Chapter VI: The Language as Recorded (14)

In some cases the leaves are reduced to mere _scales_--_cataphyllary_
leaves; they are produced abundantly upon underground shoots. In
parasites (_Lathraea_, _Orobanche_) and in plants growing on decaying
vegetable matter (_saprophytes_), in which no chlorophyll is formed,
these scales are the only leaves produced. In _Pinus_ the only leaves
produced on the main stem and the lateral shoots are scales, the
acicular leaves of the tree growing from axillary shoots. In _Cycas_
whorls of scales alternate with large pinnate leaves. In many plants,
as already noticed, phyllodia or stipules perform the function of
leaves. The production of leaf-buds from leaves sometimes occurs as
in _Bryophyllum_, and many plants of the order Gesneraceae. The leaf
of Venus's fly-trap (_Dionaea muscipula_) when cut off and placed in
damp moss, with a pan of water underneath and a bell-glass for a
cover, has produced buds from which young plants were obtained. Some
species of saxifrage and of ferns also produce buds on their leaves
and fronds. In _Nymphaea micrantha_ buds appear at the upper part of
the petiole.

Phyllotaxis.

Leaves occupy various positions on the stem and branches, and have received different names according to their situation. Thus leaves arising from the crown of the root, as in the primrose, are called _radical_; those on the stem are _cauline_; on flower-stalks, _floral_ leaves (see FLOWER). The first leaves developed are known as seed leaves or _cotyledons_. The arrangement of the leaves on the axis and its appendages is called _phyllotaxis_.

In their arrangement leaves follow a definite order. The points on the
stem at which leaves appear are called nodes; the part of the stem
between the nodes is the _internode_. When two leaves are produced at
the same node, one on each side of the stem or axis, and at the same
level, they are _opposite_ (fig. 29); when more than two are produced
they are _verticillate_, and the circle of leaves is then called a
_verticil_ or _whorl_. When leaves are opposite, each successive pair
may be placed at right angles to the pair immediately preceding. They
are then said to _decussate_, following thus a law of alternation
(fig. 29). The same occurs in the verticillate arrangement, the leaves
of each whorl rarely being _superposed_ on those of the whorl next it,
but usually alternating so that each leaf in a whorl occupies the
space between two leaves of the whorl next to it. There are
considerable irregularities, however, in this respect, and the number
of leaves in different whorls is not always uniform, as may be seen in
_Lysimachia vulgaris_. When a single leaf is produced at a node, and
the nodes are separated so that each leaf is placed at a different
height on the stem, the leaves are _alternate_ (fig. 30). A plane
passing through the point of insertion of the leaf in the node,
dividing the leaf into similar halves, is the median plane of the
leaf; and when the leaves are arranged alternately on an axis so that
their median planes coincide they form a straight row or
_orthostichy_. On every axis there are usually two or more
orthostichies. In fig. 31, leaf 1 arises from a node n; leaf 2 is
separated from it by an internode m, and is placed to the right or
left; while leaf 3 is situated directly above leaf 1. In this case,
then, there are two orthostichies, and the arrangement is said to be
_distichous_. When the fourth leaf is directly above the first, the
arrangement is _tristichous_. The same arrangement continues
throughout the branch, so that in the latter case the 7th leaf is
above the 4th, the 10th above the 7th; also the 5th above the 2nd, the
6th above the 3rd and so on. The size of the angle between the median
planes of two consecutive leaves in an alternate arrangement is their
_divergence_; and it is expressed in fractions of the circumference of
the axis which is supposed to be a circle. In a regularly-formed
straight branch covered with leaves, if a thread is passed from one to
the other, turning always in the same direction, a spiral is
described, and a certain number of leaves and of complete turns occur
before reaching the leaf directly above that from which the
enumeration commenced. If this arrangement is expressed by a fraction,
the numerator of which indicates the number of turns, and the
denominator the number of internodes in the spiral cycle, the fraction
will be found to represent the angle of divergence of the consecutive
leaves on the axis. Thus, in fig. 32, a, b, the cycle consists of
five leaves, the 6th leaf being placed vertically over the 1st, the
7th over the 2nd and so on; while the number of turns between the 1st
and 6th leaf is two; hence this arrangement is indicated by the
fraction 2/5. In other words, the distance or divergence between the
first and second leaf, expressed in parts of a circle, is 2/5 of a
circle or 360° × 2/5 = 144°. In fig. 31, a, b, the spiral is ½, i.e.
one turn and two leaves; the third leaf being placed vertically over
the first, and the divergence between the first and second leaf being
one-half the circumference of a circle, 360° × ½ = 180°. Again, in a
tristichous arrangement the number is 1/3, or one turn and three
leaves, the angular divergence being 120°.

By this means we have a convenient mode of expressing on paper the
exact position of the leaves upon an axis. And in many cases such a
mode of expression is of excellent service in enabling us readily to
understand the relations of the leaves. The divergences may also be
represented diagrammatically on a horizontal projection of the
vertical axis, as in fig. 33. Here the outermost circle represents a
section of that portion of the axis bearing the lowest leaf, the
innermost represents the highest. The broad dark lines represent the
leaves, and they are numbered according to their age and position. It
will be seen at once that the leaves are arranged in orthostichies
marked I.-V., and that these divide the circumference into five equal
portions. But the divergence between leaf 1 and leaf 2 is equal to
(2/5)ths of the circumference, and the same is the case between 2 and
3, 3 and 4, &c. The divergence, then, is 2/5, and from this we learn
that, starting from any leaf on the axis, we must pass twice round the
stem in a spiral through five leaves before reaching one directly over
that with which we started. The line which, winding round an axis
either to the right or to the left, passes through the points of
insertion of all the leaves on the axis is termed the _genetic_ or
_generating spiral_; and that margin of each leaf which is towards the
direction from which the spiral proceeds is the _kathodic_ side, the
other margin facing the point whither the spiral passes being the
_anodic_ side.

In cases where the internodes are very short and the leaves are
closely applied to each other, as in the house-leek, it is difficult
to trace the _generating spiral_. Thus, in fig. 34 there are thirteen
leaves which are numbered in their order, and five turns of the spiral
marked by circles in the centre (5/13 indicating the arrangement); but
this could not be detected at once. So also in fir cones (fig. 35),
which are composed of scales or modified leaves, the generating spiral
cannot be determined easily. But in such cases a series of _secondary
spirals_ or _parastichies_ are seen running parallel with each other
both right and left, which to a certain extent conceal the genetic
spiral.

The spiral is not always constant throughout the whole length of an
axis. The angle of divergence may alter either abruptly or gradually,
and the phyllotaxis thus becomes very complicated. This change may be
brought about by arrest of development, by increased development of
parts or by a torsion of the axis. The former are exemplified in many
Crassulaceae and aloes. The latter is seen well in the screw-pine
(_Pandanus_). In the bud of the screw-pine the leaves are arranged in
three orthostichies with the phyllotaxis 1/3, but by torsion the
developed leaves become arranged in three strong spiral rows running
round the stem. These causes of change in phyllotaxis are also well
exemplified in the alteration of an opposite or verticillate
arrangement to an alternate, and vice versa; thus the effect of
interruption of growth, in causing alternate leaves to become opposite
and verticillate, can be distinctly shown in _Rhododendron ponticum_.
The primitive or generating spiral may pass either from right to left
or from left to right. It sometimes follows a different direction in
the branches from that pursued in the stem. When it follows the same
course in the stem and branches, they are _homodromous_; when the
direction differs, they are _heterodromous_. In different species of
the same genus the phyllotaxis frequently varies.

All modifications of leaves follow the same laws of arrangement as
true leaves--a fact which is of importance in a morphological point of
view. In dicotyledonous plants the first leaves produced (the
cotyledons) are opposite. This arrangement often continues during the
life of the plant, but at other times it changes, passing into
distichous and spiral forms. Some tribes of plants are distinguished
by their opposite or verticillate, others by their alternate, leaves.
Labiate plants have decussate leaves, while Boraginaceae have
alternate leaves, and Tiliaceae usually have distichous leaves;
Rubiaceae have opposite leaves. Such arrangements as 2/5, 3/8, 5/13
and 8/21 are common in Dicotyledons. The first of these, called a
_quincunx_, is met with in the apple, pear and cherry (fig. 32); the
second, in the bay, holly, _Plantago media_; the third, in the cones
of _Picea alba_ (fig. 35); and the fourth in those of the silver fir.
In monocotyledonous plants there is only one seed-leaf or cotyledon,
and hence the arrangement is at first alternate; and it generally
continues so more or less, rarely being verticillate. Such
arrangements as ½, 1/3 and 2/3 are common in Monocotyledons, as in
grasses, sedges and lilies. It has been found in general that, while
the number 5 occurs in the phyllotaxis of Dicotyledons, 3 is common in
that of Monocotyledons.

In the axil of previously formed leaves leaf-buds arise. These
leaf-buds contain the rudiments of a shoot, and consist of leaves
covering a growing point. The buds of trees of temperate climates,
which lie dormant during the winter, are protected by scale leaves.
These scales or protective appendages of the bud consist either of the
altered laminae or of the enlarged petiolary sheath, or of stipules,
as in the fig and magnolia, or of one or two of these parts combined.
These are often of a coarse nature, serving a temporary purpose, and
then falling off when the leaf is expanded. They are frequently
covered with a resinous matter, as in balsam-poplar and
horse-chestnut, or by a thick downy covering as in the willow. In
plants of warm climates the buds have often no protective appendages,
and are then said to be _naked_.

FIG. 37.--Transverse section of a conduplicate leaf.

FIG. 38.--Transverse section of a plicate or plaited leaf.

FIG. 39.--Transverse section of a convolute leaf.

FIG. 40.--Transverse section of an involute leaf.

FIG. 41.--Transverse section of a revolute leaf.]

FIG. 43.--Transverse section of a bud, in which the leaves are
arranged in an equitant manner.

FIG. 44.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves folded in
an obvolute manner. Each is conduplicate, and one embraces the edge
of the other.

FIG. 45.--Transverse section of a bud, showing two leaves arranged
in a supervolute manner.]

The arrangement of the leaves in the bud is termed _vernation_ or
_prefoliation_. In considering vernation we must take into account
both the manner in which each individual leaf is folded and also the
arrangement of the leaves in relation to each other. These vary in
different plants, but in each species they follow a regular law. The
leaves in the bud are either placed simply in apposition, as in the
mistletoe, or they are folded or rolled up longitudinally or
laterally, giving rise to different kinds of vernation, as delineated
in figs. 36 to 45, where the folded or curved lines represent the
leaves, the thickened part being the midrib. The leaf taken
individually is either folded longitudinally from apex to base, as in
the tulip-tree, and called _reclinate_ or _replicate_; or rolled up in
a circular manner from apex to base, as in ferns (fig. 36), and called
_circinate_; or folded laterally, _conduplicate_ (fig. 37), as in oak;
or it has several folds like a fan, _plicate_ or _plaited_ (fig. 38),
as in vine and sycamore, and in leaves with radiating vernation, where
the ribs mark the foldings; or it is rolled upon itself, _convolute_
(fig. 39), as in banana and apricot; or its edges are rolled inwards,
_involute_ (fig. 40), as in violet; or outwards, _revolute_ (fig. 41),
as in rosemary. The different divisions of a cut leaf may be folded or
rolled up separately, as in ferns, while the entire leaf may have
either the same or a different kind of vernation. The leaves have a
definite relation to each other in the bud, being either opposite,
alternate or verticillate; and thus different kinds of vernation are
produced. Sometimes they are nearly in a circle at the same level,
remaining flat or only slightly convex externally, and placed so as to
touch each other by their edges, thus giving rise to _valvate_
vernation. At other times they are at different levels, and are
applied over each other, so as to be _imbricated_, as in lilac, and in
the outer scales of sycamore; and occasionally the margin of one leaf
overlaps that of another, while it in its turn is overlapped by a
third, so as to be _twisted_, _spiral_ or _contortive_. When leaves
are applied to each other face to face, without being folded or rolled
together, they are _appressed_. When the leaves are more completely
folded they either touch at their extremities and are _accumbent_ or
_opposite_ (fig. 42), or are folded inwards by their margin and become
_induplicate_; or a conduplicate leaf covers another similarly folded,
which in turn covers a third, and thus the vernation is _equitant_
(fig. 43), as in privet; or conduplicate leaves are placed so that the
half of the one covers the half of another, and thus they become
_half-equitant_ or _obvolute_ (fig. 44), as in sage. When in the case
of convolute leaves one leaf is rolled up within the other, it is
_supervolute_ (fig. 45). The scales of a bud sometimes exhibit one
kind of vernation and the leaves another. The same modes of
arrangement occur in the flower-buds.

Leaves, after performing their functions for a certain time, wither
and die. In doing so they frequently change colour, and hence arise
the beautiful and varied tints of the autumnal foliage. This change
of colour is chiefly occasioned by the diminished circulation in the
leaves, and the higher degree of oxidation to which their chlorophyll
has been submitted.

Leaves which are articulated with the stem, as in the walnut and
horse-chestnut, fall and leave a scar, while those which are
continuous with it remain attached for some time after they have lost
their vitality. Most of the trees of Great Britain have deciduous
leaves, their duration not extending over more than a few months,
while in trees of warm climates the leaves often remain for two or
more years. In tropical countries, however, many trees lose their
leaves in the dry season. The period of defoliation varies in
different countries according to the nature of their climate. Trees
which are called evergreen, as pines and evergreen-oak, are always
deprived of a certain number of leaves at intervals, sufficient being
left, however, to preserve their green appearance. The cause of the
fall of the leaf in cold climates seems to be deficiency of light and
heat in winter, which causes a cessation in the functions of the cells
of the leaf. The fall is directly caused by the formation of a layer
of tissue across the base of the leaf-stalk; the cells of this layer
separate from one another and the leaf remains attached only by the
fibres of the veins until it becomes finally detached by the wind or
frost. Before its fall the leaf has become dry owing to loss of water
and the removal of the protoplasm and food substances to the stem for
use next season; the red and yellow colouring matters are products of
decomposition of the chlorophyll. Inorganic and other waste matters
are stored in the leaf-tissue and thus got rid of by the plant. The
leaf scar is protected by a corky change (suberization) in the walls
of the exposed cells. (A. B. R.)

LEAF-INSECT, the name given to orthopterous insects of the family Phasmidae, referred to the single genus _Phyllium_ and characterized by the presence of lateral laminae upon the legs and abdomen, which, in association with an abundance of green colouring-matter, impart a broad and leaf-like appearance to the whole insect. In the female this deceptive resemblance is enhanced by the large size and foliaceous form of the front wings which, when at rest edge to edge on the abdomen, forcibly suggest in their neuration the midrib and costae of an ordinary leaf. In this sex the posterior wings are reduced and functionless so far as flight is concerned; in the male they are ample, membranous and functional, while the anterior wings are small and not leaf-like. The freshly hatched young are reddish in colour; but turn green after feeding for a short time upon leaves. Before death a specimen has been observed to pass through the various hues of a decaying leaf, and the spectrum of the green colouring matter does not differ from that of the chlorophyll of living leaves. Since leaf-insects are purely vegetable feeders and not predaceous like mantids, it is probable that their resemblance to leaves is solely for purposes of concealment from enemies. Their egg capsules are similarly protected by their likeness to various seeds. Leaf-insects range from India to the Seychelles on the one side, and to the Fiji Islands on the other. (R. I. P.)

LEAGUE. 1. (Through Fr. _ligue_, Ital. _liga_, from Lat. _ligare_, to bind), an agreement entered into by two or more parties for mutual protection or joint attack, or for the furtherance of some common object, also the body thus joined or "leagued" together. The name has been given to numerous confederations, such as the Achaean League (q.v.), the confederation of the ancient cities of Achaia, and especially to the various holy leagues (_ligues saintes_), of which the better known are those formed by Pope Julius II. against Venice in 1508, often known as the League of Cambrai, and against France in 1511. "The League," in French history, is that of the Catholics headed by the Guises to preserve the Catholic religion against the Huguenots and prevent the accession of Henry of Navarre to the throne (see FRANCE: _History_). "The Solemn League and Covenant" was the agreement for the establishment of Presbyterianism in both countries entered into by England and Scotland in 1643 (see COVENANTERS). Of commercial leagues the most famous is that of the Hanse towns, known as the Hanseatic League (q.v.). The word has been adopted by political associations, such as the Anti-Corn Law League, the Irish Land League, the Primrose League and the United Irish League, and by numerous social organizations. "League" has also been applied to a special form of competition in athletics, especially in Association football. In this system clubs "league" together in a competition, each playing every other member of the association twice, and the order of merit is decided by the points gained during the season, a win counting two and a draw one.

2. (From the late Lat. _leuga_, or _leuca_, said to be a Gallic word; the mod. Fr. _lieue_ comes from the O. Fr. _liue_; the Gaelic _leac_, meaning a flat stone posted as a mark of distance on a road, has been suggested as the origin), a measure of distance, probably never in regular use in England, and now only in poetical or rhetorical language. It was the Celtic as opposed to the Teutonic unit, and was used in France, Spain, Portugal and Italy. In all the countries it varies with different localities, and the ancient distance has never been fixed. The kilometric league of France is fixed at four kilometres. The nautical league is equal to three nautical miles.

LEAKE, WILLIAM MARTIN (1777-1860), British antiquarian and topographer, was born in London on the 14th of January 1777. After completing his education at the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, and spending four years in the West Indies as lieutenant of marine artillery, he was sent by the government to Constantinople to instruct the Turks in this branch of the service. A journey through Asia Minor in 1800 to join the British fleet at Cyprus inspired him with an interest in antiquarian topography. In 1801, after travelling across the desert with the Turkish army to Egypt, he was, on the expulsion of the French, employed in surveying the valley of the Nile as far as the cataracts; but having sailed with the ship engaged to convey the Elgin marbles from Athens to England, he lost all his maps and observations when the vessel foundered off Cerigo. Shortly after his arrival in England he was sent out to survey the coast of Albania and the Morea, with the view of assisting the Turks against attacks of the French from Italy, and of this he took advantage to form a valuable collection of coins and inscriptions and to explore ancient sites. In 1807, war having broken out between Turkey and England, he was made prisoner at Salonica; but, obtaining his release the same year, he was sent on a diplomatic mission to Ali Pasha of Iannina, whose confidence he completely won, and with whom he remained for more than a year as British representative. In 1810 he was granted a yearly sum of £600 for his services in Turkey. In 1815 he retired from the army, in which he held the rank of colonel, devoting the remainder of his life to topographical and antiquarian studies, the results of which were given to the world in the following volumes: _Topography of Athens_ (1821); _Journal of a Tour in Asia Minor_ (1824); _Travels in the Morea_ (1830), and a supplement, _Peloponnesiaca_ (1846); _Travels in Northern Greece_ (1835); and _Numismata Hellenica_ (1854), followed by a supplement in 1859. A characteristic of the researches of Leake was their comprehensive minuteness, which was greatly aided by his mastery of technical details. His _Topography of Athens_, the first attempt at a scientific treatment of the subject, is still authoritative in regard to many important points (see ATHENS). He died at Brighton on the 6th of January 1860. The marbles collected by him in Greece were presented to the British Museum; his bronzes, vases, gems and coins were purchased by the university of Cambridge after his death, and are now in the Fitzwilliam Museum. He was elected F.R.S. and F.R.G.S., received the honorary D.C.L. at Oxford (1816), and was a member of the Berlin Academy of Sciences and correspondent of the Institute of France.

See _Memoir_ by J. H. Marsden (1864); the _Architect_ for the 7th of
October 1876; E. Curtius in the _Preussische Jahrbücher_ (Sept.,
1876); J. E. Sandys, _Hist. of Classical Scholarship_, iii. (1908), p.
442.

LEAMINGTON, a municipal borough and health resort of Warwickshire, England, on the river Leam near its junction with the Avon, 98 m. N.W. from London, served by the Great Western and London & North Western railways. Pop. (1901) 26,888. The parliamentary boroughs of Leamington and Warwick were joined into one constituency in 1885, returning one member. The centres of the towns are 2 m. apart, Warwick lying to the west, but they are united by the intermediate parish of New Milverton. There are three saline springs, and the principal pump-rooms, baths and pleasant gardens lie on the right bank of the river. The chief public buildings are the town hall (1884), containing a free library and school of art; and the Theatre Royal and assembly room. The parish church of All Saints is modernized, and the other churches are entirely modern. The S. Warwickshire hospital and Midland Counties Home for incurables are here. Leamington High School is an important school for girls. There is a municipal technical school. Industries include iron foundries and brickworks. The town lies in a well-wooded and picturesque country, within a few miles of such interesting towns as Warwick, Kenilworth, Coventry and Stratford-on-Avon. It is a favourite hunting centre, and, as a health resort, attracts not only visitors but residents. The town is governed by a mayor, 8 aldermen, and 24 councillors. Area, 2817 acres.

Leamington was a village of no importance until about 1786, when baths
were first erected, though the springs were noticed by Camden, writing
about 1586. The population in 1811 was only 543, The town was
incorporated in 1875. The name in former use was Leamington Priors, in
distinction from Leamington Hastings, a village on the upper Leam. By
royal licence granted in 1838 it was called Royal Leamington Spa.

LÉANDRE, CHARLES LUCIEN (1862- ), French caricaturist and painter, was born at Champsecret (Orne), and studied painting under Bin and Cabanel. From 1887 he figured among the exhibitors of the Salon, where he showed numerous portraits and genre pictures, but his popular fame is due to his comic drawings and caricatures. The series of the "Gotha des souverains," published in _Le Rire_, placed him in the front rank of modern caricaturists. Besides his contributions to _Le Rire_, _Le Figaro_ and other comic journals, he published a series of albums: _Nocturnes_, _Le Musée des souverains_, and _Paris et la province_. Léandre produced admirable work in lithography, and designed many memorable posters, such as the "Yvette Guilbert." "Les nouveaux mariés," "Joseph Prudhomme," "Les Lutteurs," and "La Femme au chien." He was created a knight of the Legion of Honour.

LEAP-YEAR (more properly known as _bissextile_), the name given to the year containing 366 days. The astronomers of Julius Caesar, 46 B.C., settled the solar year at 365 days 6 hours. These hours were set aside and at the end of four years made a day which was added to the fourth year. The English name for the bissextile year is an allusion to the result of the interposition of the extra day; for after the 29th of February a date "leaps over" the day of the week on which it would fall in ordinary years. Thus a birthday on the 10th of June, a Monday, will in the next year, if a leap-year, be on the 10th of June, a Wednesday. Of the origin of the custom for women to woo, not be wooed, during leap-year no satisfactory explanation has ever been offered. In 1288 a law was enacted in Scotland that "it is statut and ordaint that during the rein of hir maist blissit Megeste, for ilk yeare knowne as lepe yeare, ilk mayden ladye of bothe highe and lowe estait shall hae liberte to bespeke ye man she likes, albeit he refuses to taik hir to be his lawful wyfe, he shall be mulcted in ye sum ane pundis or less, as his estait may be; except and awis gif he can make it appeare that he is betrothit ane ither woman he then shall be free." A few years later a like law was passed in France, and in the 15th century the custom was legalized in Genoa and Florence.

LEAR, EDWARD (1812-1888), English artist and humorist, was born in London on the 12th of May 1812. His earliest drawings were ornithological. When he was twenty years old he published a brilliantly coloured selection of the rarer Psittacidae. Its power attracted the attention of the 13th earl of Derby, who employed Lear to draw his Knowsley menagerie. He became a permanent favourite with the Stanley family; and Edward, 15th earl, was the child for whose amusement the first _Book of Nonsense_ was composed. From birds Lear turned to landscape, his earlier efforts in which recall the manner of J. D. Harding; but he quickly acquired a more individual style. About 1837 he set up a studio at Rome, where he lived for ten years, with summer tours in Italy and Sicily, and occasional visits to England. During this period he began to publish his _Illustrated Journals of a Landscape Painter_: charmingly written reminiscences of wandering, which ultimately embraced Calabria, the Abruzzi, Albania, Corsica, &c. From 1848-1849 he explored Greece, Constantinople, the Ionian Islands, Lower Egypt, the wildest recesses of Albania, and the desert of Sinai. He returned to London, but the climate did not suit him. In 1854-1855 he wintered on the Nile, and migrated successively to Corfu, Malta and Rome, finally building himself a villa at San Remo. From Corfu Lear visited Mount Athos, Syria, Palestine, and Petra; and when over sixty, by the assistance of Lord Northbrock, then Govenor-General, he saw the cities and scenery of greatest interest within a large area of India. From first to last he was, in whatever circumstances of difficulty or ill-health, an indomitable traveller. Before visiting new lands he studied their geography and literature, and then went straight for the mark; and wherever he went he drew most indefatigably and most accurately. His sketches are not only the basis of more finished works, but an exhaustive record in themselves. Some defect of technique or eyesight occasionally left his larger oil painting, though nobly conceived, crude or deficient in harmony; but his smaller pictures and more elaborate sketches abound in beauty, delicacy, and truth. Lear modestly called himself a topographical artist; but he included in the term the perfect rendering of all characteristic graces of form, colour, and atmosphere. The last task he set himself was to prepare for popular circulation a set of some 200 drawings, illustrating from his travels the scenic touches of Tennyson's poetry; but he did not live to complete the scheme, dying at San Remo on the 30th of January 1888. Until sobered by age, his conversation was brimful of humorous fun. The paradoxical originality and ostentatiously uneducated draughtsmanship of his numerous nonsense books won him a more universal fame than his serious work. He had a true artist's sympathy with art under all forms, and might have become a skilled musician had he not been a painter. Swainson, the naturalist, praised young Lear's great red and yellow macaw as "equalling any figure ever painted by Audubon in grace of design, perspective, and anatomical accuracy." Murchison, examining his sketches, complimented them as rigorously embodying geological truth. Tennyson's lines "To E.L. on his Travels in Greece," mark the poet's genuine admiration of a cognate spirit in classical art. Ruskin placed the _Book of Nonsense_ first in the list of a hundred delectable volumes of contemporary literature, a judgment endorsed by English-speaking children all over the world.

See _Letters of Edward Lear to Chichester Fortescue, Lord Carlingford,
and Frances, Countess Waldegrave_ (1907), edited by Lady Strachey,
with an introduction by Henry Strachey. (F. L.*)

LEASE (derived through the Fr. from the Lat. _laxare_, to loosen), a certain form of tenure, or the contract embodying it, of land, houses, &c.; see LANDLORD AND TENANT.

LEATHER (a word which appears in all Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. _Leder_, Dutch _leer_ or _leder_, Swed. _läder_, and in such Celtic forms as Welsh _llader_), an imputrescible substance prepared from the hides or skins of living creatures, both cold and warm blooded, by chemical and mechanical treatment. Skins in the raw and natural moist state are readily putrescible, and are easily disintegrated by bacterial or chemical action, and if dried in this condition become harsh, horny and intractable. The art of the leather manufacturer is principally directed to overcoming the tendency to putrefaction, securing suppleness in the material, rendering it impervious to and unalterable by water, and increasing the strength of the skin and its power to resist wear and tear.

Leather is made by three processes or with three classes of substances. Thus we have (1) tanned leather, in which the hides and skins are combined with tannin or tannic acid; (2) tawed leather, in which the skins are prepared with mineral salts; (3) chamoised (shamoyed) leather, in which the skins are rendered imputrescible by treatment with oils and fats, the decomposition products of which are the actual tanning agents.

Heavy leathers.

_Sources and Qualities of Hides and Skins._--The hides used in heavy leather manufacture may be divided into three classes: (1) ox and heifer, (2) cow, (3) bull. Oxen and heifer hides produce the best results, forming a tough, tight, solid leather. Cow hides are thin, the hide itself being fibrous, but still compact, and by reason of its spread or area is used chiefly for dressing purposes in the bag and portmanteau manufacture and work of a similar description. Bull hides are fibrous; they are largely used for heel lifts, and for cheap belting, the thicker hides being used in the iron and steel industry.

A second classification now presents itself, viz. the British home supply, continental (Europe), British colonial, South American, East Indian, Chinese, &c.

In the British home supply there are three chief breeds: (1) Shorthorns (Scotch breed), (2) Herefords (Midland breed), (3) Lowland, or Dutch class. From a tanner's standpoint, the shorthorns are the best hides procurable. The cattle are exposed to a variable climate in the mountainous districts of Scotland, and nature, adapting herself to circumstances, provides them with a thicker and more compact hide; they are well grown, have short necks and small heads. The Hereford class are probably the best English hide; they likewise have small heads and horns, and produce good solid sole leather. The Lowland hides come chiefly from Suffolk, Kent and Surrey; the animals have long legs, long necks and big heads. The hides are usually thin and spready. The hides of the animals killed for the Christmas season are poor. The animals being stall-fed for the beef, the hides become distended, thin and surcharged with fat, which renders them unsuitable for first-class work.

The continental supply may be divided into two classes: (1) Hides from hilly regions, (2) hides from lowlands. All animals subject to strong winds and a wide range of temperatures have a very strong hide, and for this reason those bred in hilly and mountainous districts are best. The hides coming under heading No. 1 are of this class, and include those from the Swiss and Italian Alps, Bavarian Highlands and Pyrenees, also Florence, Oporto and Lisbon hides. They are magnificent hides, thick, tightly-built, and of smooth grain. The butt is long and the legs short. A serious defect in some of these hides is a thick place on the neck caused by the yoke; this part of the hide is absolute waste. Another defect, specially noticeable in Lisbon and Oporto hides, is goad marks on the rump, barbed wire scratches and warbles, caused by the gadfly. Those hides coming under heading No. 2 are Dutch, Rhine valley, Danish, Swedish, Norwegian, Hungarian, &c. The first three hides are very similar; they are spready, poorly grown, and are best used for bag and portmanteau work. Hungarian oxen are immense animals, and supply a very heavy bend. Swedish and Norwegian hides are evenly grown and of good texture; they are well flayed, and used a great deal for manufacturing picker bands, which require an even leather.

New Zealand, Australian and Queensland hides resemble good English. A small quantity of Canadian steers are imported; these are generally branded.

Chinese hides are exported dry, and they have generally suffered more or less from peptonization in the storing and drying; this cannot be detected until they are in the pits, when they fall to pieces.

Anglos are imported as live-stock, and are killed within forty-eight hours. They come to Hull, Birkenhead, Avonmouth and Deptford from various American ports, and usually give a flatter result than English, the general quality depending largely on whether the ship has had a good voyage or not.

Among South American hides, Liebig's slaughter supply the best; they are thoroughly clean and carefully trimmed and flayed. They come to London, Antwerp and Havre, and except for being branded are of first-class quality. Second to the Liebig slaughter come the Uruguay hides.

East Indian hides are known as kips, and are supposed to be, and should be, the hides of yearling cattle. They are now dressed to a large extent in imitation of box calf, being much cheaper. They come from a small breed of ox, and have an extremely tight grain; the leather is not so soft as calf.

Calf-skins are largely supplied by the continent. They are soft and pliant, and have a characteristically fine grain, are tight in texture and quite apart from any other kind of skin.

Light leathers.

The most valuable part of a sheepskin is the wool, and the value of the pelt is inversely as the value of the wool. Pure Leicester and Norfolk wools are very valuable, and next is the North and South Downs, but the skins, i.e. the pelts, of these animals are extremely poor. Devon and Cheviot cross-bred sheep supply a fair pelt, and sometimes these sheep are so many times crossed that it is quite impossible to tell what the skin is. Welsh skins also supply a good tough pelt, though small. Indian and Persian sheepskins are very goaty, the herds being allowed to roam about together so much. The sheepskin is the most porous and open-textured skin in existence, as also the most greasy one; it is flabby and soft, with a tight, compact grain, but an extremely loose flesh. Stillborn lambs and lambs not over a month old are worth much more than when they have lived for three months; they are used for the manufacture of best kid gloves, and must be milk skins. Once the lambs have taken to grass the skins supply a harsher leather.

The best goat-skins come from the Saxon and Bavarian Highlands, Swiss Alps, Pyrenees, Turkey, Bosnia, Southern Hungary and the Urals. The goats being exposed to all winds yield fine skins. A good number come from Argentina and from Abyssinia, the Cape and other parts of Africa. Of all light leathers the goat has the toughest and tightest grain; it is, therefore, especially liked for fancy work. The grain is rather too bold for glacé work, for which the sheep is largely used.

The seal-skin, used largely for levant work, is the skin of the yellow-hair seal, found in the Northern seas, the Baltic, Norway and Sweden, &c. The skin has a large, bold, brilliant grain, and being a large skin is much used for upholstery and coach work, like the Cape goat. It is quite distinct from the fur seal.

Porpoise hide is really the hide of the white whale; it is dressed for shooting, fishing and hunting boots. Horse hide is dressed for light split and upper work; being so much stall-fed it supplies only a thin, spready leather. The skins of other Equidae, such as the ass, zebra, quagga, &c. are also dressed to some small extent, but are not important sources.

_Structure of Skin._--Upon superficial inspection, the hides and skins
of all mammalia appear to be unlike each other in general structure,
yet, upon closer examination, it is found that the anatomical
structure of most skins is so similar that for all practical purposes
we may assume that there is no distinction (see SKIN AND
EXO-SKELETON). But from the practical point of view, as opposed to the
anatomical, there are great and very important differences, such as
those of texture, thickness, area, &c.; and these differences cause a
great divergence in the methods of tanning used, almost necessitating
a distinct tannage for nearly every class of hide or skin.

The skins of the lower animals, such as alligators, lizards, fish and
snakes, differ to a large extent from those of the mammalia, chiefly
in the epidermis, which is much more horny in structure and forms
scales.

The skin is divided into two distinct layers: (1) the epidermis or
epithelium, i.e. the cuticle, (2) the corium derma, or cutis, i.e. the
true skin. These two layers are not only different in structure, but
are also of entirely distinct origin. The epidermis again divides
itself into two parts, viz. the "horny layer" or surface skin, and the
_rete Malpighi_, named after the Italian anatomist who first drew
attention to its existence. The _rete Malpighi_ is composed of living,
soft, nucleated cells, which multiply by division, and, as they
increase, are gradually pushed to the surface of the skin, becoming
flatter and drier as they near it, until they reach the surface as
dried scales. The epidermis is thus of cellular structure, and more or
less horny or waterproof. It must consequently be removed together
with the hair, wool or bristles before tannage begins, but as it is
very thin compared with the corium, this matters little.

The hair itself does not enter the corium, but is embedded in a sheath
of epidermic structure, which is part of and continuous with the
epidermis. It is of cellular structure, and the fibrous part is
composed of long needle-shaped cells which contain the pigment with
which the hair is coloured. Upon removal of the hair some of these
cells remain behind and colour the skin, and this colour does not
disappear until these cells are removed by scudding. Each hair is
supplied with at least two fat or sebaceous glands, which discharge
into the orifice of the hair sheath; these glands impart to the hair
that natural glossy appearance which is characteristic of good health.
The hair bulb (b, fig. 1) consists of living nucleated cells, which
multiply rapidly, and, like the _rete Malpighi_, cause an upward
pressure, getting harder at the same time, thereby lengthening the
hair.

The hair papilla (a, fig. 1) consists of a globule of the corium or
true skin embedded in the hair bulb, which by means of blood-vessels
feeds and nourishes the hair. Connected with the lower part of each
hair is an oblique muscle known as the arrector or erector pili, seen
at k, fig. 1; this is an involuntary muscle, and is contracted by
sudden cold, heat or shock, with an accompanying tightening of the
skin, producing the phenomenon commonly known as "goose flesh." This
is the outcome of the contracted muscle pulling on the base of the
hair, thereby giving it a tendency to approach the vertical, and
producing the simultaneous effect of making the "hair stand on end."

The sudoriferous or sweat glands (R, fig. 1) consist of long
spiral-like capillaries, formed from the fibres of the connective
tissue of the corium. These glands discharge sometimes directly
through the epidermis, but more often into the orifice of the
hair-sheath.

The epidermis is separated from the corium by a very important and
very fine membrane, termed the "hyaline" or "glassy layer," which
constitutes the actual grain surface of a hide or skin. This layer is
chemically different from the corium, as if it is torn or scratched
during the process of tanning the colour of the underlying parts is
much lighter than that of the grain surface.

a, Hair papilla.
b, Hair bulb.
c, Hair sheath showing epidermic structure.
d, Dermic coat of hair sheath.
e, Outer root sheath.
f, Inner root sheath.
g, Hair cuticle.
h, Hair.
J, Sebaceous glands.
k, Erector pili.
m, Sweat ducts.
n and _p_, Epidermis.
n, Rete Malpighi.
p, Horny layer.
R, Sweat or sudoriferous gland.
S, Opening at sweat duct.]

The corium, unlike the epidermis, is of fibrous, not cellular
structure; moreover, the fibres do not multiply among themselves, but
are gradually developed as needed from the interfibrillar substance, a
semi-soluble gelatinous modification of the true fibre. This
interfibrillar substance consequently has no structure, and is
prepared at any time on coming into contact with tannin to form
amorphous leather, which fills what would in the absence of this
substance be interfibrillar spaces. The more of this matter there is
present the more completely will the spaces be filled, and the more
waterproof will be the leather. An old bull, as is well known,
supplies a very poor, soft and spongy leather, simply because the hide
lacks interfibrillar substance, which has been sapped up by the body.
The fibres are, therefore, separated by interfibrillar spaces, which
on contact with water absorb it with avidity by capillary attraction.
But a heifer hide or young calf supplies the most tight and waterproof
leather known, because the animals are young, and having plenty of
nourishment do not require to draw upon and sap the interfibrillar
substance with which the skin is full to overflowing.

The corium obtains its food from the body by means of lymph ducts,
with which it is well supplied. It is also provided with nodules of
lymph to nourish the hair, and nodules of grease, which increase in
number as they near the flesh side, until the net skin, _panniculus
adiposus_, or that which separates the corium from meat proper, is
quite full with them.

The corium is coarse in the centre of the skin where the fibres, which
are of the kind known as white connective tissue, and which exist in
bundles bound together with yellow elastic fibres, are loosely woven,
but towards the flesh side they become more compact, and as the
hyaline layer is neared the bundles of fibres get finer and finer, and
are much more tightly interwoven, until finally, next the grain
itself, the fibres no longer exist in bundles, but as individual
fibrils lying parallel with the grain. This layer is known as the
_pars papillaris_. The bundles of fibre interweave one another in
every conceivable direction. The fibrils are extremely minute, and are
cemented together with a medium rather more soluble than themselves.

There are only two exceptions to this general structure which need be
taken into account. Sheep-skin is especially loosely woven in the
centre, so much so that any carelessness in the wet work or sweating
process enables one to split the skin in two by tearing. This
loosely-woven part is full of fatty nodules, and the skin is generally
split at this part, the flesh going for chamois leather and the grain
for skivers. The other notable exception is the horse hide, which has
a third skin over the loins just above the kidneys, known as the crup;
it is very greasy and tight in structure, and is used for making a
very waterproof leather for seamen's and fishermen's boots. Pig-skin,
perhaps, is rather peculiar, in the fact that the bristles penetrate
almost right through the skin.

_Tanning Materials._--Tannin or tannic acid is abundantly formed in a
very large number of plants, and secreted in such diverse organs and
members as the bark, wood, roots, leaves, seed-pods, fruit, &c. The
number of tannins which exists has not been determined, nor has the
constitution of those which do exist been satisfactorily settled. As
used in the tanyard tannin is present both in the free state and
combined with colouring matter and accompanied by decomposition
products, such as gallic acid or phlobaphenes (anhydrides of the
tannins), respectively depending upon the series to which the tannin
belongs. In whatever other points they differ, they all have the
common property of being powerfully astringent, of forming insoluble
compounds with gelatine or gelatinous tissue, of being soluble in
water to a greater or lesser extent, and of forming blacks (greenish
or bluish) with iron. Pyrogallol tannins give a blue-black coloration
or precipitate with ferric salts, and catechol tannins a green-black;
and whereas bromine water gives a precipitate with catechol tannins,
it does not with pyrogallol tannins. There are two distinctive classes
of tannins, viz. catechol and pyrogallol tannins. The materials
belonging to the former series are generally much darker in colour
than those classified with the latter, and moreover they yield reds,
phlobaphenes or tannin anhydrides, which deposit on or in the leather.
Pyrogallol tannins include some of the lightest coloured and best
materials known, and, speaking generally, the leather produced by them
is not so harsh or hard as that produced with catechol tannins. They
decompose, yielding ellagic acid (known technically as "bloom") and
gallic acid; the former has waterproofing qualities, because it fills
the leather, at the same time giving weight.

It has been stated, and perhaps with some truth, that leather cannot
be successfully made with catechol tannins alone; pyrogallol tannins,
however, yield an excellent leather; but the finest results are
obtained by blending the two.

The classification of the chief tanning materials is as follows:--

_Pyrogallols._

Myrobalans (_Terminalia Chebula_).
Chestnut wood (_Castanea vesca_).
Divi-divi (_Caesalpinia Coriaria_).
Algarobilla (_Caesalpinia brevifolia_).
Sumach (_Rhus Coriaria_).
Oakwood (_Quercus family_).
Chestnut oak (_Quercus Prinus_).
Galls (_Quercus Infectoria_).
Willow (_Salix arenaria_).

_Catechols._

Gambier (_Uncaria Gambir_).
Hemlock (_Abies canadensis_).
Quebracho (_Quebracho Colorado_).
Mangrove or Cutch (_Rhizophora Mangle_).
Mimosa or Golden Wattle (_Acacia Pycnantha_).
Larch (_Larix Europaea_).
Canaigre (_Rumer Hymenosepalum_).
Birch (_Betula alba_).
Cutch Catechu (_Acacia Catechu_).

_Subsidiary._

Oakbark (_Quercus Robur_).
Valonia (_Quercus Aegilops_).

Myrobalans are the fruit of an Indian tree. There are several
different qualities, the order of which is as follows, the best being
placed first: Bhimley, Jubbalpore, Rajpore, Fair Coast Madras and
Vingorlas. They are a very light-coloured material, containing from 27
% to 38 % of tannin; they deposit much "bloom," ferment fairly
rapidly, supplying acidity, and yield a mellow leather.

Chestnut comes on the market in the form of crude and decolorized
liquid extracts, containing about 27 % to 31 % of tannin, and yields a
good leather of a light-brown colour.

Oakwood reaches the market in the same form; it is a very similar
material, but only contains 24 % to 27 % of tannin, and yields a
slightly heavier and darker leather.

Divi-divi is the dried seed pods of an Indian tree containing 40 % to
45 % of tannin, and yielding a white leather; it might be valuable but
for the tendency to dangerous fermentation and development of a
dark-red colouring matter.

Algarobilla consists of the seeds of an Indian tree, containing about
45 % of tannin, and in general properties is similar to divi-divi, but
does not discolour so much upon fermentation.

Sumach is perhaps the best and most useful material known. It is the
ground leaves of a Sicilian plant, containing about 28 % of tannin,
and yielding a nearly white and very beautiful leather. It is used
alone for tanning the best moroccos and finer leather, and being so
valuable is much adulterated, the chief adulterant being _Pistacia
lentiscus_ (Stinko or Lentisco), an inferior and light-coloured
catechol tannin. Other but inferior sumachs are also used. There is
Venetian sumach (_Rhus cotinus_) and Spanish sumach (_Colpoon
compressa_); these are used to some extent in the countries bordering
on the Mediterranean. _R. Glabra_ and _R. Copallina_ are also used in
considerable quantities in America, where they are cultivated.

Galls are abnormal growths found upon oaks, and caused by the gall
wasp laying eggs in the plant. They are best harvested just before the
insect escapes. They contain from 50 % to 60 % of tannin, and are
generally used for the commercial supply of tannic acid, and not for
tanning purposes.

Gambier, terra japonica or catechu, is the product of a shrub
cultivated in Singapore and the Malay Archipelago. It is made by
boiling the shrub and allowing the extract to solidify. It is a
peculiar material, and may be completely washed out of a leather
tanned with it. It mellows exceedingly, and keeps the leather fibre
open; it may be said that it only goes in the leather to prepare and
make easy the way for other tannins. Block gambier contains from 35 %
to 40 % and cube gambier from 50 % to 65 % of tannin.

Hemlock generally reaches the market as extract, prepared from the
bark of the American tree. It contains about 22 % of tannin, has a
pine-like odour, but yields a rather dark-coloured red leather.

Quebracho is imported mainly as solid extract, containing 63 % to 70 %
of tannin; it is a harsh, light-red tannage, but darkens rapidly on
exposure to light. It is used for freshening up very mellow liquors,
but is rather wasteful, as it deposits an enormous amount of its
tannin as phlobaphenes.

Mangrove or cutch is a solid extract prepared from the mangrove tree
found in the swamps of Borneo and the Straits Settlements; it contains
upwards of 60 % of a red tannin.

Mimosa is the bark of the Australian golden wattle (_Acacia
pycnantha_), and contains from 36 % to 50 % of tannin. It is a rather
harsh tannage, yielding a flesh-coloured leather, and is useful for
sharpening liquors. This bark is now successfully cultivated in Natal.
The tannin content of this Natal bark is somewhat inferior, but the
colour is superior to the Australian product.

Larch bark contains 9 % to 10 % of light-coloured tannin, and is used
especially for tanning Scotch basils.

Canaigre is the air-dried tuberous roots of a Mexican plant,
containing 25 % to 30 % of tannin and about 8 % of starch. It yields
an orange-coloured leather of considerable weight and firmness. Its
cultivation did not pay well enough, so that it is little used.