Chapter VIII: Front Matter (8)

MAYA, an important tribe and stock of American Indians, the dominant race of Yucatan and other states of Mexico and part of Central America at the time of the Spanish conquest. They were then divided into many nations, chief among them being the Maya proper, the Huastecs, the Tzental, the Pokom, the Mame and the Cakchiquel and Quiché. They were spread over Yucatan, Vera Cruz, Tabasco, Campeche, and Chiapas in Mexico, and over the greater part of Guatemala and Salvador. In civilization the Mayan peoples rivalled the Aztecs. Their traditions give as their place of origin the extreme north; thence a migration took place, perhaps at the beginning of the Christian era. They appear to have reached Yucatan as early as the 5th century. From the evidence of the Quiché chronicles, which are said to date back to about A.D. 700, Guatemala was shortly afterwards overrun. Physically the Mayans are a dark-skinned, round-headed, short and sturdy type. Although they were already decadent when the Spaniards arrived they made a fierce resistance. They still form the bulk of the inhabitants of Yucatan. For their culture, ruined cities, &c. see CENTRAL AMERICA and MEXICO.

MAYAGUEZ, the third largest city of Porto Rico, a seaport, and the seat of government of the department of Mayaguez, on the west coast, at the mouth of Rio Yaguez, about 72 m. W. by S. of San Juan. Pop. of the city (1899), 15,187, including 1381 negroes and 4711 of mixed races; (1910), 16,591; of the municipal district, 35,700 (1899), of whom 2687 were negroes and 9933 were of mixed races. Mayaguez is connected by the American railroad of Porto Rico with San Juan and Ponce, and it is served regularly by steamboats from San Juan, Ponce and New York, although its harbour is not accessible to vessels drawing more than 16 ft. of water. It is situated at the foot of Las Mesas mountains and commands picturesque views. The climate is healthy and good water is obtained from the mountain region. From the shipping district along the water-front a thoroughfare leads to the main portion of the city, about 1 m. distant. There are four public squares, in one of which is a statue of Columbus. Prominent among the public buildings are the City Hall (containing a public library), San Antonio Hospital, Roman Catholic churches, a Presbyterian church, the court-house and a theatre. The United States has an agricultural experiment station here, and the Insular Reform School is 1 m. south of the city. Coffee, sugar-cane and tropical fruits are grown in the surrounding country; and the business of the city consists chiefly in their export and the import of flour. Among the manufactures are sugar, tobacco and chocolate. Mayaguez was founded about the middle of the 18th century on the site of a hamlet which was first settled about 1680. It was incorporated as a town in 1836, and became a city in 1873. In 1841 it was nearly all destroyed by fire.

MAYAVARAM, a town of British India, in the Tanjore district of Madras, on the Cauvery river; junction on the South Indian railway, 174 m. S.W. of Madras. Pop. (1901), 24,276. It possesses a speciality of fine cotton and silk cloth, known as Kornad from the suburb in which the weavers live. During October and November the town is the scene of a great pilgrimage to the holy waters of the Cauvery.

MAYBOLE, a burgh of barony and police burgh of Ayrshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901), 5892. It is situated 9 m. S. of Ayr and 50¼ m. S.W. of Glasgow by the Glasgow & South-Western railway. It is an ancient place, having received a charter from Duncan II. in 1193. In 1516 it was made a burgh of regality, but for generations it remained under the subjection of the Kennedys, afterwards earls of Cassillis and marquesses of Ailsa, the most powerful family in Ayrshire. Of old Maybole was the capital of the district of Carrick, and for long its characteristic feature was the family mansions of the barons of Carrick. The castle of the earls of Cassillis still remains. The public buildings include the town-hall, the Ashgrove and the Lumsden fresh-air fortnightly homes, and the Maybole combination poorhouse. The leading manufactures are of boots and shoes and agricultural implements. Two miles to the south-west are the ruins of Crossraguel (Cross of St Regulus) Abbey, founded about 1240. KIRKOSWALD, where Burns spent his seventeenth year, learning land-surveying, lies a little farther west. In the parish churchyard lie "Tam o' Shanter" (Douglas Graham) and "Souter Johnnie" (John Davidson). Four miles to the west of Maybole on the coast is Culzean Castle, the chief seat of the marquess of Ailsa, dating from 1777; it stands on a basaltic cliff, beneath which are the Coves of Culzean, once the retreat of outlaws and a resort of the fairies. Farther south are the ruins of Turnberry Castle, where Robert Bruce is said to have been born. A few miles to the north of Culzean are the ruins of Dunure Castle, an ancient stronghold of the Kennedys.

MAYEN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian Rhine province, on the northern declivity of the Eifel range, 16 m. W. from Coblenz, on the railway Andernach-Gerolstein. Pop. (1905), 13,435. It is still partly surrounded by medieval walls, and the ruins of a castle rise above the town. There are some small industries, embracing textile manufactures, oil mills and tanneries, and a trade in wine, while near the town are extensive quarries of basalt. Having been a Roman settlement, Mayen became a town in 1291. In 1689 it was destroyed by the French.

MAYENNE, CHARLES OF LORRAINE, DUKE OF (1554-1611), second son of Francis of Lorraine, second duke of Guise, was born on the 26th of March 1554. He was absent from France at the time of the massacre of Saint Bartholomew, but took part in the siege of La Rochelle in the following year, when he was created duke and peer of France. He went with Henry of Valois, duke of Anjou (afterwards Henry III.), on his election as king of Poland, but soon returned to France to become the energetic supporter and lieutenant of his brother, the 3rd duke of Guise. In 1577 he gained conspicuous successes over the Huguenot forces in Poitou. As governor of Burgundy he raised his province in the cause of the League in 1585. The assassination of his brothers at Blois on the 23rd and 24th of December 1588 left him at the head of the Catholic party. The Venetian ambassador, Mocenigo, states that Mayenne had warned Henry III. that there was a plot afoot to seize his person and to send him by force to Paris. At the time of the murder he was at Lyons, where he received a letter from the king saying that he had acted on his warning, and ordering him to retire to his government. Mayenne professed obedience, but immediately made preparations for marching on Paris. After a vain attempt to recover the persons of those of his relatives who had been arrested at Blois he proceeded to recruit troops in his government of Burgundy and in Champagne. Paris was devoted to the house of Guise and had been roused to fury by the news of the murder. When Mayenne entered the city in February 1589 he found it dominated by representatives of the sixteen quarters of Paris, all fanatics of the League. He formed a council general to direct the affairs of the city and to maintain relations with the other towns faithful to the League. To this council each quarter sent four representatives, and Mayenne added representatives of the various trades and professions of Paris in order to counterbalance this revolutionary element. He constituted himself "lieutenant-general of the state and crown of France," taking his oath before the parlement of Paris. In April he advanced on Tours. Henry III. in his extremity sought an alliance with Henry of Navarre, and the allied forces drove the leaguers back, and had laid siege to Paris, when the murder of Henry III. by a Dominican fanatic changed the face of affairs and gave new strength to the Catholic party.

Mayenne was urged to claim the crown for himself, but he was faithful to the official programme of the League and proclaimed Charles, cardinal of Bourbon, at that time a prisoner in the hands of Henry IV., as Charles X. Henry IV. retired to Dieppe, followed by Mayenne, who joined his forces with those of his cousin Charles, duke of Aumale, and Charles de Cossé, comte de Brissac, and engaged the royal forces in a succession of fights in the neighbourhood of Arques (September 1589). He was defeated and out-marched by Henry IV., who moved on Paris, but retreated before Mayenne's forces. In 1590 Mayenne received additions to his army from the Spanish Netherlands, and took the field again, only to suffer complete defeat at Ivry (March 14, 1590). He then escaped to Mantes, and in September collected a fresh army at Meaux, and with the assistance of Alexander Farnese, prince of Parma, sent by Philip II., raised the siege of Paris, which was about to surrender to Henry IV. Mayenne feared with reason the designs of Philip II., and his difficulties were increased by the death of Charles X., the "king of the league." The extreme section of the party, represented by the Sixteen, urged him to proceed to the election of a Catholic king and to accept the help and the claims of their Spanish allies. But Mayenne, who had not the popular gifts of his brother, the duke of Guise, had no sympathy with the demagogues, and himself inclined to the moderate side of his party, which began to urge reconciliation with Henry IV. He maintained the ancient forms of the constitution against the revolutionary policy of the Sixteen, who during his absence from Paris took the law into their own hands and in November 1591 executed one of the leaders of the more moderate party, Barnabé Brisson, president of the parlement. He returned to Paris and executed four of the chief malcontents. The power of the Sixteen diminished from that time, but with it the strength of the League.[1]

Mayenne entered into negotiations with Henry IV. while he was still appearing to consider with Philip II. the succession to the French crown of the Infanta Elizabeth, granddaughter, through her mother Elizabeth of Valois, of Henry II. He demanded that Henry IV. should accomplish his conversion to Catholicism before he was recognized by the leaguers. He also desired the continuation to himself of the high offices which had accumulated in his family and the reservation of their provinces to his relatives among the leaguers. In 1593 he summoned the States General to Paris and placed before them the claims of the Infanta, but they protested against foreign intervention. Mayenne signed a truce at La Villette on the 31st of July 1593. The internal dissensions of the league continued to increase, and the principal chiefs submitted. Mayenne finally made his peace only in October 1595. Henry IV. allowed him the possession of Chalon-sur-Saône, of Seurre and Soissons for three years, made him governor of the Isle of France and paid a large indemnity. Mayenne died at Soissons on the 3rd of October 1611.

A _Histoire de la vie et de la mort du duc de Mayenne_ appeared at
Lyons in 1618. See also J. B. H. Capefigue, _Hist. de la Réforme, de
la ligue et du règne de Henri IV._ (8 vols., 1834-1835) and the
literature dealing with the house of Guise (q.v.).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The estates of the League in 1593 were the occasion of the famous
_Satire Ménippée_, circulated in MS. in that year, but only printed
at Tours in 1594. It was the work of a circle of men of letters who
belonged to the _politiques_ or party of the centre and ridiculed the
League. The authors were Pierre Le Roy, Jean Passerat, Florent
Chrestien, Nicolas Rapin and Pierre Pithou. It opened with "La vertu
du catholicon," in which a Spanish quack (the cardinal of Plaisance)
vaunts the virtues of his drug "catholicon composé," manufactured in
the Escurial, while a Lorrainer rival (the cardinal of Pellevé) tries
to sell a rival cure. A mock account of the estates, with harangues
delivered by Mayenne and the other chiefs of the League, followed.
Mayenne's discourse is said to have been written by the jurist
Pithou.

MAYENNE, a department of north-western France, three-fourths of which formerly belonged to Lower Maine and the remainder to Anjou, bounded on the N. by Manche and Orne, E. by Sarthe, S. by Maine-et-Loire and W. by Ille-et-Vilaine. Area, 2012 sq. m. Pop. (1906), 305,457. Its ancient geological formations connect it with Brittany. The surface is agreeably undulating; forests are numerous, and the beauty of the cultivated portions is enhanced by the hedgerows and lines of trees by which the farms are divided. The highest point of the department, and indeed of the whole north-west of France, is the Mont des Avaloirs (1368 ft.). Hydrographically Mayenne belongs to the basins of the Loire, the Vilaine and the Sélune, the first mentioned draining by far the larger part of the entire area. The principal stream is the Mayenne, which passes successively from north to south through Mayenne, Laval and Château-Gontier; by means of weirs and sluices it is navigable below Mayenne, but traffic is inconsiderable. The chief affluents are the Jouanne on the left, and on the right the Colmont, the Ernée and the Oudon. A small area in the east of the department drains by the Erve into the Sarthe; the Vilaine rises in the west, and in the north-west two small rivers flow into the Sélune. The climate of Mayenne is generally healthy except in the neighbourhood of the numerous marshes. The temperature is lower and the moisture of the atmosphere greater than in the neighbouring departments; the rainfall (about 32 in. annually) is above the average for France.

Agriculture and stock-raising are prosperous. A large number of horned
cattle are reared, and in no other French department are so many
horses found within the same area; the breed, that of Craon, is famed
for its strength. Craon has also given its name to the most prized
breed of pigs in western France. Mayenne produces excellent butter and
poultry and a large quantity of honey. The cultivation of the vine is
very limited, and the most common beverage is cider. Wheat, oats,
barley and buckwheat, in the order named, are the most important
crops, and a large quantity of flax and hemp is produced. Game is
abundant. The timber grown is chiefly beech, oak, birch, elm and
chestnut. The department produces antimony, auriferous quartz and
coal. Marble, slate and other stone are quarried. There are several
chalybeate springs. The industries include flour-milling, brick and
tile making, brewing, cotton and wool spinning, and the production of
various textile fabrics (especially ticking) for which Laval and
Château-Gontier are the centres, agricultural implement making, wood
and marble sawing, tanning and dyeing. The exports include
agricultural produce, live-stock, stone and textiles; the chief
imports are coal, brandy, wine, furniture and clothing. The department
is served by the Western railway. It forms part of the
circumscriptions of the IV. army corps, the académie (educational
division) of Rennes, and the court of appeal of Angers. It comprises
three arrondissements (Laval, Château-Gontier and Mayenne), with 27
cantons and 276 communes. Laval, the capital, is the seat of a
bishopric of the province of Tours. The other principal towns are
Château-Gontier and Mayenne, which are treated under separate
headings. The following places are also of interest: Evron, which has
a church of the 12th and 13th centuries; Jublains, with a Roman fort
and other Roman remains; Lassay, with a fine château of the 14th and
16th centuries; and Ste Suzanne, which has remains of medieval
ramparts and a fortress with a keep of the Romanesque period.

MAYENNE, a town of north-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Mayenne, 19 m. N.N.E. of Laval by rail. Pop., town 7003, commune 10,020. Mayenne is an old feudal town, irregularly built on hills on both sides of the river Mayenne. Of the old castle overlooking the river several towers remain, one of which has retained its conical roof; the vaulted chambers and chapel are ornamented in the style of the 13th century; the building is now used as a prison. The church of Notre-Dame, beside which there is a statue of Joan of Arc, dates partly from the 12th century; the choir was rebuilt in the 19th century. In the Place de Cheverus is a statue, by David of Angers, to Cardinal Jean de Cheverus (1768-1836), who was born in Mayenne. Mayenne has a subprefecture, tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a chamber of arts and manufactures, and a board of trade-arbitration. There is a school of agriculture in the vicinity. The chief industry of the place is the manufacture of tickings, linen, handkerchiefs and calicoes.

Mayenne had its origin in the castle built here by Juhel, baron of Mayenne, the son of Geoffrey of Maine, in the beginning of the 11th century. It was taken by the English in 1424, and several times suffered capture by the opposing parties in the wars of religion and the Vendée. At the beginning of the 16th century the territory passed to the family of Guise, and in 1573 was made a duchy in favour of Charles of Mayenne, leader of the League.

MAYER, JOHANN TOBIAS (1723-1762), German astronomer, was born at Marbach, in Würtemberg, on the 17th of February 1723, and brought up at Esslingen in poor circumstances. A self-taught mathematician, he had already published two original geometrical works when, in 1746, he entered J. B. Homann's cartographic establishment at Nuremberg. Here he introduced many improvements in map-making, and gained a scientific reputation which led (in 1751) to his election to the chair of economy and mathematics in the university of Göttingen. In 1754 he became superintendent of the observatory, where he laboured with great zeal and success until his death, on the 20th of February 1762. His first important astronomical work was a careful investigation of the libration of the moon (_Kosmographische Nachrichten_, Nuremberg, 1750), and his chart of the full moon (published in 1775) was unsurpassed for half a century. But his fame rests chiefly on his lunar tables, communicated in 1752, with new solar tables, to the Royal Society of Göttingen, and published in their _Transactions_ (vol. ii.). In 1755 he submitted to the English government an amended body of MS. tables, which James Bradley compared with the Greenwich observations, and found to be sufficiently accurate to determine the moon's place to 75´´, and consequently the longitude at sea to about half a degree. An improved set was afterwards published in London (1770), as also the theory (_Theoria lunae juxta systema Newtonianum_, 1767) upon which the tables are based. His widow, by whom they were sent to England, received in consideration from the British government a grant of £3000. Appended to the London edition of the solar and lunar tables are two short tracts--the one on determining longitude by lunar distances, together with a description of the repeating circle (invented by Mayer in 1752), the other on a formula for atmospheric refraction, which applies a remarkably accurate correction for temperature.

Mayer left behind him a considerable quantity of manuscript, part of which was collected by G. C. Lichtenberg and published in one volume (_Opera inedita_, Göttingen, 1775). It contains an easy and accurate method for calculating eclipses; an essay on colour, in which three primary colours are recognized; a catalogue of 998 zodiacal stars; and a memoir, the earliest of any real value, on the proper motion of eighty stars, originally communicated to the Göttingen Royal Society in 1760. The manuscript residue includes papers on atmospheric refraction (dated 1755), on the motion of Mars as affected by the perturbations of Jupiter and the Earth (1756), and on terrestrial magnetism (1760 and 1762). In these last Mayer sought to explain the magnetic action of the earth by a modification of Euler's hypothesis, and made the first really definite attempt to establish a mathematical theory of magnetic action (C. Hansteen, _Magnetismus der Erde_, i. 283). E. Klinkerfuss published in 1881 photo-lithographic reproductions of Mayer's local charts and general map of the moon; and his star-catalogue was re-edited by F. Baily in 1830 (_Memoirs Roy. Astr. Soc._ iv. 391) and by G. F. J. A. Auvers in 1894.

AUTHORITIES.--A. G. Kästner, _Elogium Tobiae Mayeri_ (Göttingen,
1762); _Connaissance des temps, 1767_, p. 187 (J. Lalande);
_Monatliche Correspondenz_ viii. 257, ix. 45, 415, 487, xi. 462;
_Allg. Geographische Ephemeriden_ iii. 116, 1799 (portrait); _Berliner
Astr. Jahrbuch_, Suppl. Bd. iii. 209, 1797 (A. G. Kästner); J. B. J.
Delambre, _Hist. de l'Astr. au XVIII^e siècle_, p. 429; R. Grant,
_Hist. of Phys. Astr._ pp. 46, 488, 555; A. Berry, _Short Hist. of
Astr._ p. 282; J. S. Pütter, _Geschichte von der Universität zu
Göttingen_, i. 68; J. Gehler, _Physik. Wörterbuch neu bearbeitet_, vi.
746, 1039; Allg. _Deutsche Biographie_ (S. Günther). (A. M. C.)

MAYER, JULIUS ROBERT (1814-1878), German physicist, was born at Heilbronn on the 25th of November 1814, studied medicine at Tübingen, Munich and Paris, and after a journey to Java in 1840 as surgeon of a Dutch vessel obtained a medical post in his native town. He claims recognition as an independent a priori propounder of the "First Law of Thermodynamics," but more especially as having early and ably applied that law to the explanation of many remarkable phenomena, both cosmical and terrestrial. His first little paper on the subject, "_Bemerkungen über die Kräfte der unbelebten Natur_," appeared in 1842 in Liebig's _Annalen_, five years after the republication, in the same journal, of an extract from K. F. Mohr's paper on the nature of heat, and three years later he published _Die organische Bewegung in ihren Zusammenhange mit dem Stoffwechsel_.

It has been repeatedly claimed for Mayer that he calculated the value
of the dynamical equivalent of heat, indirectly, no doubt, but in a
manner altogether free from error, and with a result according almost
exactly with that obtained by J. P. Joule after years of patient
labour in direct experimenting. This claim on Mayer's behalf was first
shown to be baseless by W. Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and P. G. Tait in an
article on "Energy," published in _Good Words_ in 1862, which gave
rise to a long but lively discussion. A calm and judicial annihilation
of the claim is to be found in a brief article by Sir G. G. Stokes,
_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1871, p. 54. See also Maxwell's _Theory of Heat_,
chap. xiii. Mayer entirely ignored the grand fundamental principle
laid down by Sadi Carnot--that nothing can be concluded as to the
relation between heat and work from an experiment in which the working
substance is left at the end of an operation in a different physical
state from that in which it was at the commencement. Mayer has also
been styled the discoverer of the fact that heat consists in (the
energy of) motion, a matter settled at the very end of the 18th
century by Count Rumford and Sir H. Davy; but in the teeth of this
statement we have Mayer's own words, "We might much rather assume the
contrary--that in order to become heat motion must cease to be
motion."

Mayer's real merit consists in the fact that, having for himself made
out, on inadequate and even questionable grounds, the conservation of
energy, and having obtained (though by inaccurate reasoning) a
numerical result correct so far as his data permitted, he applied the
principle with great power and insight to the explanation of numerous
physical phenomena. His papers, which were republished in a single
volume with the title _Die Mechanik der Wärme_ (3rd ed., 1893), are of
unequal merit. But some, especially those on _Celestial Dynamics_ and
_Organic Motion_, are admirable examples of what really valuable work
may be effected by a man of high intellectual powers, in spite of
imperfect information and defective logic.

Different, and it would appear exaggerated, estimates of Mayer are
given in John Tyndall's papers in the _Phil. Mag._, 1863-1864 (whose
avowed object was "to raise a noble and a suffering man to the
position which his labours entitled him to occupy"), and in E.
Dühring's _Robert Mayer, der Galilei des neunzehnten Jahrhunderts_,
Chemnitz, 1880. Some of the simpler facts of the case are summarized
by Tait in the _Phil. Mag._, 1864, ii. 289.

MAYFLOWER, the vessel which carried from Southampton, England, to Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Pilgrims who established the first permanent colony in New England. It was of about 180 tons burden, and in company with the "Speedwell" sailed from Southampton on the 5th of August 1620, the two having on board 120 Pilgrims. After two trials the "Speedwell" was pronounced unseaworthy, and the "Mayflower" sailed alone from Plymouth, England, on the 6th of September with the 100 (or 102) passengers, some 41 of whom on the 11th of November (O.S.) signed the famous "Mayflower Compact" in Provincetown Harbor, and a small party of whom, including William Bradford, sent to choose a place for settlement, landed at what is now Plymouth, Massachusetts, on the 11th of December (21st N.S.), an event which is celebrated, as Forefathers' Day, on the 22nd of December. A "General Society of Mayflower Descendants" was organized in 1894 by lineal descendants of passengers of the "Mayflower" to "preserve their memory, their records, their history, and all facts relating to them, their ancestors and their posterity." Every lineal descendant, over eighteen years of age, of any passenger of the "Mayflower" is eligible to membership. Branch societies have since been organized in several of the states and in the District of Columbia, and a triennial congress is held in Plymouth.

See Azel Ames, _The May-Flower and Her Log_ (Boston, 1901); Blanche
McManus, _The Voyage of the Mayflower_ (New York, 1897); _The General
Society of Mayflower: Meetings, Officers and Members, arranged in
State Societies, Ancestors and their Descendants_ (New York, 1901).
Also the articles PLYMOUTH, MASS.; MASSACHUSETTS, §_History_; PILGRIM;
and PROVINCETOWN, MASS.

MAY-FLY. The Mayflies belong to the Ephemeridae, a remarkable family of winged insects, included by Linnaeus in his order Neuroptera, which derive their scientific name from [Greek: ephêmeros], in allusion to their very short lives. In some species it is possible that they have scarcely more than one day's existence, but others are far longer lived, though the extreme limit is probably rarely more than a week. The family has very sharply defined characters, which separate its members at once from all other neuropterous (or pseudo-neuropterous) groups.

These insects are universally aquatic in their preparatory states. The eggs are dropped into the water by the female in large masses, resembling, in some species, bunches of grapes in miniature. Probably several months elapse before the young larvae are excluded. The sub-aquatic condition lasts a considerable time: in _Cloeon_, a genus of small and delicate species, Sir J. Lubbock (Lord Avebury) proved it to extend over more than six months; but in larger and more robust genera (e.g. _Palingenia_) there appears reason to believe that the greater part of three years is occupied in preparatory conditions.

The larva is elongate and campodeiform. The head is rather large, and
is furnished at first with five simple eyes of nearly equal size; but
as it increases in size the homologues of the facetted eyes of the
imago become larger, whereas those equivalent to the ocelli remain
small. The antennae are long and thread-like, composed at first of few
joints, but the number of these latter apparently increases at each
moult. The mouth parts are well developed, consisting of an upper lip,
powerful mandibles, maxillae with three-jointed palpi, and a deeply
quadrifid labium or lower lip with three-jointed labial palpi.
Distinct and conspicuous maxillulae are associated with the tongue or
hypopharynx. There are three distinct and large thoracic segments,
whereof the prothorax is narrower than the others; the legs are much
shorter and stouter than in the winged insect, with monomerous tarsi
terminated by a single claw. The abdomen consists of ten segments, the
tenth furnished with long and slender multi-articulate tails, which
appear to be only two in number at first, but an intermediate one
gradually develops itself (though this latter is often lost in the
winged insect). Respiration is effected by means of external gills
placed along both sides of the dorsum of the abdomen and hinder
segments of the thorax. These vary in form: in some species they are
entire plates, in others they are cut up into numerous divisions, in
all cases traversed by numerous tracheal ramifications. According to
the researches of Lubbock and of E. Joly, the very young larvae have
no breathing organs, and respiration is effected through the skin.
Lubbock traced at least twenty moults in _Cloeon_; at about the tenth
rudiments of the wing-cases began to appear. These gradually become
larger, and when so the creature may be said to have entered its
"nymph" stage; but there is no condition analogous to the pupa-stage
of insects with complete metamorphoses.

There may be said to be three or four different modes of life in these
larvae: some are fossorial, and form tubes in the mud or clay in which
they live; others are found on or beneath stones; while others again
swim and crawl freely among water plants. It is probable that some are
carnivorous, either attacking other larvae or subsisting on more
minute forms of animal life; but others perhaps feed more exclusively
on vegetable matters of a low type, such as diatoms.

The most aberrant type of larva is that of the genus _Prosopistoma_,
which was originally described as an entomostracous crustacean on
account of the presence of a large carapace overlapping the greater
part of the body. The dorsal skeletal elements of the thorax and of
the anterior six abdominal segments unite with the wing-cases to form
a large respiratory chamber, containing five pairs of tracheal gills,
with lateral slits for the inflow and a posterior orifice for the
outflow of water. Species of this genus occur in Europe, Africa and
Madagascar.

When the aquatic insect has reached its full growth it emerges from the water or seeks its surface; the thorax splits down the back and the winged form appears. But this is not yet perfect, although it has all the form of a perfect insect and is capable of flight; it is what is variously termed a "pseud-imago," "sub-imago" or "pro-imago." Contrary to the habits of all other insects, there yet remains a pellicle that has to be shed, covering every part of the body. This final moult is effected soon after the insect's appearance in the winged form; the creature seeks a temporary resting-place, the pellicle splits down the back, and the now perfect insect comes forth, often differing very greatly in colours and markings from the condition in which it was only a few moments before. If the observer takes up a suitable position near water, his coat is often seen to be covered with the cast sub-imaginal skins of these insects, which had chosen him as a convenient object upon which to undergo their final change. In some few genera of very low type it appears probable that, at any rate in the female, this final change is never effected and that the creature dies a sub-imago.

The winged insect differs considerably in form from its sub-aquatic
condition. The head is smaller, often occupied almost entirely above
in the male by the very large eyes, which in some species are
curiously double in that sex, one portion being pillared, and forming
what is termed a "turban," the mouth parts are aborted, for the
creature is now incapable of taking nutriment either solid or fluid;
the antennae are mere short bristles, consisting of two rather large
basal joints and a multi-articulate thread. The prothorax is much
narrowed, whereas the other segments (especially the mesothorax) are
greatly enlarged; the legs long and slender, the anterior pair often
very much longer in the male than in the female; the tarsi four- or
five-jointed; but in some genera (e.g. _Oligoneuria_ and allies) the
legs are aborted, and the creatures are driven helplessly about by the
wind. The wings are carried erect: the anterior pair large, with
numerous longitudinal nervures, and usually abundant transverse
reticulation; the posterior pair very much smaller, often lanceolate,
and frequently wanting absolutely. The abdomen consists of ten
segments; at the end are either two or three long multi-articulate
tails; in the male the ninth joint bears forcipated appendages; in the
female the oviducts terminate at the junction of the seventh and
eighth ventral segments. The independent opening of the genital ducts
and the absence of an ectodermal vagina and ejaculatory duct are
remarkable archaic features of these insects, as has been pointed out
by J. A. Palmén. The sexual act takes place in the air, and is of very
short duration, but is apparently repeated several times, at any rate
in some cases.

_Ephemeridae_ are found all over the world, even up to high northern latitudes. F. J. Pictet, A. E. Eaton and others have given us valuable works or monographs on the family; but the subject still remains little understood, partly owing to the great difficulty of preserving such delicate insects; and it appears probable they can only be satisfactorily investigated as moist preparations. The number of described species is less than 200, spread over many genera.

From the earliest times attention has been drawn to the enormous abundance of species of the family in certain localities. Johann Anton Scopoli, writing in the 18th century, speaks of them as so abundant in one place in Carniola that in June twenty cartloads were carried away for manure! _Polymitarcys virgo_, which, though not found in England, occurs in many parts of Europe (and is common at Paris), emerges from the water soon after sunset, and continues for several hours in such myriads as to resemble snow showers, putting out lights, and causing inconvenience to man, and annoyance to horses by entering their nostrils. In other parts of the world they have been recorded in multitudes that obscured passers-by on the other side of the street. And similar records might be multiplied almost to any extent. In Britain, although they are often very abundant, we have scarcely anything analogous.

Fish, as is well known, devour them greedily, and enjoy a veritable feast during the short period in which any particular species appears. By anglers the common English species of _Ephemera_ (_vulgata_ and _danica_, but more especially the latter, which is more abundant) is known as the "may-fly," but the terms "green drake" and "bastard drake" are applied to conditions of the same species. Useful information on this point will be found in Ronalds's _Fly-Fisher's Entomology_, edited by Westwood.

Ephemeridae belong to a very ancient type of insects, and fossil imprints of allied forms occur even in the Devonian and Carboniferous formations.

There is much to be said in favour of the view entertained by some entomologists that the structural and developmental characteristics of may-flies are sufficiently peculiar to warrant the formation for them of a special order of insects, for which the names Agnatha, Plectoptera and Ephemeroptera have been proposed. (See HEXAPODA, NEUROPTERA.)

BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of especial value to students of these insects are A.
E. Eaton's monograph (_Trans. Linn. Soc._ (2) iii. 1883-1885) and A.
Vayssière's "Recherches sur l'organisation des larves" (_Ann. Sci.
Nat. Zool._ (6) xiii. 1882 (7) ix. 1890). J. A. Palmén's memoirs _Zur
Morphologie des Tracheensystems_ (Leipzig, 1877) and _Über paarige
Ausführungsgänge der Geschlechtsorgane bei Insekten_ (Helsingfors,
1884), contain important observations on may-flies. See also L. C.
Miall, _Nat. Hist. Aquatic Insects_ (London, 1895); J. G. Needham and
others (New York State Museum, Bull. 86, 1905). (R. M'L.; G. H. C.)

MAYHEM (for derivation see MAIMING), an old Anglo-French term of the law signifying an assault whereby the injured person is deprived of a member proper for his defence in fight, e.g. an arm, a leg, a fore tooth, &c. The loss of an ear, jaw tooth, &c., was not mayhem. The most ancient punishment in English law was retaliative--_membrum pro membro_, but ultimately at common law fine and imprisonment. Various statutes were passed aimed at the offence of maiming and disfiguring, which is now dealt with by section 18 of the Offences against the Person Act 1861. Mayhem may also be the ground of a civil action, which had this peculiarity that the court on sight of the wound might increase the damages awarded by the jury.

MAYHEW, HENRY (1812-1887), English author and journalist, son of a London solicitor, was born in 1812. He was sent to Westminster school, but ran away to sea. He sailed to India, and on his return studied law for a short time under his father. He began his journalistic career by founding, with Gilbert à Beckett, in 1831, a weekly paper, _Figaro in London_. This was followed in 1832 by a short-lived paper called _The Thief_; and he produced one or two successful farces. His brothers Horace (1816-1872) and Augustus Septimus (1826-1875) were also journalists, and with them Henry occasionally collaborated, notably with the younger in _The Greatest Plague of Life_ (1847) and in _Acting Charades_ (1850). In 1841 Henry Mayhew was one of the leading spirits in the foundation of _Punch_, of which he was for the first two years joint-editor with Mark Lemon. He afterwards wrote on all kinds of subjects, and published a number of volumes of no permanent reputation--humorous stories, travel and practical handbooks. He is credited with being the first to "write up" the poverty side of London life from a philanthropic point of view; with the collaboration of John Binny and others he published _London Labour and London Poor_ (1851; completed 1864) and other works on social and economic questions. He died in London, on the 25th of July 1887. Horace Mayhew was for some years sub-editor of _Punch_, and was the author of several humorous publications and plays. The books of Horace and Augustus Mayhew owe their survival chiefly to Cruikshank's illustrations.

MAYHEW, JONATHAN (1720-1766), American clergyman, was born at Martha's Vineyard on the 8th of October 1720, being fifth in descent from Thomas Mayhew (1592-1682), an early settler and the grantee (1641) of Martha's Vineyard. Thomas Mayhew (c. 1616-1657), the younger, his son John (d. 1689) and John's son, Experience (1673-1758), were active missionaries among the Indians of Martha's Vineyard and the vicinity. Jonathan, the son of Experience, graduated at Harvard in 1744. So liberal were his theological views that when he was to be ordained minister of the West Church in Boston in 1747 only two ministers attended the first council called for the ordination, and it was necessary to summon a second council. Mayhew's preaching made his church practically the first "Unitarian" Congregational church in New England, though it was never officially Unitarian. In 1763 he published _Observations on the Charter and Conduct of the Society for Propagating the Gospel in Foreign Parts_, an attack on the policy of the society in sending missionaries to New England contrary to its original purpose of "Maintaining Ministers of the Gospel" in places "wholly destitute and unprovided with means for the maintenance of ministers and for the public worship of God;" the _Observations_ marked him as a leader among those in New England who feared, as Mayhew said (1762), "that there is a scheme forming for sending a bishop into this part of the country, and that our Governor,[1] a true churchman, is deeply in the plot." To an American reply to the _Observations_, entitled _A Candid Examination_ (1763), Mayhew wrote a _Defense_; and after the publication of an _Answer_, anonymously published in London in 1764 and written by Thomas Seeker, archbishop of Canterbury, he wrote a _Second Defense_. He bitterly opposed the Stamp Act, and urged the necessity of colonial union (or "communion") to secure colonial liberties. He died on the 9th of July 1766. Mayhew was Dudleian lecturer at Harvard in 1765, and in 1749 had received the degree of D.D. from the University of Aberdeen.

See Alden Bradford, _Memoir of the Life and Writings of Rev. Jonathan
Mayhew_ (Boston, 1838), and "An Early Pulpit Champion of Colonial
Rights," chapter vi., in vol. i. of M. C. Tyler's _Literary History of
the American Revolution_ (2 vols., New York, 1897).

FOOTNOTE:

[1] Francis Bernard, whose project for a college at Northampton
seemed to Mayhew and others a move to strengthen Anglicanism.

MAYHEW, THOMAS, English 18th century cabinet-maker. Mayhew was the less distinguished partner of William Ince (q.v.). The chief source of information as to his work is supplied by his own drawings in the volume of designs, _The universal system of household furniture_, which he published in collaboration with his partner. The name of the firm appears to have been Mayhew and Ince, but on the title page of this book the names are reversed, perhaps as an indication that Ince was the more extensive contributor. In the main Mayhew's designs are heavy and clumsy, and often downright extravagant, but he had a certain lightness of accomplishment in his applications of the bizarre Chinese style. Of original talent he possessed little, yet it is certain that much of his Chinese work has been attributed to Chippendale. It is indeed often only by reference to books of design that the respective work of the English cabinet-makers of the second half of the 18th century can be correctly attributed.

MAYMYO, a hill sanatorium in India, in the Mandalay district of Upper Burma, 3500 ft. above the sea, with a station on the Mandalay-Lashio railway 422 m. from Rangoon. Pop. (1901), 6223. It consists of an undulating plateau, surrounded by hills, which are covered with thin oak forest and bracken. Though not entirely free from malaria, it has been chosen for the summer residence of the lieutenant-governor; and it is also the permanent headquarters of the lieutenant-general commanding the Burma division, and of other officials.

MAYNARD, FRANÇOIS DE (1582-1646), French poet, was born at Toulouse in 1582. His father was _conseiller_ in the parlement of the town, and François was also trained for the law, becoming eventually president of Aurillac. He became secretary to Margaret of Valois, wife of Henry IV., for whom his early poems are written. He was a disciple of Malherbe, who said that in the workmanship of his lines he excelled Racan, but lacked his rival's energy. In 1634 he accompanied the Cardinal de Noailles to Rome and spent about two years in Italy. On his return to France he made many unsuccessful efforts to obtain the favour of Richelieu, but was obliged to retire to Toulouse. He never ceased to lament his exile from Paris and his inability to be present at the meetings of the Academy, of which he was one of the earliest members. The best of his poems is in imitation of Horace, "Alcippe, reviens dans nos bois." He died at Toulouse on the 23rd of December 1646.

His works consist of odes, epigrams, songs and letters, and were
published in 1646 by Marin le Roy de Gomberville.

MAYNE, JASPER (1604-1672), English author, was baptized at Hatherleigh, Devonshire, on the 23rd of November 1604. He was educated at Westminster School and at Christ Church, Oxford, where he had a distinguished career. He was presented to two college livings in Oxfordshire, and was made D.D. in 1646. During the Commonwealth he was dispossessed, and became chaplain to the duke of Devonshire. At the Restoration he was made canon of Christ Church, archdeacon of Chichester and chaplain in ordinary to the king. He wrote a farcical domestic comedy, _The City Match_ (1639), which is reprinted in vol. xiii. of Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's _Old Plays_, and a fantastic tragi-comedy entitled _The Amorous War_ (printed 1648). After receiving ecclesiastical preferment he gave up poetry as unbefitting his profession. His other works comprise some occasional gems, a translation of Lucian's _Dialogues_ (printed 1664) and a number of sermons. He died on the 6th of December 1672 at Oxford.

MAYNOOTH, a small town of county Kildare, Ireland, on the Midland Great Western railway and the Royal Canal, 15 m. W. by N. of Dublin. Pop. (1901), 948. The Royal Catholic College of Maynooth, founded by an Act of the Irish parliament in 1795, is the chief seminary for the education of the Roman Catholic clergy of Ireland. The building is a fine Gothic structure by A. W. Pugin, erected by a parliamentary grant obtained in 1846. The chapel, with fine oak choir-stalls, mosaic pavements, marble altars and stained glass, and with adjoining cloisters, was dedicated in 1890. The average number of students is about 500--the number specified under the act of 1845--and the full course of instruction is eight years. Near the college stand the ruins of Maynooth Castle, probably built in 1176, but subsequently extended, and formerly the residence of the Fitzgerald family. It was besieged in the reigns of Henry VIII. and Edward VI., and during the Cromwellian Wars, when it was demolished. The beautiful mansion of Carton is about a mile from the town.

MAYO, RICHARD SOUTHWELL BOURKE, 6TH EARL OF (1822-1872), British statesman, son of Robert Bourke, the 5th earl (1797-1867), was born in Dublin on the 21st of February, 1822, and was educated at Trinity College, Dublin. After travelling in Russia he entered parliament, and sat successively for Kildare, Coleraine and Cockermouth. He was chief secretary for Ireland in three administrations, in 1852, 1858 and 1866, and was appointed viceroy of India in January 1869. He consolidated the frontiers of India and met Shere Ali, amir of Afghanistan, in durbar at Umballa in March 1869. His reorganization of the finances of the country put India on a paying basis; and he did much to promote irrigation, railways, forests and other useful public works. Visiting the convict settlement at Port Blair in the Andaman Islands, for the purpose of inspection, the viceroy was assassinated by a convict on the 8th of February 1872. His successor was his son, Dermot Robert Wyndham Bourke (b. 1851) who became 7th earl of Mayo.

See Sir W. W. Hunter, _Life of the Earl of Mayo_, (1876), and _The
Earl of Mayo_ in the Rulers of India Series (1891).

MAYO, a western county of Ireland, in the province of Connaught, bounded N. and W. by the Atlantic Ocean, N.E. by Sligo, E. by Roscommon, S.E. and S. by Galway. The area is 1,380,390 acres, or about 2157 sq. m., the county being the largest in Ireland after Cork and Galway. About two-thirds of the boundary of Mayo is formed by sea, and the coast is very much indented, and abounds in picturesque scenery. The principal inlets are Killary Harbour between Mayo and Galway; Clew Bay, in which are the harbours of Westport and Newport; Blacksod Bay and Broad Haven, which form the peninsula of the Mullet; and Killala Bay between Mayo and Sligo. The islands are very numerous, the principal being Inishturk, near Killary Harbour; Clare Island, at the mouth of Clew Bay, where there are many islets, all formed of drift; and Achill, the largest island off Ireland. The coast scenery is not surpassed by that of Donegal northward and Connemara southward, and there are several small coast-towns, among which may be named Killala on the north coast, Belmullet on the isthmus between Blacksod Bay and Broad Haven, Newport and Westport on Clew Bay, with the watering-place of Mallaranny. The majestic cliffs of the north coast, however, which reach an extreme height in Benwee Head (892 ft.), are difficult of access and rarely visited. In the eastern half of the county the surface is comparatively level, with occasional hills; the western half is mountainous. Mweelrea (2688 ft.) is included in a mountain range lying between Killary Harbour and Lough Mask. The next highest summits are Nephin (2646 ft.), to the west of Lough Conn, and Croagh Patrick (2510 ft.), to the south of Clew Bay. The river Moy flows northwards, forming part of the boundary of the county with Sligo, and falls into Killala Bay. The courses of the other streams are short, and except when swollen by rains their volume is small. The principal lakes are Lough Mask and Lough Corrib, on the borders of the county with Galway, and Loughs Conn in the east, Carrowmore in the north-west, Beltra in the west, and Carra adjoining Lough Mask. These loughs and the smaller loughs, with the streams generally, afford admirable sport with salmon, sea-trout and brown trout, and Ballina is a favourite centre.

_Geology._--The wild and barren west of this county, including the
great hills on Achill Island, is formed of "Dalradian" rocks, schists
and quartzites, highly folded and metamorphosed, with intrusions of
granite near Belmullet. At Blacksod Bay the granite has been quarried
as an ornamental stone. Nephin Beg, Nephin and Croagh Patrick are
typical quartzite summits, the last named belonging possibly to a
Silurian horizon but rising from a metamorphosed area on the south
side of Clew Bay. The schists and gneisses of the Ox Mountain axis
also enter the county north of Castlebar. The Muilrea and Ben Gorm
range, bounding the fine fjord of Killary Harbour, is formed of
terraced Silurian rocks, from Bala to Ludlow age. These beds, with
intercalated lavas, form the mountainous west shore of Lough Mask, the
east, like that of Lough Corrib, being formed of low Carboniferous
Limestone ground. Silurian rocks, with Old Red Sandstone over them,
come out at the west end of the Curlew range at Ballaghaderreen. Clew
Bay, with its islets capped by glacial drift, is a submerged part of a
synclinal of Carboniferous strata, and Old Red Sandstone comes out on
the north side of this, from near Achill to Lough Conn. The country
from Lough Conn northward to the sea is a lowland of Carboniferous
Limestone, with L. Carboniferous Sandstone against the Dalradian on
the west.

_Industries._--There are some very fertile regions in the level
portions of the county, but in the mountainous districts the soil is
poor, the holdings are subdivided beyond the possibility of affording
proper sustenance to their occupiers, and, except where fishing is
combined with agricultural operations, the circumstances of the
peasantry are among the most wretched of any district of Ireland. The
proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as 1 to 3½. Oats and
potatoes are the principal crops. Cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are
reared. Coarse linen and woollen cloths are manufactured to a small
extent. At Foxford woollen-mills are established at a nunnery, in
connexion with a scheme of technical instruction. Keel, Belmullet and
Ballycastle are the headquarters of sea and coast fishing districts,
and Ballina of a salmon-fishing district, and these fisheries are of
some value to the poor inhabitants. A branch of the Midland Great
Western railway enters the county from Athlone, in the south-east, and
runs north to Ballina and Killala on the coast, branches diverging
from Claremorris to Ballinrobe, and from Manulla to Westport and
Achill on the west coast. The Limerick and Sligo line of the Great
Southern and Western passes from south to north-east by way of
Claremorris.

_Population and Administration._--The population was 218,698 in 1891, and 199,166 in 1901. The decrease of population and the number of emigrants are slightly below the average of the Irish counties. Of the total population about 97% are rural, and about the same percentage are Roman Catholics. The chief towns are Ballina (pop. 4505), Westport (3892) and Castlebar (3585), the county town. Ballaghaderreen, Claremorris (Clare), Crossmolina and Swineford are lesser market towns; and Newport and Westport are small seaports on Clew Bay. The county includes nine baronies. Assizes are held at Castlebar, and quarter sessions at Ballina, Ballinrobe, Belmullet, Castlebar, Claremorris, Swineford and Westport. In the Irish parliament two members were returned for the county, and two for the borough of Castlebar, but at the union Castlebar was disfranchised. The division since 1885 is into north, south, east and west parliamentary divisions, each returning one member. The county is in the Protestant diocese of Tuam and the Roman Catholic dioceses of Taum, Achonry, Galway and Kilmacduagh, and Killala.