Chapter X: Part 10

JIBUTI (DJIBOUTI), the chief port and capital of French Somaliland, in 11° 35´ N., 43° 10´ E. Jibuti is situated at the entrance to and on the southern shore of the Gulf of Tajura about 150 m. S.W. of Aden. The town is built on a horseshoe-shaped peninsula partly consisting of mud flats, which are spanned by causeways. The chief buildings are the governor's palace, customs-house, post office, and the terminal station of the railway to Abyssinia. The houses in the European quarter are built of stone, are flat-roofed and provided with verandas. There is a good water supply, drawn from a reservoir about 2½ m. distant. The harbour is land-locked and capacious. Ocean steamers are able to enter it at all states of wind and tide. Adjoining the mainland is the native town, consisting mostly of roughly made wooden houses with well thatched roofs. In it is held a large market, chiefly for the disposal of live stock, camels, cattle, &c. The port is a regular calling-place and also a coaling station for the steamers of the Messageries Maritimes, and there is a local service to Aden. Trade is confined to coaling passing ships and to importing goods for and exporting goods from southern Abyssinia via Harrar, there being no local industries. (For statistics see SOMALILAND, FRENCH.) The inhabitants are of many races--Somali, Danakil, Gallas, Armenians, Jews, Arabs, Indians, besides Greeks, Italians, French and other Europeans. The population, which in 1900 when the railway was building was about 15,000, had fallen in 1907 to some 5000 or 6000, including 300 Europeans.

Jibuti was founded by the French in 1888 in consequence of its superiority to Obok both in respect to harbour accommodation and in nearness to Harrar. It has been the seat of the governor of the colony since May 1896. Order is maintained by a purely native police force. The port is not fortified.

JICARILLA, a tribe of North American Indians of Athapascan stock. Their former range was in New Mexico, about the headwaters of the Rio Grande and the Pecos, and they are now settled in a reservation on the northern border of New Mexico. Originally a scourge of the district, they are now subdued, but remain uncivilized. They number some 800 and are steadily decreasing. The name is said to be from the Spanish _jicara_, a basket tray, in reference to their excellent basket-work.

JIDDA (also written JEDDAH, DJIDDAH, DJEDDEH), a town in Arabia on the Red Sea coast in 21° 28´ N. and 39° 10´ E. It is of importance mainly as the principal landing place of pilgrims to Mecca, from which it is about 46 m. distant. It is situated in a low sandy plain backed by a range of hills 10 m. to the east, with higher mountains behind. The town extends along the beach for about a mile, and is enclosed by a wall with towers at intervals, the seaward angles being commanded by two forts, in the northern of which are the prison and other public buildings. There are three gates, the Medina gate on the north, the Mecca gate on the east, and the Yemen gate (rarely opened) on the south; there are also three small posterns on the west side, the centre one leading to the quay. In front of the Mecca gate is a rambling suburb with shops, coffee houses, and an open market place; before the Medina gate are the Turkish barracks, and beyond them the holy place of Jidda, the tomb of "our mother Eve," surrounded by the principal cemetery.

The tomb is a walled enclosure said to represent the dimensions of the
body, about 200 paces long and 15 ft. broad. At the head is a small
erection where gifts are deposited, and rather more than half-way down
a whitewashed dome encloses a small dark chapel within which is the
black stone known as _El Surrah_, the navel. The grave of Eve is
mentioned by Edrisi, but except the black stone nothing bears any
aspect of antiquity (see Burton's _Pilgrimage_, vol. ii.).

The sea face is the best part of the town; the houses there are lofty and well built of the rough coral that crops out all along the shore. The streets are narrow and winding. There are two mosques of considerable size and a number of smaller ones. The outer suburbs are merely collections of brushwood huts. The bazaars are well supplied with food-stuffs imported by sea, and fruit and vegetables from Taif and Wadi Fatima. The water supply is limited and brackish; there are, however, two sweet wells and a spring 7½ m. from the town, and most of the houses have cisterns for storing rain-water. The climate is hot and damp, but fever is not so prevalent as at Mecca. The harbour though inconvenient of access is well protected by coral reefs; there are, however, no wharves or other dock facilities and cargo is landed in small Arab boats, _sambuks_.

The governor is a Turkish kaimakam under the vali of Hejaz, and there is a large Turkish garrison; the sharif of Mecca, however, through his agent at Jidda exercises an authority practically superior to that of the sultan's officials. Consulates are maintained by Great Britain, France, Austria, Russia, Holland, Belgium and Persia. The permanent population is estimated at 20,000, of which less than half are Arabs, and of these a large number are foreigners from Yemen and Hadramut, the remainder are negroes and Somali with a few Indian and Greek traders.

Jidda is said to have been founded by Persian merchants in the caliphate of Othman, but its great commercial prosperity dates from the beginning of the 15th century when it became the centre of trade between Egypt and India. Down to the time of Burckhardt (1815) the Suez ships went no farther than Jidda, where they were met by Indian vessels. The introduction of steamers deprived Jidda of its place as an emporium, not only for Indian goods but for the products of the Red Sea, which formerly were collected here, but are now largely exported direct by steamer from Hodeda, Suakin, Jibuti and Aden. At the same time it gave a great impulse to the pilgrim traffic which is now regarded as the annual harvest of Jidda. The average number of pilgrims arriving by sea exceeds 50,000, and in 1903-1904 the total came to 74,600. The changed status of the port is shown in its trade returns, for while its exports decreased from £250,000 in 1880 to £25,000 in 1904, its imports in the latter year amounted to over £1,400,000. The adverse balance of trade is paid by a very large export of specie, collected from the pilgrims during their stay in the country.

JIG, a brisk lively dance, the quick and irregular steps of which have varied at different times and in the various countries in which it has been danced (see DANCE). The music of the "jig," or such as is written in its rhythm, is in various times and has been used frequently to finish a suite, e.g. by Bach and Handel. The word has usually been derived from or connected with Fr. _gigue_, Ital. _giga_, Ger. _Geige_, a fiddle. The French and Italian words are now chiefly used of the dance or dance rhythm, and in this sense have been taken by etymologists as adapted from the English "jig," which may have been originally an onomatopoeic word. The idea of jumping, jerking movement has given rise to many applications of "jig" and its derivative "jigger" to mechanical and other devices, such as the machine used for separating the heavier metal-bearing portions from the lighter parts in ore-dressing, or a tackle consisting of a double and single block and fall, &c. The word "jigger," a corruption of the West Indian _chigoe_, is also used as the name of a species of flea, the _Sarcopsylla penetrans_, which burrows and lays its eggs in the human foot, generally under the toe nails, and causes great swelling and irritation (see FLEA).

JIHAD (also written JEHAD, JAHAD, DJEHAD), an Arabic word of which the literal meaning is an effort or a contest. It is used to designate the religious duty inculcated in the Koran on the followers of Mahomet to wage war upon those who do not accept the doctrines of Islam. This duty is laid down in five suras--all of these suras belonging to the period after Mahomet had established his power. Conquered peoples who will neither embrace Islam nor pay a poll-tax (_jizya_) are to be put to the sword. (See further MOHAMMEDAN INSTITUTIONS.) By Mahommedan commentators the commands in the Koran are not interpreted as a general injunction on all Moslems constantly to make war on the infidels. It is generally supposed that the order for a general war can only be given by the caliph (an office now claimed by the sultans of Turkey). Mahommedans who do not acknowledge the spiritual authority of the Ottoman sultan, such as the Persians and Moors, look to their own rulers for the proclamation of a jihad; there has been in fact no universal warfare by Moslems on unbelievers since the early days of Mahommedanism. Jihads are generally proclaimed by all persons who claim to be mahdis, e.g. Mahommed Ahmad (the Sudanese mahdi) proclaimed a jihad in 1882. In the belief of Moslems every one of their number slain in a jihad is taken straight to paradise.

JIMENES (or XIMENES) DE CISNEROS, FRANCISCO (1436-1517), Spanish cardinal and statesman, was born in 1436 at Torrelaguna in Castile, of good but poor family. He studied at Alcalá de Henares and afterwards at Salamanca; and in 1459, having entered holy orders, he went to Rome. Returning to Spain in 1465, he brought with him an "expective" letter from the pope, in virtue of which he took possession of the archpriestship of Uzeda in the diocese of Toledo in 1473. Carillo, archbishop of Toledo, opposed him, and on his obstinate refusal to give way threw him into prison. For six years Jimenes held out, and at length in 1480 Carillo restored him to his benefice. This Jimenes exchanged almost at once for a chaplaincy at Siguenza, under Cardinal Mendoza, bishop of Siguenza, who shortly appointed him vicar-general of his diocese. In that position Jimenes won golden opinions from ecclesiastic and layman; and he seemed to be on the sure road to distinction among the secular clergy, when he abruptly resolved to become a monk. Throwing up all his benefices, and changing his baptismal name Gonzales for that of Francisco, he entered the Franciscan monastery of San Juan de los Reyes, recently founded by Ferdinand and Isabella at Toledo. Not content with the ordinary severities of the noviciate, he added voluntary austerities. He slept on the bare ground, wore a hair-shirt, doubled his fasts, and scourged himself with much fervour; indeed throughout his whole life, even when at the acme of his greatness, his private life was most rigorously ascetic. The report of his sanctity brought crowds to confess to him; but from them he retired to the lonely monastery of Our Lady of Castañar; and he even built with his own hands a rude hut in the neighbouring woods, in which he lived at times as an anchorite. He was afterwards guardian of a monastery at Salzeda. Meanwhile Mendoza (now archbishop of Toledo) had not forgotten him; and in 1492 he recommended him to Isabella as her confessor. The queen sent for Jimenes, was pleased with him, and to his great reluctance forced the office upon him. The post was politically important, for Isabella submitted to the judgment of her father-confessor not only her private affairs but also matters of state. Jimenes's severe sanctity soon won him considerable influence over Isabella; and thus it was that he first emerged into political life. In 1494 the queen's confessor was appointed provincial of the order of St Francis, and at once set about reducing the laxity of the conventual to the strictness of the observantine Franciscans. Intense opposition was continued even after Jimenes became archbishop of Toledo. The general of the order himself came from Rome to interfere with the archbishop's measures of reform, but the stern inflexibility of Jimenes, backed by the influence of the queen, subdued every obstacle. Cardinal Mendoza had died in 1495, and Isabella had secretly procured a papal bull nominating her confessor to his diocese of Toledo, the richest and most powerful in Spain, second perhaps to no other dignity of the Roman Church save the papacy. Long and sincerely Jimenes strove to evade the honour; but his _nolo episcopari_ was after six months overcome by a second bull ordering him to accept consecration. With the primacy of Spain was associated the lofty dignity of high chancellor of Castile; but Jimenes still maintained his lowly life; and, although a message from Rome required him to live in a style befitting his rank, the outward pomp only concealed his private asceticism. In 1499 Jimenes accompanied the court to Granada, and there eagerly joined the mild and pious Archbishop Talavera in his efforts to convert the Moors. Talavera had begun with gentle measures, but Jimenes preferred to proceed by haranguing the _fakihs_, or doctors of religion, and loading them with gifts. Outwardly the latter method was successful; in two months the converts were so numerous that they had to be baptized by aspersion. The indignation of the unconverted Moors swelled into open revolt. Jimenes was besieged in his house, and the utmost difficulty was found in quieting the city. Baptism or exile was offered to the Moors as a punishment for rebellion. The majority accepted baptism; and Isabella, who had been momentarily annoyed at her archbishop's imprudence, was satisfied that he had done good service to Christianity.

On the 24th of November 1504 Isabella died. Ferdinand at once resigned the title of king of Castile in favour of his daughter Joan and her husband the archduke Philip, assuming instead that of regent. Philip was keenly jealous of Ferdinand's pretensions to the regency; and it required all the tact of Jimenes to bring about a friendly interview between the princes. Ferdinand finally retired from Castile; and, though Jimenes remained, his political weight was less than before. The sudden death of Philip in September 1506 quite overset the already tottering intellect of his wife; his son and heir Charles was still a child; and Ferdinand was at Naples. The nobles of Castile, mutually jealous, agreed to entrust affairs to the archbishop of Toledo, who, moved more by patriotic regard for his country's welfare than by special friendship for Ferdinand, strove to establish the final influence of that king in Castile. Ferdinand did not return till August 1507; and he brought a cardinal's hat for Jimenes. Shortly afterwards the new cardinal of Spain was appointed grand inquisitor-general for Castile and Leon.

The next great event in the cardinal's life was the expedition against the Moorish city of Oran in the north of Africa, in which his religious zeal was supported by the prospect of the political and material gain that would accrue to Spain from the possession of such a station. A preliminary expedition, equipped, like that which followed, at the expense of Jimenes, captured the port of Mers-el-Kebir in 1505; and in 1509 a strong force, accompanied by the cardinal in person, set sail for Africa, and in one day the wealthy city was taken by storm. Though the army remained to make fresh conquests, Jimenes returned to Spain, and occupied himself with the administration of his diocese, and in endeavouring to recover from the regent the expenses of his Oran expedition. On the 28th of January 1516 Ferdinand died, leaving Jimenes as regent of Castile for Charles (afterwards Charles V.), then a youth of sixteen in the Netherlands. Though Jimenes at once took firm hold of the reins of government, and ruled in a determined and even autocratic manner, the haughty and turbulent Castilian nobility and the jealous intriguing Flemish councillors of Charles combined to render his position peculiarly difficult; while the evils consequent upon the unlimited demands of Charles for money threw much undeserved odium upon the regent. In violation of the laws, Jimenes acceded to Charles's desire to be proclaimed king; he secured the person of Charles's younger brother Ferdinand; he fixed the seat of the cortes at Madrid; and he established a standing army by drilling the citizens of the great towns. Immediately on Ferdinand's death, Adrian, dean of Louvain, afterwards pope, produced a commission from Charles appointing him regent. Jimenes admitted him to a nominal equality, but took care that neither he nor the subsequent commissioners of Charles ever had any real share of power. In September 1517 Charles landed in the province of Asturias, and Jimenes hastened to meet him. On the way, however, he fell ill, not without a suspicion of poison. While thus feeble, he received a letter from Charles coldly thanking him for his services, and giving him leave to retire to his diocese. A few hours after this virtual dismissal, which some, however, say the cardinal never saw, Francisco Jimenes died at Roa, on the 8th of November 1517.

Jimenes was a bold and determined statesman. Sternly and inflexibly, with a confidence that became at times overbearing, he carried through what he had decided to be right, with as little regard for the convenience of others as for his own. In the midst of a corrupt clergy his morals were irreproachable. He was liberal to all, and founded and maintained very many benevolent institutions in his diocese. His whole time was devoted either to the state or to religion; his only recreation was in theological or scholastic discussion. Perhaps one of the most noteworthy points about the cardinal is the advanced period of life at which he entered upon the stage where he was to play such leading parts. Whether his abrupt change from the secular to the regular clergy was the fervid outcome of religious enthusiasm or the far-seeing move of a wily schemer has been disputed; but the constant austerity of his life, his unvarying superiority to small personal aims, are arguments for the former alternative that are not to be met by merely pointing to the actual honours and power he at last attained.

In 1500 was founded, and in 1508 was opened, the university of Alcalá
de Henares, which, fostered by Cardinal Jimenes, at whose sole expense
it was raised, attained a great pitch of outward magnificence and
internal worth. At one time 7000 students met within its walls. In
1836 the university was removed to Madrid, and the costly buildings
were left vacant. In the hopes of supplanting the romances generally
found in the hands of the young, Jimenes caused to be published
religious treatises by himself and others. He revived also the
Mozarabic liturgy, and endowed a chapel at Toledo, in which it was to
be used. But his most famous literary service was the printing at
Alcalá (in Latin _Complutum_) of the Complutensian Polyglott, the
first edition of the Christian Scriptures in the original text. In
this work, on which he is said to have expended half a million of
ducats, the cardinal was aided by the celebrated Stunica (D. Lopez de
Zuñiga), the Greek scholar Nuñez de Guzman (Pincianus), the Hebraist
Vergara, and the humanist Nebrija, by a Cretan Greek Demetrius Ducas,
and by three Jewish converts, of whom Zamora edited the Targum to the
Pentateuch. The other Targums are not included. In the Old Testament
Jerome's version stands between the Greek and Hebrew. The synagogue
and the Eastern church, as the preface expresses it, are set like the
thieves on this side and on that, with Jesus (that is, the Roman
Church) in the midst. The text occupies five volumes, and a sixth
contains a Hebrew lexicon, &c. The work commenced in 1502. The New
Testament was finished in January 1514, and the whole in April 1517.
It was dedicated to Leo X., and was reprinted in 1572 by the Antwerp
firm of Plantin, after revision by Benito Arias Montano at the expense
of Philip II. The second edition is known as the _Biblia Regia_ or
_Filipina_.

The work by Alvaro Gomez de Castro, _De Rebus Gestis Francisci
Ximenii_ (folio, 1659, Alcalá), is the quarry whence have come the
materials for biographies of Jimenes--in Spanish by Robles (1604) and
Quintanilla (1633); in French by Baudier (1635), Marsollier (1684),
Flèchier (1694) and Richard (1704); in German by Hefele (1844,
translated into English by Canon Dalton, 1860) and Havemann (1848);
and in English by Barrett (1813). See also Prescott's _Ferdinand and
Isabella_; _Revue des Deux Mondes_ (May 1841) and _Mém. de l'Acad.
d'hist. de Madrid_, vol. iv.

JIND, a native state of India, within the Punjab. It ranks as one of the Cis-Sutlej states, which came under British influence in 1809. The territory consists of three isolated tracts, amid British districts. Total area, 1332 sq. m. Pop. (1901), 282,003, showing a decrease of 1% in the decade. Estimated gross revenue £109,000; there is no tribute. Grain and cotton are exported, and there are manufactures of gold and silver ornaments, leather and wooden wares and cloth. The chief, whose title is raja, is a Sikh of the Sidhu Jat clan and of the Phulkian family. The principality was founded in 1763, and the chief was recognized by the Mogul emperor in 1768. The dynasty has always been famous for its loyalty to the British, especially during the Mutiny, which has been rewarded with accessions of territory. In 1857 the raja of Jind was actually the first man, European or native, who took the field against the mutineers; and his contingent collected supplies in advance for the British troops marching upon Delhi, besides rendering excellent service during the siege. Raja Ranbir Singh succeeded as a minor in 1887, and was granted full powers in 1899. During the Tirah expedition of 1897-98 the Jind imperial service infantry specially distinguished themselves. The town of Jind, the former capital, has a station on the Southern Punjab railway, 80 m. N.W. of Delhi. Pop. (1901), 8047. The present capital and residence of the raja since 1827 is Sangrur; pop. (1901), 11,852.

JINGO, a legendary empress of Japan, wife of Chuai, the 14th mikado (191-200). On her husband's death she assumed the government, and fitted out an army for the invasion of Korea (see JAPAN, § 9). She returned to Japan completely victorious after three years' absence. Subsequently her son Ojen Tenno, afterwards 15th mikado, was born, and later was canonized as Hachiman, god of war. The empress Jingo ruled over Japan till 270. She is still worshipped.

As regards the English oath, usually "By Jingo," or "By the living Jingo," the derivation is doubtful. The identification with the name of Gingulph or Gengulphus, a Burgundian saint who was martyred on the 11th of May 760, was a joke on the part of R. H. Barham, author of the _Ingoldsby Legends_. Some explain the word as a corruption of Jainko, the Basque name for God. It has also been derived from the Persia _jang_ (war), St Jingo being the equivalent of the Latin god of war, Mars; and is even explained as a corruption of "Jesus, Son of God," Je-n-go. In support of the Basque derivation it is alleged that the oath was first common in Wales, to aid in the conquest of which Edward I. imported a number of Basque mercenaries. The phrase does not, however, appear in literature before the 17th century, first as conjurer's jargon. Motteux, in his "Rabelais," is the first to use "by jingo," translating _par dieu_. The political use of the word as indicating an aggressive patriotism (Jingoes and Jingoism) originated in 1877 during the weeks of national excitement preluding the despatch of the British Mediterranean squadron to Gallipoli, thus frustrating Russian designs on Constantinople. While the public were on the tiptoe of expectation as to what policy the government would pursue, a bellicose music-hall song with the refrain "We don't want to fight, but by Jingo if we do," &c., was produced in London by a singer known as "the great MacDermott," and instantly became very popular. Thus the war-party came to be called Jingoes, and Jingoism has ever since been the term applied to those who advocate a national policy of arrogance and pugnacity.

For a discussion of the etymology of Jingo see _Notes and Queries_,
(August 25, 1894), 8th series, p. 149.

JINN (DJINN), the name of a class of spirits (_genii_) in Arabian mythology. They are the offspring of fire, but in their form and the propagation of their kind they resemble human beings. They are ruled by a race of kings named "Suleyman," one of whom is considered to have built the pyramids. Their central home is the mountain Kaf, and they manifest themselves to men under both animal and mortal form and become invisible at will. There are good and evil jinn, and these in each case reach the extremes of beauty and ugliness.

JIRECEK, JOSEF (1825-1888), Czech scholar, was born at Vysoké Mýto in Bohemia on the 9th of October 1825. He entered the Prague bureau of education in 1850, and became minister of the department in the Hohenwart cabinet in 1871. His efforts to secure equal educational privileges for the Slav nationalities in the Austrian dominions brought him into disfavour with the German element. He became a member of the Bohemian Landtag in 1878, and of the Austrian Reichsrat in 1879. His merits as a scholar were recognized in 1875 by his election as president of the royal Bohemian academy of sciences. He died in Prague on the 25th of November 1888.

With Hermenegild Jirecek he defended in 1862 the genuineness of the
Königinhof MS. discovered by Wenceslaus Hanka. He published in the
Czech language an anthology of Czech literature (3 vols., 1858-1861),
a biographical dictionary of Czech writers (2 vols., 1875-1876), a
Czech hymnology, editions of Blahoslaw's Czech grammar and of some
Czech classics, and of the works of his father-in-law Pavel Josef
Safarik (1795-1861).

His brother HERMENEGILD JIRECEK, Ritter von Samakow (1827- ), Bohemian jurisconsult, who was born at Vysoké Mýto on the 13th of April 1827, was also an official in the education department.

Among his important works on Slavonic law were _Codex juris bohemici_
(11 parts, 1867-1892), and a _Collection of Slav Folk-Law_ (Czech,
1880), _Slav Law in Bohemia and Moravia down to the 14th Century_
(Czech, 3 vols. 1863-1873).

JIRECEK, KONSTANTIN JOSEF (1854- ), son of Josef, taught history at Prague. He entered the Bulgarian service in 1879, and in 1881 became minister of education at Sofia. In 1884 he became professor of universal history in Czech at Prague, and in 1893 professor of Slavonic antiquities at Vienna.

The bulk of Konstantin's writings deal with the history of the
southern Slavs and their literature. They include a _History of the
Bulgars_ (Czech and German, 1876), _The Principality of Bulgaria_
(1891), _Travels in Bulgaria_ (Czech, 1888), &c.

JIZAKH, a town of Russian Central Asia, in the province of Samarkand, on the Transcaspian railway, 71 m. N.E. of the city of Samarkand. Pop. (1897), 16,041. As a fortified post of Bokhara it was captured by the Russians in 1866.

JOAB (Heb. "Yah[weh] is a father"), in the Bible, the son of Zeruiah, David's sister (1 Chron. ii. 16). His brothers were Asahel and Abishai. All three were renowned warriors and played a prominent part in David's history. Abishai on one occasion saved the king's life from a Philistine giant (2 Sam. xxi. 17), and Joab as warrior and statesman was directly responsible for much of David's success. Joab won his spurs, according to one account, by capturing Jerusalem (1 Chron. xi. 4-9); with Abishai and Ittai of Gath he led a small army against the Israelites who had rebelled under Absalom (2 Sam. xviii. 2); and he superintended the campaign against Ammon and Edom (2 Sam. xi. 1, xii. 26; 1 Kings xi. 15). He showed his sturdy character by urging the king after the death of Absalom to place his duty to his people before his grief for the loss of his favourite son (2 Sam. xix. 1-8), and by protesting against David's proposal to number the people, an innovation which may have been regarded as an infringement of their liberties (2 Sam. xxiv.; 1 Chron. xxi. 6).

The hostility of the "sons of Zeruiah" towards the tribe of Benjamin
is characteristically contrasted with David's own generosity towards
Saul's fallen house. Abishai proposed to kill Saul when David
surprised him asleep (1 Sam. xxvi. 8), and was anxious to slay Shimei
when he cursed the king (2 Sam. xvi. 9). But David was resigned to the
will of Yahweh and refused to entertain the suggestions. After Asahel
met his death at the hands of Abner, Joab expostulated with David for
not taking revenge upon the guilty one, and indeed the king might be
considered bound in honour to take up his nephew's cause. But when
Joab himself killed Abner, David's imprecation against him and his
brother Abishai showed that he dissociated himself from the act of
vengeance, although it brought him nearer to the throne of all Israel
(2 Sam. iii.). Fear of a possible rival may have influenced Joab, and
this at all events led him to slay Amasa of Judah (2 Sam. xx. 4-13).
The two deeds are similar, and the impression left by them is
expressed in David's last charges to Solomon (1 Kings ii.). But here
Joab had taken the side of Adonijah against Solomon, and was put to
death by Benaiah at Solomon's command, and it is possible that the
charges are the fruit of a later tradition to remove all possible
blame from Solomon (q.v.). It is singular that Joab is not blamed for
killing Absalom, but it would indeed be strange if the man who helped
to reconcile father and son (2 Sam. xiv.) should have perpetrated so
cruel an act in direct opposition to the king's wishes (xviii. 5,
10-16). A certain animus against Joab's family thus seems to underlie
some of the popular narratives of the life of David (q.v.).
(S. A. C.)

JOACHIM OF FLORIS (c. 1145-1202), so named from the monastery of San Giovanni in Fiore, of which he was abbot, Italian mystic theologian, was born at Celico, near Cosenza, in Calabria. He was of noble birth and was brought up at the court of Duke Roger of Apulia. At an early age he went to visit the holy places. After seeing his comrades decimated by the plague at Constantinople he resolved to change his mode of life, and, on his return to Italy, after a rigorous pilgrimage and a period of ascetic retreat, became a monk in the Cistercian abbey of Casamari. In August 1177 we know that he was abbot of the monastery of Corazzo, near Martirano. In 1183 he went to the court of Pope Lucius III. at Veroli, and in 1185 visited Urban III. at Verona. There is extant a letter of Pope Clement III., dated the 8th of June 1188, in which Clement alludes to two of Joachim's works, the _Concordia_ and the _Expositio in Apocalypsin_, and urges him to continue them. Joachim, however, was unable to continue his abbatial functions in the midst of his labours in prophetic exegesis, and, moreover, his asceticism accommodated itself but ill with the somewhat lax discipline of Corazzo. He accordingly retired into the solitudes of Pietralata, and subsequently founded with some companions under a rule of his own creation the abbey of San Giovanni in Fiore, on Monte Nero, in the _massif_ of La Sila. The pope and the emperor befriended this foundation; Frederick II. and his wife Constance made important donations to it, and promoted the spread of offshoots of the parent house; while Innocent III., on the 21st of January 1204, approved the "ordo Florensis" and the "institutio" which its founder had bestowed upon it. Joachim died in 1202, probably on the 20th of March.

Of the many prophetic and polemical works that were attributed to
Joachim in the 13th and following centuries, only those enumerated in
his will can be regarded as absolutely authentic. These are the
_Concordia novi et veteris Testamenti_ (first printed at Venice in
1519), the _Expositio in Apocalypsin_ (Venice, 1527), the _Psalterium
decem chordarum_ (Venice, 1527), together with some "libelli" against
the Jews or the adversaries of the Christian faith. It is very
probable that these "libelli" are the writings entitled _Concordia
Evangeliorum_, _Contra Judaeos_, _De articulis fidei_, _Confessio
fidei_ and _De unitate Trinitatis_. The last is perhaps the work which
was condemned by the Lateran council in 1215 as containing an
erroneous criticism of the Trinitarian theory of Peter Lombard. This
council, though condemning the book, refrained from condemning the
author, and approved the order of Floris. Nevertheless, the monks
continued to be subjected to insults as followers of a heretic, until
they obtained from Honorius III. in 1220 a bull formally recognizing
Joachim as orthodox and forbidding anyone to injure his disciples.

It is impossible to enumerate here all the works attributed to
Joachim. Some served their avowed object with great success, being
powerful instruments in the anti-papal polemic and sustaining the
revolted Franciscans in their hope of an approaching triumph. Among
the most widely circulated were the commentaries on Jeremiah, Isaiah
and Ezekiel, the _Vaticinia pontificum_ and the _De oneribus
ecclesiae_. Of his authentic works the doctrinal essential is very
simple. Joachim divides the history of humanity, past, present and
future, into three periods, which, in his _Expositio in Apocalypsin_
(bk. i. ch. 5), he defines as the age of the Law, or of the Father;
the age of the Gospel, or of the Son; and the age of the Spirit, which
will bring the ages to an end. Before each of these ages there is a
period of incubation, or initiation: the first age begins with
Abraham, but the period of initiation with the first man Adam. The
initiation period of the third age begins with St Benedict, while the
actual age of the Spirit is not to begin until 1260, the
Church--_mulier amicta sole_ (Rev. xii. 1)--remaining hidden in the
wilderness 1260 days. We cannot here enter into the infinite details
of the other subdivisions imagined by Joachim, or into his system of
perpetual concordances between the New and the Old Testaments, which,
according to him, furnish the prefiguration of the third age. Far more
interesting as explaining the diffusion and the religious and social
importance of his doctrine is his conception of the second and third
ages. The first age was the age of the Letter, the second was
intermediary between the Letter and the Spirit, and the third was to
be the age of the Spirit. The age of the Son is the period of study
and wisdom, the period of striving towards mystic knowledge. In the
age of the Father all that was necessary was obedience; in the age of
the Son reading is enjoined; but the age of the Spirit was to be
devoted to prayer and song. The third is the age of the _plena
spiritus libertas_, the age of contemplation, the monastic age _par
excellence_, the age of a monachism wholly directed towards ecstasy,
more Oriental than Benedictine. Joachim does not conceal his
sympathies with the ideal of Basilian monachism. In his opinion--which
is, in form at least, perfectly orthodox--the church of Peter will be,
not abolished, but purified; actually, the hierarchy effaces itself in
the third age before the order of the monks, the _viri spirituales_.
The entire world will become a vast monastery in that day, which will
be the resting-season, the sabbath of humanity. In various passages in
Joachim's writings the clerical hierarchy is represented by Rachel and
the contemplative order by her son Joseph, and Rachel is destined to
efface herself before her son. Similarly, the teaching of Christ and
the Apostles on the sacraments is considered, implicitly and
explicitly, as transitory, as representing that passage from the
_significantia_ to the _significata_ which Joachim signalizes at every
stage of his demonstration. Joachim was not disturbed during his
lifetime. In 1200 he submitted all his writings to the judgment of the
Holy See, and unreservedly affirmed his orthodoxy; the Lateran
council, which condemned his criticism of Peter Lombard, made no
allusion to his eschatological temerities; and the bull of 1220 was a
formal certificate of his orthodoxy.

The Joachimite ideas soon spread into Italy and France, and especially
after a division had been produced in the Franciscan order. The
rigorists, who soon became known as "Spirituals," represented St
Francis as the initiator of Joachim's third age. Certain convents
became centres of Joachimism. Around the hermit of Hyères, Hugh of
Digne, was formed a group of Franciscans who expected from the advent
of the third age the triumph of their ascetic ideas. The Joachimites
even obtained a majority in the general chapter of 1247, and elected
John of Parma, one of their number, general of the order. Pope
Alexander IV., however, compelled John of Parma to renounce his
dignity, and the Joachimite opposition became more and more vehement.
Pseudo-Joachimite treatises sprang up on every hand, and, finally, in
1254, there appeared in Paris the _Liber introductorius ad Evangelium
aeternum_, the work of a Spiritual Franciscan, Gherardo da Borgo San
Donnino. This book was published with, and as an introduction to, the
three principal works of Joachim, in which the Spirituals had made
some interpolations.[1] Gherardo, however, did not say, as has been
supposed, that Joachim's books were the new gospel, but merely that
the Calabrian abbot had supplied the key to Holy Writ, and that with
the help of that _intelligentia mystica_ it would be possible to
extract from the Old and New Testaments the eternal meaning, the
gospel according to the Spirit, a gospel which would never be written;
as for this eternal sense, it had been entrusted to an order set
apart, to the Franciscan order announced by Joachim, and in this order
the ideal of the third age was realized. These affirmations provoked
very keen protests in the ecclesiastical world. The secular masters of
the university of Paris denounced the work to Pope Innocent IV., and
the bishop of Paris sent it to the pope. It was Innocent's successor,
Alexander IV., who appointed a commission to examine it; and as a
result of this commission, which sat at Anagni, the destruction of the
_Liber introductorius_ was ordered by a papal breve dated the 23rd of
October 1255. In 1260 a council held at Arles condemned Joachim's
writings and his supporters, who were very numerous in that region.
The Joachimite ideas were equally persistent among the Spirituals, and
acquired new strength with the publication of the commentary on the
Apocalypse. This book, probably published after the death of its
author and probably interpolated by his disciples, contains, besides
Joachimite principles, an affirmation even clearer than that of
Gherardo da Borgo of the elect character of the Franciscan order, as
well as extremely violent attacks on the papacy. The Joachimite
literature is extremely vast. From the 14th century to the middle of
the 16th, Ubertin of Casale (in his _Arbor Vitae crucifixae_),
Bartholomew of Pisa (author of the _Liber Conformitatum_), the
Calabrian hermit Telesphorus, John of La Rochetaillade, Seraphin of
Fermo, Johannes Annius of Viterbo, Coelius Pannonius, and a host of
other writers, repeated or complicated _ad infinitum_ the exegesis of
Abbot Joachim. A treatise entitled _De ultima aetate ecclesiae_, which
appeared in 1356, has been attributed to Wycliffe, but is undoubtedly
from the pen of an anonymous Joachimite Franciscan. The heterodox
movements in Italy in the 13th and 14th centuries, such as those of
the Segarellists, Dolcinists, and Fraticelli of every description,
were penetrated with Joachimism; while such independent spirits as
Roger Bacon, Arnaldus de Villa Nova and Bernard Délicieux often
comforted themselves with the thought of the era of justice and peace
promised by Joachim. Dante held Joachim in great reverence, and has
placed him in Paradise (_Par._, xii. 140-141).

See _Acta Sanctorum, Boll._ (May), vii. 94-112; W. Preger in _Abhandl.
der kgl. Akad. der Wissenschaften_, hist, sect., vol. xii., pt. 3
(Munich, 1874); idem, _Gesch. d. deutschen Mystik im Mittelalter_,
vol. i. (Leipzig, 1874); E. Renan, "Joachim de Flore et l'Évangile
éternel" in _Nouvelles études d'histoire religieuse_ (Paris, 1884); F.
Tocco, _L'Eresia nel medio evo_ (Florence, 1884); H. Denifle, "Das
Evangelium aeternum und die Commission zu Anagni" in _Archiv für
Literatur- und Kirchengesch. des Mittelalters_, vol. i.; Paul
Fournier, "Joachim de Flore, ses doctrines, son influence" in _Revue
des questions historiques_, t. i. (1900); H. C. Lea, _History of the
Inquisition of the Middle Ages_, vol. iii. ch. i. (London, 1888); F.
Ehrle's article "Joachim" in Wetzer and Welte's _Kirchenlexikon_. On
Joachimism see E. Gebhardt, "Recherches nouvelles sur l'histoire du
Joachimisme" in _Revue historique_, vol. xxxi. (1886); H. Haupt, "Zur
Gesch. des Joachimismus" in _Briegers Zeitschrift für Kirchengesch._,
vol. vii. (1885). (P. A.)

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Preger is the only writer who has maintained that the three books
in their primitive form date from 1254.

JOACHIM I. (1484-1535), surnamed Nestor, elector of Brandenburg, elder son of John Cicero, elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 21st of February 1484. He received an excellent education, became elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in January 1499, and soon afterwards married Elizabeth, daughter of John, king of Denmark. He took some part in the political complications of the Scandinavian kingdoms, but the early years of his reign were mainly spent in the administration of his electorate, where by stern and cruel measures he succeeded in restoring some degree of order (see BRANDENBURG). He also improved the administration of justice, aided the development of commerce, and was a friend to the towns. On the approach of the imperial election of 1519, Joachim's vote was eagerly solicited by the partisans of Francis I., king of France, and by those of Charles, afterwards the emperor Charles V. Having treated with, and received lavish promises from, both parties, he appears to have hoped for the dignity for himself; but when the election came he turned to the winning side and voted for Charles. In spite of this step, however, the relations between the emperor and the elector were not friendly, and during the next few years Joachim was frequently in communication with the enemies of Charles. Joachim is best known as a pugnacious adherent of Catholic orthodoxy. He was one of the princes who urged upon the emperor the necessity of enforcing the Edict of Worms, and at several diets was prominent among the enemies of the Reformers. He was among those who met at Dessau in July 1525, and was a member of the league established at Halle in November 1533. But his wife adopted the reformed faith, and in 1528 fled for safety to Saxony; and he had the mortification of seeing these doctrines also favoured by other members of his family. Joachim, who was a patron of learning, established the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder in 1506. He died at Stendal on the 11th of July 1535.

See T. von Buttlar, _Der Kampf Joachims I. von Brandenburg gegen den
Adel_ (1889); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen Politik
(1855-1886)._

JOACHIM II. (1505-1571), surnamed Hector, elector of Brandenburg, the elder son of Joachim I., elector of Brandenburg, was born on the 13th of January 1505. Having passed some time at the court of the emperor Maximilian I., he married in 1524 a daughter of George, duke of Saxony. In 1532 he led a contingent of the imperial army on a campaign against the Turks; and soon afterwards, having lost his first wife, married Hedwig, daughter of Sigismund I., king of Poland. He became elector of Brandenburg on his father's death in July 1535, and undertook the government of the old and middle marks, while the new mark passed to his brother John. Joachim took a prominent part in imperial politics as an advocate of peace, though with a due regard for the interests of the house of Habsburg. He attempted to make peace between the Protestants and the emperor Charles V. at Frankfort in 1539, and subsequently at other places; but in 1542 he led the German forces on an unsuccessful campaign against the Turks. When the war broke out between Charles and the league of Schmalkalden in 1546 the elector at first remained neutral; but he afterwards sent some troops to serve under the emperor. With Maurice, elector of Saxony, he persuaded Philip, landgrave of Hesse, to surrender to Charles after the imperial victory at Mühlberg in April 1547, and pledged his word that the landgrave would be pardoned. But, although he felt aggrieved when the emperor declined to be bound by this promise, he refused to join Maurice in his attack on Charles. He supported the _Interim_, which was issued from Augsburg in May 1548, and took part in the negotiations that resulted in the treaty of Passau (1552), and the religious peace of Augsburg (1555). In domestic politics he sought to consolidate and strengthen the power of his house by treaties with neighbouring princes, and succeeded in secularizing the bishoprics of Brandenburg, Havelberg and Lebus. Although brought up as a strict adherent of the older religion, he showed signs of wavering soon after his accession, and in 1539 allowed free entrance to the reformed teaching in the electorate. He took the communion himself in both kinds, and established a new ecclesiastical organization in Brandenburg, but retained much of the ceremonial of the Church of Rome. His position was not unlike that of Henry VIII. in England, and may be partly explained by a desire to replenish his impoverished exchequer with the wealth of the Church (see BRANDENBURG). After the peace of Augsburg the elector mainly confined his attention to Brandenburg, where he showed a keener desire to further the principles of the Reformation. By his luxurious habits and his lavish expenditure on public buildings he piled up a great accumulation of debt, which was partly discharged by the estates of the land in return for important concessions. He cast covetous eyes upon the archbishopric of Magdeburg and the bishopric of Halberstadt, both of which he secured for his son Frederick in 1551. When Frederick died in the following year, the elector's son Sigismund obtained the two sees; and on Sigismund's death in 1566 Magdeburg was secured by his nephew, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg. Joachim, who was a prince of generous and cultured tastes, died at Köpenick on the 3rd of January 1571, and was succeeded by his son, John George. In 1880 a statue was erected to his memory at Spandau.

See Steinmüller, _Einführung der Reformation in die Kurmark
Brandenburg durch Joachim II._ (1903); S. Isaacsohn, "Die Finanzen
Joachims II." in the _Zeitschrift für Preussische Geschichte und
Landeskunde_ (1864-1883); J. G. Droysen, _Geschichte der Preussischen
Politik_ (1855-1886).

JOACHIM, JOSEPH (1831-1907), German violinist and composer, was born at Kittsee, near Pressburg, on the 28th of June 1831, the son of Jewish parents. His family moved to Budapest when he was two years old, and he studied there under Serwaczynski, who brought him out at a concert when he was only eight years old. Afterwards he learnt from the elder Hellmesberger and Joseph Böhm in Vienna, the latter instructing him in the management of the bow. In 1843 he went to Leipzig to enter the newly founded conservatorium. Mendelssohn, after testing his musical powers, pronounced that the regular training of a music school was not needed, but recommended that he should receive a thorough general education in music from Ferdinand David and Moritz Hauptmann. In 1844 he visited England, and made his first appearance at Drury Lane Theatre, where his playing of Ernst's fantasia on _Otello_ made a great sensation; he also played Beethoven's concerto at a Philharmonic concert conducted by Mendelssohn. In 1847-1849 and 1852 he revisited England, and after the foundation of the popular concerts in 1859, up to 1899, he played there regularly in the latter part of the season. On Liszt's invitation he accepted the post of _Konzertmeister_ at Weimar, and was there from 1850 to 1853. This brought Joachim into close contact with the advanced school of German musicians, headed by Liszt; and he was strongly tempted to give his allegiance to what was beginning to be called the "music of the future"; but his artistic convictions forced him to separate himself from the movement, and the tact and good taste he displayed in the difficult moment of explaining his position to Liszt afford one of the finest illustrations of his character.

His acceptance of a similar post at Hanover brought him into a different atmosphere, and his playing at the Düsseldorf festival of 1853 procured him the intimate friendship of Robert Schumann. His introduction of the young Brahms to Schumann is a famous incident of this time. Schumann and Brahms collaborated with Albert Dietrich in a joint sonata for violin and piano, as a welcome on his arrival in Düsseldorf. At Hanover he was _königlicher Konzertdirektor_ from 1853 to 1868, when he made Berlin his home. He married in 1863 the mezzo soprano singer, Amalie Weiss, who died in 1899. In 1869 Joachim was appointed head of the newly founded _königliche Hochschule für Musik_ in Berlin. The famous "Joachim quartet" was started in the _Sing-Akademie_ in the following year. Of his later life, continually occupied with public performances, there is little to say except that he remained, even in a period which saw the rise of numerous violinists of the finest technique, the acknowledged master of all. He died on the 15th of August 1907.

Besides the consummate manual skill which helped to make him famous in his youth, Joachim was gifted with the power of interpreting the greatest music in absolute perfection: while Bach, Mozart, Beethoven and Brahms were masters, whose works he played with a degree of insight that has never been approached, he was no less supreme in the music of Mendelssohn and Schumann; in short, the whole of the classical repertory has become identified with his playing. No survey of Joachim's artistic career would be complete which omitted mention of his absolute freedom from tricks or mannerism, his dignified bearing, and his unselfish character. His devotion to the highest ideals, combined with a certain austerity and massivity of style, brought against him an accusation of coldness from admirers of a more effusive temperament. But the answer to this is given by the depth and variety of expression which his mastery of the resources of his instrument put at his command. His biographer (1898), Andreas Moser, expressed his essential characteristic in the words, "He plays the violin, not for its own sake, but in the service of an ideal."

As a composer Joachim did but little in his later years, and the works of his earlier life never attained the public success which, in the opinion of many, they deserve (see MUSIC). They undoubtedly have a certain austerity of character which does not appeal to every hearer, but they are full of beauty of a grave and dignified kind; and in such things as his "Hungarian concerto" for his own instrument the utmost degree of difficulty is combined with great charm of melodic treatment. The "romance" in B flat for violin and the variations for violin and orchestra are among his finest things, and the noble overture in memory of Kleist, as well as the scena for mezzo soprano from Schiller's _Demetrius_, show a wonderful degree of skill in orchestration as well as originality of thought. Joachim's place in musical history as a composer can only be properly appreciated in the light of his intimate relations with Brahms, with whom he studiously refrained from putting himself into independent rivalry, and to whose work as a composer he gave the co-operation of one who might himself have ranked as a master.

There are admirable portraits of Joachim by G. F. Watts (1866) and by
J. S. Sargent (1904), the latter presented to him on the 16th of May
1904, at the celebration of the sixtieth anniversary of his first
appearance in England.

JOAN, a mythical female pope, who is usually placed between Leo IV. (847-855) and Benedict III. (855-858). One account has it that she was born in England, another in Germany of English parents. After an education at Cologne, she fell in love with a Benedictine monk and fled with him to Athens disguised as a man. On his death she went to Rome under the alias of Joannes Anglicus (John of England), and entered the priesthood, eventually receiving a cardinal's hat. She was elected pope under the title of John VIII., and died in childbirth during a papal procession.

A French Dominican, Steven of Bourbon (d. c. 1261) gives the legend in
his _Seven Gifts of the Holy Spirit_. He is believed to have derived
it from an earlier writer. More than a hundred authors between the
13th and 17th centuries gave circulation to the myth. Its explosion
was first seriously undertaken by David Blondel, a French Calvinist,
in his _Éclaircissement de la question si une femme a été assise au
siège papal de Rome_ (1647); and _De Joanna Papissa_ (1657). The
refutation was completed by Johann Dollinger in his _Papstfabeln des
Mittelalters_ (1863; Eng. trans. 1872).