSS.; it is well managed and chiefly remarkable for its collection of illustrated works and art publications. The _Biblioteca Mediceo-Laurenziana_, founded in 1571, has its origin in the library of Cosimo de' Medici the Elder, and was enlarged by Piero, Giovanni and above all by Lorenzo the Magnificent. Various princes and private persons presented it with valuable gifts and legacies, among the most important of which was the collection of _editiones principes_ given by Count d'Elci, in 1841, and the Ashburnham collection of MSS. purchased by the Italian Government in 1885. It contains nearly 10,000 MSS., including many magnificent illuminated missals and Bibles and a number of valuable Greek and Latin texts, 242 incunabula and 11,000 printed books, chiefly dealing with palaeography; it is in some ways the most important of the Florentine libraries. The _Biblioteca Riccardiana_, founded in the 16th century by Romolo Riccardi, contains nearly 4000 MSS., over 32,000 books and 650 incunabula, chiefly relating to Florentine history. The state archives are among the most complete in Italy, and contain over 450,000 _filze_ and _registri_ and 126,000 charters, covering the period from 726 to 1856.

Galleries of Fine Arts and Museums.

Few cities are as rich as Florence in collections of works of artistic and historic interest, although the great majority of them belong to a comparatively limited period--from the 13th to the 16th century. The chief art galleries are the Uffizi, the Pitti and Accademia. The two former are among the finest in the world, and are filled with masterpieces by Raphael, Andrea del Sarto, Perugino, Ghirlandaio, Botticelli, the Lippi, and many other Florentine, Umbrian, Venetian, Dutch and Flemish artists, as well as numerous admirable examples of antique, medieval and Renaissance sculpture. The Pitti collection is in the royal palace (formerly the residence of the grand dukes), and a fine new stairway and vestibule have been constructed by royal munificence. In the Uffizi the pictures are arranged in strict chronological order. In the Accademia, which is rich in early Tuscan masters, the Botticelli and Perugino rooms deserve special mention. Other pictures are scattered about in the churches, monasteries and private palaces. Of the monasteries, that of St Mark should be mentioned, as containing many works of Fra Angelico, besides relics of Savonarola, while of the private collections the only one of importance is that of Prince Corsini. There is a splendid museum of medieval and Renaissance antiquities in the Bargello, the ancient palace of the Podesta, itself one of the finest buildings in the city; among its many treasures are works of Donatello, Ghiberti, Verrochio and other sculptors, and large collections of ivory, enamel and bronze ware. The Opera del Duomo contains models and pieces of sculpture connected with the cathedral; the Etruscan and Egyptian museum, the gallery of tapestries, the Michelangelo museum, the museum of natural history and other collections are all important in different ways.

Population.

The total population of Florence in 1905, comprising foreigners and a garrison of 5500 men, was 220,879. In 1861 it was 114,363; it increased largely when the capital of Italy was in Florence (1865-1872), but decreased or increased very slightly after the removal of the capital to Rome, and increased at a greater rate from 1881 onwards. At present the rate of increase is about 22 per 1000, but it is due to immigration, as the birth rate was actually below the death rate down to 1903, since when there has been a slight increase of the former and a decrease of the latter.

Administration.

Florence is the capital of a province of the same name, and the central government is represented by a prefect (_prefetto_), while local government is carried on by a mayor (_sindaco_) and an elective town council (_consiglio comunale_). The city is the seat of a court of cassation (for civil cases only), of a court of appeal, besides minor tribunals. It is the headquarters of an army corps, and an archiepiscopal see.

Education.

There are 22 public elementary schools for boys and 18 for girls
(education being compulsory and gratuitous), with about 20,000 pupils,
and 56 private schools with 5700 pupils. Secondary education is
provided by one higher and four lower technical schools with 1375
pupils, three _ginnasii_ or lower classical schools, and three _licei_
or higher classical schools, with 1000 pupils, and three training
colleges with over 700 pupils. Higher education is imparted at the
university (_Istituto di studii superiori e di perfezionamento_), with
600 to 650 students; although only comprising the faculties of
literature, medicine and natural science, it is, as regards the
first-named faculty, one of the most important institutions in Italy.
The original _Studio Fiorentino_ was founded in the 14th century, and
acquired considerable fame as a centre of learning under the Medici,
enhanced by the presence in Florence of many learned Greeks who had
fled from Constantinople after its capture by the Turks (1453).
Although in 1472 some of the faculties and several of the professors
were transferred to Pisa, it still retained importance, and in the
17th and 18th centuries it originated a number of learned academies.
In 1859 after the annexation of Tuscany to the Italian kingdom it was
revived and reorganized; since then it has become to some extent a
national centre of learning and culture, attracting students from
other parts of Italy, partly on account of the fact that it is in
Florence that the purest Italian is spoken. The revival of classical
studies on scientific principles in modern Italy may be said to have
begun in Florence, and great activity has also been displayed in
reviving the study of Dante; Dante lectures being given regularly by
scholars and men of letters from all parts of the country, above the
church of Or San Michele as in the middle ages, under the auspices of
the _Societa Dantesca_. Palaeography, history and Romance languages
are among the other subjects to which especial importance is given.
Besides the _Istituto di studii superiori_ there is the _Istituto di
scienze sociali_ "_Cesare Alfieri_," founded by the marchese Alfieri
di Sostegno for the education of aspirants to the diplomatic and
consular services, and for students of economics and social sciences
(about 50 students); an academy of fine arts, a conservatoire of
music, a higher female training-college with 150 students, a number of
professional and trade schools, and an academy of recitation. There
are also many academies and learned societies of different kinds, of
which one of the most important is the _Accademia della Crusca_ for
the study of the Italian language, which undertook the publication of
a monumental dictionary.

Charities, etc.

Several of the Florence hospitals are of great antiquity, the most
important being that of Santa Maria Nuova, which, founded by Folco
Portinari, the father of Dante's Beatrice, has been thoroughly
renovated according to modern scientific principles. There are
numerous other hospitals both general and special, a foundling
hospital dating from the 13th century (Santa Maria degli Innocenti),
an institute for the blind, one for the deaf and dumb, &c. Most of the
hospitals and other charitable institutions are endowed, but the
endowments are supplemented by private contributions.

Commerce and Industry.

Florence is the centre of a large and fertile agricultural district,
and does considerable business in wine, oil and grain, and supplies
the neighbouring peasantry with goods of all kinds. There are no
important industries, except a few flour-mills, some glass works, iron
foundries, a motor car factory, straw hat factories, and power-houses
supplying electricity for lighting and for the numerous tramcars.
There are, however, some artistic industries in and around the city,
of which the most important is the Ginori-Richard porcelain works, and
the Cantagalli majolica works. There are many other smaller
establishments, and the Florentine artificer seems to possess an
exceptional skill in all kinds of work in which art is combined with
technical ability. Another very important source of revenue is the
so-called "tourist industry," which in late years has assumed immense
proportions; the city contains a large number of hotels and
boarding-houses which every year are filled to overflowing with
strangers from all parts of the world. (L. V.*)

HISTORY

Florentia was founded considerably later than Faesulae (Fiesole), which lies on the hill above it; indeed, as its name indicates, it was built only in Roman times and probably in connexion with the construction by C. Flaminius in 187 B.C. of a road from Bononia to Arretium (which later on formed part of the Via Cassia) at the point where this road crossed the river Arnus. We hear very little of it in ancient times; it appears to have suffered at the end of the war between Marius and Sulla, and in A.D. 15 (by which period it seems to have been already a colony) it successfully opposed the project of diverting part of the waters of the Clanis into the Arno (see CHIANA). Tacitus mentions it, and Florus describes it as one of the _municipia splendidissima_. A bishop of Florence is mentioned in A.D. 313. A group of Italic cremation tombs _a pozzo_ of the Villanova period were found under the pavement of the medieval Vicolo del Campidoglio. This took its name from the _Capitolium_ of Roman times, the remains of which were found under the Piazza Luna; the three _cellae_ were clearly traceable. The capitals of the columns were Corinthian, about 4 ft. in diameter, and it became clear that this temple had supplied building materials for S. Giovanni and S. Miniato. Fragments of a fine octagonal altar, probably belonging to the temple, were found. Remains of baths have been found close by, while the ancient amphitheatre has been found near S. Croce outside the Roman town, which formed a rectangle of about 400 by 600 yds., with four gates, the _Decumanus_ being represented by the Via Strozzi and Via del Corso, and the _Cardo_ by the Via Calcinara, while the Mercato Vecchio occupied the site of the Forum.

See L.A. Milani, "Reliquie di Firenze antica," in _Monumenti dei
Lincei_, vi. (1896), 5 seq. (T. As.)

The countess Matilda.

Guelphs and Ghibellines.

Beginnings of the commune.

War with the nobles.

The potestas.

The first event of importance recorded is the siege of the city by the Goths, A.D. 405, and its deliverance by the Roman general Stilicho. Totila besieged Florence in 542, but was repulsed by the imperial garrison under Justin, and later it was occupied by the Goths. We find the Longobards in Tuscany in 570, and mention is made of one _Gudibrandus Dux civitatis Florentinorum_, which suggests that Florence was the capital of a duchy (one of the regular divisions of the Longobard empire). Charlemagne was in Florence in 786 and conferred many favours on the city, which continued to grow in importance owing to its situation on the road from northern Italy to Rome. At the time of the agitation against simony and the corruption of the clergy, the head of the movement in Florence was San Giovanni Gualberto, of the monastery of San Salvi. The simoniacal election of Pietro Mezzabarba as bishop of Florence (1068) caused serious disturbances and a long controversy with Rome, which ended in the triumph, after a trial by fire, of the monk Petrus Igneus, champion of the popular reform movement; this event indicates the beginnings of a popular conscience among the Florentines. Under the Carolingian emperors Tuscany was a March or margraviate, and the marquises became so powerful as to be even a danger to the Empire. Under the emperor Otto I. one Ugo (d, 1001) was marquis, and the emperor Conrad II. (elected in 1024) appointed Boniface of Canossa marquis of Tuscany, a territory then extending from the Po to the borders of the Roman state. Boniface died in 1052, and in the following year the margraviate passed to his daughter, the famous countess Matilda, who ruled for forty years and played a prominent part in the history of Italy in that period. In the Wars of the Investitures Matilda was ever on the papal (afterwards called Guelph) side against the emperor and the faction afterwards known as Ghibelline, and she herself often led armies to battle. It is at this time that the people of Florence first began to acquire influence, and while the countess presided at the courts of justice in the name of the Empire, she was assisted by a group of great feudal nobles, judges, lawyers, &c., who formed, as elsewhere in Tuscany, the _boni homines_ or _sapientes_. As the countess was frequently absent these _boni homines_ gave judgment without her, thus paving the way for a free commune. The citizens found themselves in opposition to the nobility of the hills around the city, Teutonic feudatories of Ghibelline sympathies, who interfered with their commerce. Florence frequently waged war with these nobles and with other cities on its own account, although in the name of the countess, and the citizens began to form themselves into groups and associations which were the germs of the _arti_ or gilds. After the death of Countess Matilda in 1115 the _grandi_ or _boni homines_ continued to rule and administer justice, but in the name of the people--a change hardly noticed at first, but which marks the foundation of the commune. After 1138 the _boni homines_ began to be called _consules_, while the population was divided into the _grandi_ or _delle torri_, i.e. the noble families who had towers, and the _arti_ or trade and merchant gilds. At first the _consules_, of whom there seem to have been twelve, two for each _sestiere_ or ward, were chosen by the men of the towers, and assisted by a council of 100 _boni homines_, in which the _arti_ were predominant; the government thus came to be in the hands of a few powerful families. The republic now proceeded to extend its power. In 1125 Fiesole was sacked and destroyed, but the feudal nobles of the _contado_ (surrounding country), protected by the imperial margraves, were still powerful. The early margraves had permitted the Florentines to wage war against the Alberti family, whose castles they destroyed. The emperor Lothair when in Italy forced Florence to submit to his authority, but at his death in 1137 things returned to their former state and the Florentines fought successfully against the powerful counts Guidi. Frederick Barbarossa, however, elected emperor in 1152, made his authority felt in Tuscany, and appointed one Welf of Bavaria as margrave. Florence and other cities were forced to supply troops to the emperor for his Lombard campaigns, and he began to establish a centralized imperial bureaucracy in Tuscany, appointing a _potestas_, who resided at San Miniato (whence the name of "San Miniato al Tedesco"), to represent him and exercise authority in the _contado_; this double authority of the _consoli_ in the town and the _potestas_ or _podesta_ outside generated confusion. By 1176 the Florentines were masters of all the territory comprised in the dioceses of Florence and Fiesole; but civil commotion within the city broke out between the _consoli_ and the greater nobles, headed by the Alberti and strengthened by the many feudal families who had been forced to leave their castles and dwell in the city (1177-1180). In the end the Alberti, though not victorious, succeeded in getting occasionally admitted to the consulship. Florence now formed a league with the chief cities of Tuscany, made peace with the Guidi, and humbled the Alberti whose castle of Semifonte was destroyed (1202). Later we find a _potestas_ within the city, elected for a year and assisted by seven councillors and seven _rectores super capitibus artium_. This represented the triumph of the feudal party, which had gained the support of the _arti minori_ or minor gilds. The _potestates_ subsequently were foreigners, and in 1207 the dignity was conferred on Gualfredotto of Milan; a new council was formed, the _consiglio del comune_, while the older senate still survived. The Florentines now undertook to open the highways of commerce towards Rome, for their city was already an important industrial and banking centre.

Comune and popolo.

Battle of Montaperti (1260).

Discord among the great families broke out again, and the attempt to put an end to it by a marriage between Buondelmonte de' Buondelmonti and a daughter of the Amidei, only led to further strife (1215), although the causes of these broils were deeper and wider, being derived from the general division between Guelphs and Ghibellines all over Italy. But the work of crushing the nobles of the _contado_ and of asserting the city's position among rival communes continued. In 1222 Florence waged war successfully on Pisa, Lucca and Pistoia, and during the next few years against the Sienese with varying results; although the emperor supported the latter as Ghibellines, on his departure for Germany in 1235 they were forced to accept peace on onerous terms. During the interregnum (1241-1243) following on the death of Pope Gregory IX. the Ghibelline cause revived in Tuscany and imperial authority was re-established. The tumults against the Paterine heretics (1244-1245), among whom were many Ghibelline nobles favoured by the _podesta_ Pace di Pesamigola, indicate a successful Guelphic reaction; but Frederick II., having defeated his enemies both in Lombardy and in the Two Sicilies, appointed his natural son, Frederick of Antioch, imperial vicar in Tuscany, who, when civil war broke out, entered the city with 1600 German knights. The Ghibellines now triumphed completely, and in 1249 the Guelph leaders were driven into exile--the first of many instances in Florentine history of exile _en masse_ of a defeated party. The attempt to seize Montevarchi and other castles where the Guelph exiles were congregated failed, and in 1250 the burghers elected thirty-six _caporali di popolo_, who formed the basis of the _primo popolo_ or body of citizens independent of the nobles, headed by the _capitano del popolo_. The Ghibellines being unable to maintain their supremacy, the city came to be divided into two almost autonomous republics, the _comune_ headed by the _podesta_, and the _popolo_ headed by the _capitano_ and militarily organized into twenty companies; the central power was represented by twelve _anziani_ or elders. The _podesta_, who was always a foreigner, usually commanded the army, represented the city before foreign powers, and signed treaties. He was assisted by the _consiglio speciale_ of 90 and the _consiglio generale e speciale_ of 300, composed of nobles, while the _capitano del popolo_ had also two councils composed of burghers, heads of the gilds, _gonfalonieri_ of the companies, &c. The _anziani_ had a council of 36 burghers, and then there was the _parlamento_ or general assembly of the people, which met only on great occasions. At this time the _podesta's_ palace (the Bargello) was built, and the gold florin was first coined and soon came to be accepted as the standard gold piece throughout Europe. But, although greatly strengthened, the Guelphs, who now may be called the democrats as opposed to the Ghibelline aristocrats, were by no means wholly victorious, and in 1251 they had to defend themselves against a league of Ghibelline cities (Siena, Pisa and Pistoia) assisted by Florentine Ghibellines; the Florentine Uberti, who had been driven into exile after their plot of 1258, took refuge in Siena and encouraged that city in its hostility to Florence. Fresh disputes about the possession of Montepulciano and other places having arisen, the Florentines declared war once more. A Florentine army assisted by Guelphs of other towns was cunningly induced to believe that Siena would surrender at the first summons; but it was met by a Sienese army reinforced by Florentine exiles, including Farinata degli Uberti and other Ghibellines, and by the cavalry of Manfred (q.v.) of Sicily, led by Count Giordano and the count of Arras, with the result that the Florentines were totally routed at Montaperti on the 4th of September 1260. Count Giordano entered Florence, appointed Count Guido Novello _podesta_, and began a series of persecutions against the Guelphs. The Ghibellines even proposed to raze the walls of the city, but Farinata degli Uberti strongly opposed the idea, saying that "he had fought to regain and not to ruin his fatherland."

New constitution.

During this new Ghibelline predominance (1260-1266) the old liberties were abolished, and the _popolo_ was deprived of all share in the administration. But when Charles I. (q.v.) of Anjou descended into Italy as champion of the papacy, and Manfred was defeated and killed (1266), the _popolo_, who had acquired wealth in trade and industry, was ready to rise. After some disturbances Guido Novello and the Ghibellines were expelled, but it was not the _popolo_ who triumphed; the pope and Charles were the real masters of the situation, and the Florentines found they had exchanged a foreign and Ghibelline protector for one who was foreign and Guelph. Nevertheless much of the old order was restored; the _podesta_ who represented King Charles was assisted by 12 _buoni uomini_, and by the council of the 100 _buoni uomini del popolo_, "without the deliberation of whom," says Villani, "no great matter nor expenditure could be undertaken." Other bodies and magistrates were maintained, and the _capitano del popolo_, now called _capitano della massa di parte Guelfa_, tended to become a very important person. The property of the Ghibellines was confiscated, and a commission of six _capitani di parte Guelfa_ appointed to administer it and in general to expend it for the persecution of the Ghibellines. The whole constitution of the republic, although of very democratic tendencies, seemed designed to promote civil strife and weaken the central power.

Florentine trade and the gilds.

While the constitution was evolving in a manner which seemed to argue small political ability and no stability in the Florentines, the people had built up a wonderful commercial organization. Each of the seven _arti maggiori_ or greater gilds was organized like a small state with its councils, statutes, assemblies, magistrates, &c., and in times of trouble constituted a citizen militia. Florentine cloth especially was known and sold all over Europe, and the Florentines were regarded as the first merchants of the age. If the life of the city went on uninterruptedly even during the many changes of government and the almost endemic civil war, it was owing to the solidity of the gilds, who could carry on the administration without a government.

Cardinal Latino.

After Charles's victory over Conradin in 1268 the Florentines defeated the Sienese (1269) and made frequent raids into Pisan territory. As Charles perpetually interfered in their affairs, always favouring the _grandi_ or Guelph nobles, some of the Ghibellines were recalled as a counterpoise, which, however, only led to further civil strife. Rudolph of Habsburg, elected king of the Romans in 1273, having come to terms with Pope Nicholas III., Charles was obliged in 1278 to give up his title of imperial vicar in Tuscany, which he had held during the interregnum following on the death of Frederick II. In 1279 Pope Nicholas sent his nephew, the friar preacher Latino Frangipani Malabranca, whom he had created cardinal bishop of Ostia the same year, to reconcile the parties in Florence once more. Cardinal Latino to some extent succeeded, and was granted a kind of temporary dictatorship. He raised the 12 _buoni uomini_ to 14 (8 Guelphs and 6 Ghibellines), to be changed every two months; and they were assisted by a council of 100. A force of 1000 men was placed at the disposal of the _podesta_ and _capitano_ (now both elected by the people) to keep order and oblige the _grandi_ to respect the law. The Sicilian Vespers (q.v.) by weakening Charles strengthened the commune, which aimed at complete independence of emperors, kings and popes. After 1282 the _signoria_ was composed of the 3 (afterwards 6) _priori_ of the gilds, who ended by ousting the _buoni uomini_, while a _defensor artificum et artium_ takes the place of the _capitano_; thus the republic became an essentially trading community, governed by the _popolani grassi_ or rich merchants.

Battle of Campaldino (1289).

Ordinamenti della Giustizia (1293).

The republic now turned to the task of breaking the power of the Ghibelline cities of Pisa and Arezzo. In 1289 the Aretini were completely defeated by the Florentines at Campaldino, a battle made famous by the fact that Dante took part in it. War against the Pisans, who had been defeated by the Genoese in the naval battle of La Meloria in 1284, was carried on in a desultory fashion, and in 1293 peace was made. But the _grandi_, who had largely contributed to the victory of Campaldino, especially men like Corso Donati and Vieri de' Cerchi, were becoming more powerful, and Charles had increased their number by creating a great many knights; but their attempts to interfere with the administration of justice were severely repressed, and new laws were passed to reduce their influence. Among other internal reforms the abolition of the last traces of servitude in 1289, and the increase in the number of _arti_, first to 12 and then to 21 (7 _maggiori_ and 14 _minori_) must be mentioned. This, however, was not enough for the Florentine democracy, who viewed with alarm the increasing power and arrogance of the _grandi_, who in spite of their exclusion from many offices were still influential and constituted independent clans within the state. The law obliged each member of the clan (_consorteria_) to _sodare_ for all the other members, i.e. to give a pecuniary guarantee to ensure payment of fines for offences committed by any one of their number, a provision made necessary by the fact that the whole clan acted collectively. But as the laws were not always enforced new and severe ones were enacted. These were the famous _Ordinamenti della Giustizia_ of 1293, by which all who were not of the _arti_ were definitely excluded from the signory. The _priori_ were to remain in office two months and elected the _gonfaloniere_, also for two months; there were the _capitudini_ or councils of the gilds, and two _savi_ for each _sestiere_, with 1000 soldiers at their disposal; the number of the _grandi_ families was fixed at 38 (later 72). Judgment in matters concerning the _Ordinamenti_ was delivered in a summary fashion without appeal. The leading spirit of this reform was Giano della Bella, a noble who by engaging in trade had become a _popolano_; the _grandi_ now tried to make him unpopular with the _popolani grassi_, hoping that without him the _Ordinamenti_ would not be executed, and opened negotiations with Pope Boniface VIII. (elected 1294), who aimed at extending his authority in Tuscany. A signory adverse to Giano having been elected, he was driven into exile in 1295. The _grandi_ regained some of their power by corrupting the _podesta_ and by the favour of the _popolo minuto_ or unorganized populace; but their quarrels among themselves prevented them from completely succeeding, while the _arti_ were solid.

The Bianchi and the Neri.

In 1295 a signory favourable to the _grandi_ enacted a law attenuating the _Ordinamenti_, but now the _grandi_ split into two factions, one headed by the Donati, which hoped to abolish the _Ordinamenti_, and the other by the Cerchi, which had given up all hope of their abolition; afterwards these parties came to be called _Neri_ (Blacks) and _Bianchi_ (Whites). A plot of the Donati to establish their influence over Florence with the help of Boniface VIII. having been discovered (May 1300), serious riots broke out between the Neri and the Bianchi. The pope's attempt to unite the _grandi_ having failed, he summoned Charles of Valois to come to his assistance, promising him the imperial crown; in 1301 Charles entered Italy, and was created by the pope _paciaro_ or peacemaker of Tuscany, with instructions to crush the Bianchi and the _popolo_ and exalt the Neri. On the 1st of November Charles reached Florence, promising to respect its laws; but he permitted Corso Donati and his friends to attack the Bianchi, and the new _podesta_, Cante dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, who had come with Charles, punished many of that faction; among those whom he exiled was the poet Dante (1302). Corso Donati, who for some time was the most powerful man in Florence, made himself many enemies by his arrogance, and was obliged to rely on the _popolo grasso_, the irritation against him resulting in a rising in which he was killed (1308). In this same year Henry of Luxemburg was elected king of the Romans and with the pope's favour he came to Italy in 1310; the Florentine exiles and all the Ghibellines of Italy regarded him as a saviour and regenerator of the country, while the Guelphs of Florence on the contrary opposed both him and the pope as dangerous to their own liberties and accepted the protection of King Robert of Naples, disregarding Henry's summons to submission. In 1312 Henry was crowned emperor as Henry VII. in Rome, but instead of the universal ruler and pacifier which he tried to be, he was forced by circumstances into being merely a German kaiser who tried to subjugate free Italian communes. He besieged Florence without success, and died of disease in 1313.

Uguccione della Fagginola and Castruccio Castracani.

The Pisans, fearing the vengeance of the Guelphs now that Henry was dead, had accepted the lordship of Uguccione della Fagginola, imperial vicar in Genoa. A brave general and an ambitious man, he captured Lucca and defeated the Florentines and their allies from Naples at Montecatini in 1315, but the following year he lost both Pisa and Lucca and had to fly from Tuscany. A new danger now threatened Florence in the person of Castruccio Castracani degli Antelminelli (q.v.), who made himself lord of Lucca and secured help from Matteo Visconti, lord of Milan, and other Ghibellines of northern Italy. Between 1320 and 1323 he harried the Florentines and defeated them several times, captured Pistoia, devastated their territory up to the walls of the city in spite of assistance from Naples under Raymundo de Cardona and the duke of Calabria (King Robert's son); never before had Florence been so humiliated, but while Castruccio was preparing to attack Florence he died in 1328. Two months later the duke of Calabria, who had been appointed protector of the city in 1325, died, and further constitutional reforms were made. The former councils were replaced by the _consiglio del popolo_, consisting of 300 _popolani_ and presided over by the _capitano_, and the _consiglio del comune_ of 250 members, half of them nobles and half _popolani_, presided over by the _podesta_. The _priori_ and other officers were drawn by lot from among the Guelphs over thirty years old who were declared fit for public office by a special board of 98 citizens (1329). The system worked well at first, but abuses soon crept in, and many persons were unjustly excluded from office; trouble being expected in 1335 a captain of the guard was created. But the first one appointed, Jacopo dei Gabrielli of Gubbio, used his dictatorial powers so ruthlessly that at the end of his year of office no successor was chosen.

Attempt to capture Lucca.

The duke of Athens (1342-43).

The Florentines now turned their eyes towards Lucca; they might have acquired the city immediately after Castruccio's death for 80,000 florins, but failed to do so owing to differences of opinion in the signory; Martino della Scala, lord of Verona, promised it to them in 1335, but broke his word, and although their finances were not then very flourishing they allied themselves with Venice to make war on him. They were successful at first, but Venice made a truce with the Scala independently of the Florentines, and by the peace of 1339 they only obtained a part of Lucchese territory. At the same time they purchased from the Tarlati the protectorate over Arezzo for ten years. But misfortunes fell on the city: Edward III. of England repudiated the heavy debts contracted for his wars in France with the Florentine banking houses of Bardi and Peruzzi (1339), which eventually led to their failure and to that of many smaller firms, and shook Florentine credit all over the world; Philip VI. of France extorted large sums from the Florentine merchants and bankers in his dominions by accusing them of usury; in 1340 plague and famine wrought terrible havoc in Florence, and riots again broke out between the _grandi_ and the _popolo_, partly on account of the late unsuccessful wars and the unsatisfactory state of the finances. To put an end to these disorders, Walter of Brienne, duke of Athens, was elected "conservator" and captain of the guard in 1342. An astute, dissolute and ambitious man, half French and half Levantine, he began his government by a policy of conciliation and impartial justice which won him great popularity. But as soon as he thought the ground was secure he succeeded in getting himself acclaimed by the populace lord of Florence for life, and on the 8th of September was carried in triumph to the Palazzo della Signoria. The _podesta_ and the _capitano_ assenting to this treachery, he dismissed the _gonfaloniere_, reduced the _priori_ to a position of impotence, disarmed the citizens, and soon afterwards accepted the lordship of Arezzo, Volterra, Colle, San Gimignano and Pistoia. He increased his bodyguard to 800 men, all Frenchmen, who behaved with the greatest licence and brutality; by his oppressive taxes, and his ferocious cruelty towards all who opposed him, and the unsatisfactory treaties he concluded with Pisa, he accumulated bitter hatred against his rule. The _grandi_ were disappointed because he had not crushed the _popolo_, and the latter because he had destroyed their liberties and interfered with the organization of the _arti_. Many unsuccessful plots against him were hatched, and having discovered one that was conducted by Antonio degli Adimari, the duke summoned the latter to the palace and detained him a prisoner. He also summoned 300 leading citizens on the pretext of wishing to consult them, but fearing treachery they refused to come. On the 26th of July 1343, the citizens rose in arms, demanded the duke's abdication, and besieged him in the palace. Help came to the Florentines from neighbouring cities, the _podesta_ was expelled, and a _balia_ or provisional government of 14 was elected. The duke was forced to set Adimari and his other prisoners free, and several of his men-at-arms were killed by the populace; three of his chief henchmen, whom he was obliged to surrender, were literally torn to pieces, and finally on the 1st of August he had to resign his lordship. He departed from Florence under a strong guard a few days later, and the Fourteen cancelled all his enactments.

New constitution.

The expulsion of the duke of Athens was followed by several measures to humble the _grandi_ still further, while the _popolo minuto_ or artisans began to show signs of discontent at the rule of the merchants, and the populace destroyed the houses of many nobles. As soon as order was restored a _balia_ was appointed to reform the government, in which task it was assisted by the Sienese and Perugian ambassadors and by Simone da Battifolle. The _priori_ were reduced to 8 (2 _popolani grassi_, 3 _mediani_ and 3 _artifici minuti_), while the _gonfaloniere_ was to be chosen in turn from each of those classes; the _grandi_ were excluded from the administration, but they were still admitted to the _consiglio del comune_, the _cinque di mercanzia_, and other offices pertaining to the commune; the _Ordinamenti_ were maintained but in a somewhat attenuated form, and certain _grandi_ as a favour were declared to be of the _popolo_. Florence was now a thoroughly democratic and commercial republic, and its whole policy was mainly dominated by commercial considerations: its rivalry with Pisa was due to an ambition to gain secure access to the sea; its strong Guelphism was the outcome of its determination to secure the bank-business of the papacy; and its desire to extend its territory in Tuscany to the necessity for keeping open the land trade routes. Florentine democracy, however, was limited to the walls of the city, for no one of the _contado_ nor any citizen of the subject towns enjoyed political rights, which were reserved for the inhabitants of Florence alone and not by any means for all of them.

Statistics.

Florence was in the 14th century a city of about 100,000 inhabitants, of whom 25,000 could bear arms; there were 110 churches, 39 religious houses; the shops of the _arte della lana_ numbered over 200, producing cloth worth 1,200,000 florins; Florentine bankers and merchants were found all over the world, often occupying responsible positions in the service of foreign governments; the revenues of the republic, derived chiefly from the city customs, amounted to some 300,000 florins, whereas its ordinary expenses, exclusive of military matters and public buildings, were barely 40,000. It was already a centre of art and letters and full of fine buildings, pictures and libraries. But now that the _grandi_ were suppressed politically, the lowest classes came into prominence, "adventurers without sense or virtue and of no authority for the most part, who had usurped public offices by illicit and dishonest practices" (Matteo Villani, iv. 69); this paved the way for tyranny.

The Great Plague (1348).

War with Milan (1351).

In 1347 Florence was again stricken with famine, followed the next year by the most terrible plague it had ever experienced, which carried off three-fifths of the population (according to Villani). Yet in spite of these disasters the republic was by no means crushed; it soon regained the suzerainty of many cities which had broken off all connexion with it after the expulsion of the duke of Athens, and purchased the overlordship of Prato from Queen Joanna of Naples, who had inherited it from the duke of Calabria. In 1351 Giovanni Visconti, lord and archbishop of Milan, having purchased Bologna and allied himself with sundry Ghibelline houses of Tuscany with a view to dominating Florence, the city made war on him, and in violation of its Guelph traditions placed itself under the protection of the emperor Charles IV. (1355) for his lifetime. This move, however, was not popular, and it enabled the _grandi_, who, although excluded from the chief offices, still dominated the _parte Guelfa_, to reassert themselves. They had in 1347 succeeded in enacting a very stringent law against all who were in any way tainted with Ghibellinism, which, they themselves being above suspicion in that connexion, enabled them to drive from office many members of the _popolo minuto_. In 1358 the _parte Guelfa_ made these enactments still more stringent, punishing with death or heavy fines all who being Ghibellines held office, and provided that if trustworthy witnesses were forthcoming condemnations might be passed for this offence without hearing the accused; even a non-proved charge or an _ammonizione_ (warning not to accept office) might entail disfranchisement. Thus the _parte_, represented by its 6 (afterwards 9) captains, came to exercise a veritable reign of terror, and no one knew when an accusation might fall on him. The leader of the _parte_ was Piero degli Albizzi, whose chief rivals were the Ricci family.

The condottieri.

Italy at this time began to be overrun by bands of soldiers of fortune. The first of these bands with whom Florence came into contact was the Great Company, commanded by the count of Lando, which twice entered Tuscany but was expelled both times by the Florentine troops (1358-1359).

In 1362 we find Florence at war with Pisa on account of commercial differences, and because the former had acquired the lordship of Volterra. The Florentines were successful until Pisa enlisted Sir John Hawkwood's English company; the latter won several battles, but were at last defeated at Cascina, and peace was made in 1364, neither side having gained much advantage. A fresh danger threatened the republic in 1367 when Charles IV., who had allied himself with Pope Urban V., Queen Joanna of Naples, and various north Italian despots to humble the Visconti, demanded that the Florentines should join the league. This they refused to do and armed themselves for defence, but eventually satisfied the emperor with a money payment.

The parte Guelfa.

The tyranny of the _parte Guelfa_ still continued unabated, and the _capitani_ carried an enactment by which no measure affecting the _parte_ should be even discussed by the signory unless previously approved of by them. This infamous law, however, aroused so much opposition that some of the very men who had proposed it assembled in secret to discuss its abolition, and a quarrel between the Albizzi and the Ricci having weakened the _parte_, a _balia_ of 56 was agreed upon. Several of the Albizzi and the Ricci were excluded from office for five years, and a council called the Ten of Liberty was created to defend the laws and protect the weak against the strong. The _parte Guelfa_ and the Albizzi still remained very influential and the attempts to abolish admonitions failed.

War with the church (1375-78).

In 1375 Florence became involved in a war which showed how the old party divisions of Italy had been obliterated. The papal legate at Bologna, Cardinal Guillaume de Noellet (d. 1394), although the church was then allied to Florence, was meditating the annexation of the city to the Holy See; he refused a request of the Florentines for grain from Romagna, and authorized Hawkwood to devastate their territory. Although a large part of the people disliked the idea of a conflict with the church, an alliance with Florence's old enemy Bernabo Visconti was made, war declared, and a _balia_ of 8, the _Otto della guerra_ (afterwards called the "Eight Saints" on account of their good management) was created to carry on the campaign. Treaties with Pisa, Siena, Arezzo and Cortona were concluded, and soon no less than 80 towns, including Bologna, had thrown off the papal yoke. Pope Gregory XI. placed Florence under an interdict, ordered the expulsion of all Florentines from foreign countries, and engaged a ferocious company of Bretons to invade the republic's territory. The Eight levied heavy toll on church property and ordered the priests to disregard the interdict. They turned the tables on the pope by engaging Hawkwood, and although the Bretons by order of Cardinal Robert of Geneva (afterwards the anti-pope Clement VII.) committed frightful atrocities in Romagna, their captains were bribed by the republic not to molest its territory. By 1378 peace was made, partly through the mediation of St Catherine of Siena, and the interdict was removed in consideration of the republic's paying a fine of 200,000 florins to the pope.

Salvestro de' Medici.