Chapter IV: Part 4

With the exception of articles that are in solution, the condition in which all foods should enter the digestive organs is in finely divided, yet distinct particles, and not in pasty or gummy masses. In this latter form "bolting" is encouraged, and mastication greatly discouraged.

THE MUSCULAR MOVEMENT OF DIGESTIVE ORGANS

[Sidenote: Peristaltic movement in alimentary canal]

Another point to be considered in digestion, and which may well be classed under the mechanics of digestion, is the muscular action or peristalsis of the alimentary tract. The best example is the swallowing action observed in the throat of a horse, or of a cow, when drinking. At each swallow, what appears to be a lump goes down the throat. This is a wave-like relaxation of the muscular walls of the esophagus, followed closely by a muscular contraction. This is the action that takes place in the intestinal tract, and that which Nature employs to move the contents along toward the final point of excretion.

[Sidenote: X-ray examination of peristalsis]

A very fascinating and scientific demonstration may be performed in the following manner: A cat may be given food mixed with some such substance as bismuth subnitrate, which is opaque to X-rays. Upon placing the animal under an X-ray during digestion, this peculiar peristaltic motion can be observed, one "swallow" passing rapidly after another down the alimentary tract.

This method of investigation has also shown that peristaltic action stops immediately in the case of fright, or anger, but is shown to proceed with regularity during sleep, contrary to the antiquated idea that digestion ceases when sleep begins.

[Sidenote: Milk for relieving constipation]

Peristaltic action in the lower parts of the alimentary canal is stimulated by taking food into the stomach. This explains the laxative action of such foods as fruits, or, sometimes, milk, taken at frequent intervals. When all other methods fail, constipation can oftentimes be relieved by taking a glass of milk every thirty minutes until four glasses have been consumed.

[Sidenote: Moisture and peristaltic action]

The longer food remains in the intestines, the more completely is the water absorbed from the residue. The object to be obtained in relieving constipation is to increase the moisture and the peristaltic action. Whatever will accomplish these things will relieve and perhaps cure intestinal congestion.

The subject of intestinal congestion and purgative medicines will be discussed at length in Lessons IX and XI, Vol. II, p. 375 and p. 436, respectively.

LESSON VI

CHEMISTRY OF METABOLISM

[Sidenote: Meaning of metabolism]

Metabolism is a word used to describe all processes that take place within the body from the time food is absorbed from the digestive organs until it is passed out of the body through some of the excretory channels. To be more accurate, it means the sum of both the anabolic, or constructive, and the catabolic, or destructive, processes that continually go on in the animal body.

[Sidenote: Distinction between anabolism and catabolism]

The process of metabolism is chiefly one of tearing apart, or of breaking down, complex chemical substances into simpler forms of matter. Formerly, all processes in animal life were considered to be those of tearing down, or of simplifying, chemical compounds; while plant life was considered to be chiefly the process of building up complex substances from simpler forms of matter. This distinction, however, is rather general with many exceptions. The two terms, "anabolism" and "catabolism" are sometimes used to distinguish between the processes of building up complex chemical compounds, and the oxidizing or tearing down of such compounds by effort or activity. Thus, the formation of muscular tissue from the digested proteid materials would be a process of anabolism, or construction, while the conversion of glucose in the muscle-cells, into carbon dioxid and water would be an example of catabolism, or destruction.

[Sidenote: Catabolism a process of oxidation]

The process of catabolism is, in general, one of oxidation; that is, oxygen is added to the chemical compounds taken from the food we eat, forming simpler substances which are excreted from the body as waste-products. Oxidized carbon in the body forms carbon dioxid; hydrogen is oxidized into the form of water, while nitrogen leaves the body in the more complex and incompletely oxidized substance known as urea, the chemical formula of which is COH₄N₂. A small portion of nitrogen leaves the body in the form of uric acid, C₅H₄N₄O₃.

[Sidenote: Why muscular work produces warmth]

The process of anabolism usually absorbs energy or heat from the surrounding material, while catabolism produces heat as a result of oxidation, as do ordinary fuels. This explains why muscular work warms the body.

We may study metabolism best by considering the two purposes food serves in the animal body, as follows:

FIRST--THE BUILDING OF ACTUAL BODY-TISSUE

Every atom composing the human body is constructed from food. The number and the proportion of the various chemical elements composing the body are well known, and were it not for the fact that the body is constantly casting out old cells and waste-products, the problem of nutrition would resolve itself into the simple process of supplying the body with the materials needed for growth.

[Sidenote: Formation of new tissue and destruction of old]

We could analyze an adult man and a new-born infant, and know that the infant, in order to reach maturity, would need to add to its body so many pounds of oxygen, carbon, sulfur, iron, etc. The problem of nutrition, however, is more complex. Not only must we consider the formation of new tissue, but we must also allow for the rebuilding of the old, and for all those processes of vital activity that involve the consumption of food material and the destruction of body-tissue. Nor can this allowance be accurately proportioned from the analysis of the body, because the various elements composing it do not change with equal rapidity. Thus, a man in a harvest field might pass through his blood in one day ten or fifteen pounds of oxygen (in the form of water and carbon dioxid), which would amount to ten per cent of the oxygen contained in his body, but if he should take calcium or fluorin to the extent of ten per cent of that contained in the body, death from poisoning would speedily ensue.

We can better understand the use of foods and the process they undergo in building the body by considering separately each class of food material from the time it is absorbed from the alimentary tract until it is excreted from the bowels, or from the lungs and the kidneys, or deposited in the body as bone, fat, or tissue.

SECOND--THE GENERATION OF HEAT AND ENERGY

The second function, or rather group of functions to be considered in the study of metabolism is the generation of heat and energy. If the reader will recall what was said in Lesson II, regarding the production of heat by the process of oxidation, he can more clearly comprehend the method by which heat is produced in the animal body. However, as heat is only one form or expression of energy, these two subjects--heat and energy--should be considered together.

[Sidenote: Heat and energy produced by oxidation]

The production of heat and energy in the body occurs almost entirely through the oxidation of food. All three classes of foods, namely proteids, carbohydrates, and fats can be oxidized to produce heat.

[Sidenote: Heat, a measure of energy]

Energy may be mechanical, chemical, electrical, or thermal. The conservation of energy, which is one of the fundamental laws of science, teaches that no energy can be lost, but can only be changed into other forms. This being true, and because all energy can be changed into heat, we use heat as a measure of energy.

[Sidenote: The "calory," a unit of heat]

The unit of heat, and consequently of energy, that is used by scientists is the "calory," which is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one thousand grams of water one degree on the centigrade thermometer scale. The energy in food is measured in calories, as will be learned from the explanation given in the lesson entitled "Vieno System of Food Measurement."

[Sidenote: Liberation of energy through metabolism]

The Vieno is merely a unit especially convenient in measuring the energy in food. In order that this energy may be drawn upon or liberated in the body, it is necessary for the food to pass through the process of metabolism, as heretofore described.

THE MEASURE OF HUMAN ENERGY

Food may be considered as a store-house of latent or potential energy.

[Sidenote: Intake and outgo of energy accurately determined]

Because of the law, the conservation of energy, which shows that no energy in the universe can be lost, it is possible to study, with great accuracy, the energy produced in, and given off by, the human body.

The method by which energy is measured in accurate scientific experiments is by means of a device called the respiratory calorimeter.

[Sidenote: How energy is measured]

[Sidenote: Energy yielded from one gram each of proteids, carbohydrates and fats]

This device is a small room, the walls of which are impervious to the transmission of both heat and air. In this room a man or an animal may be kept for a period of several days. The air breathed, the food eaten, the body-heat given off, the waste-products excreted, and the mechanical work done, are all measured with the greatest scientific accuracy. Many interesting results have been obtained from the investigations conducted with this wonderful scientific device. These experiments will not be given in detail in this work, but it might be remarked that experiments within the respiratory calorimeter have proved absolutely that the law of "the conservation of energy" works in the human body in the same manner as in the scientist's laboratory. Moreover, such experiments have confirmed the results of the oxidation of various foods in the laboratory, and have given us data from which to compute the stored energy in various food substances. It has thus been found that the amount of energy yielded to the body from one gram of proteid is 4.1 calories, and from one gram of carbohydrates 4.1 calories, while one gram of fat oxidized in the body yields 9.3 calories, which is more than twice that yielded by the proteids and the carbohydrates.

[Sidenote: Simple method of finding number of calories in any food]

Since it has been proved that the laws established in the laboratory also apply to the human body, it is not necessary to conduct expensive experiments upon the human subject in order to ascertain the amount of energy in some new food. The food may be analyzed chemically, and the energy computed according to the above figures, or a sample of the food may be burned with an oxidizing agent in the laboratory, and the heat measured. This latter process consists simply of oxidizing a gram of the food in a closed steel cylinder which is immersed in a known amount of water at a known temperature. The increase in the temperature of the water, multiplied by the weight of the water in grams, gives the number of calories contained in the substance tested.

METABOLISM OF CARBOHYDRATES

[Sidenote: Products formed in the body from digested carbohydrates]

The products produced by the digestion of carbohydrates are absorbed from the alimentary canal in the form of glucose and smaller quantities of levulose, and acetic, butyric and lactic acids. This glucose passes into the blood-vessels of the intestines. These blood-vessels unite to form the portal vein which supplies blood to the liver.

[Sidenote: Conversion of glucose into glycogen]

[Sidenote: Percentage of glucose in blood]

The chief function of the liver is to regulate the sugar contained in the blood. The liver converts this glucose into glycogen and also acts as a reservoir in which carbohydrates are stored in the form of glycogen until needed by the body. From this glycogen, glucose, or blood-sugar, is again produced when the consumption from the circulation is greater than the supply. Moreover, the liver possesses the power to produce glucose when no carbohydrates are eaten, as glucose can be produced from proteids. The percentage of glucose in the blood remains, or should remain about level, averaging .15 of 1 per cent. It may seem odd at first that the quantity of glucose in the blood remains so nearly level, when the quantity absorbed from the digestive organs, and that utilized in work, is so variable. The control of sugar in the blood is of very great importance in the body-metabolism or life-processes.

[Sidenote: Uses of glucose in the body]

The chief use of glucose, and of other forms of digested carbohydrates is in the formation of heat and energy. Glucose is oxidized chiefly in the muscles, producing carbon dioxid, water, and some lactic acid. Another function of glucose in the blood is to build up or form fat. Fat is a form of stored food which is not so readily available for use as are glycogen and glucose.

To use a homely figure of comparison, the energy-producing substances of the human body--glucose, glycogen, and fat--may be compared to the movement of merchandise in ordinary commerce. We could say that the glucose of the blood is as merchandise in the hands of the people, ready to be consumed. The glycogen of the liver would represent goods in the hands of the retailer, while the fat which is stored in larger quantities would be represented by merchandise in warehouses.

[Sidenote: Fat produced from carbohydrates]

Many interesting experiments have been conducted to prove that fat can be produced from carbohydrates. For instance, during a given period of time a pig was fed daily upon food containing half a pound of fat, and gained during the period nine pounds of fat. Such facts prove beyond all possibility of doubt that carbohydrates are converted into fat in the animal body.

METABOLISM OF FAT

Fat, when absorbed from the digestive tract, is in the form of fatty acids and glycerin, but immediately recombines into its original form after it has passed through the intestinal walls. This fat then enters the lacteals, which unite to form the thoracic duct. This duct or tube empties its contents into one of the large veins near the heart, whence it is distributed throughout the body. The fat of the blood is not regulated to a definite amount, like the sugar content. After a meal, very heavy in fat, the blood for a time is whitish in appearance, due to the numerous minute globules of fat taken into the circulation.

[Sidenote: Body-fat may be absorbed directly from food]

The fat of the body may be deposited directly from food-fat. This can be verified if an animal that has been starved until its own body has been greatly reduced, be fed upon some particular form of fat. The fat immediately deposited will then have the peculiar characteristics of the fat taken with the food. Thus a starved dog that has been given a heavy diet of tallow will deposit fat which will contain a large quantity of stearin and palmitin, and consequently have a higher melting point than normal dog fat. Ordinary animal fat, as has been shown in Lesson IV, is composed of various fats, each of which is a distinct chemical compound.

[Sidenote: Human fat not identical with food-fat]

The distinction between tallow, lard, olive-oil, and human fat, is chiefly due to the various portions of stearin, and olein, which composes the mixed fat. In normal cases, where fat is deposited at the usual rate, the body-fat is of uniform composition regardless of the food-fats. The reason human fat is not identical with food-fat is because the body has selective power in depositing these fats. Thus, if the sole source of fat which a man takes in his food is tallow, the fat-depositing cells in the human body would refuse a certain proportion of the stearin, depositing a larger percentage of olein, thus giving a softer or more liquid fat than that which was supplied in the food. The excess of stearin would be consumed in the production of heat and muscular energy.

[Sidenote: Why exercise reduces obesity]

When the consumption of glucose in the muscles becomes greater than the supply available in the blood, and from the glycogen of the liver, body-fat must be consumed. This explains why exercise reduces obesity.

The method of preventing, or of curing, obesity, is a double process:

1 The diet is selected and proportioned so as to reduce the
amount of ingested fat

2 Exercises are prescribed to consume the fat that has
accumulated

[Sidenote: Fat, the chief source of energy]

Of all food materials, fat is the least changed by digestion, and has no particular function in the life-processes except the storing of energy. More body-energy can be stored in a pound of body-fat than in any other form.

From these deductions it is evident that carbohydrates and fats perform very similar functions within the body, and can, in a large measure, replace each other as a source of heat and muscular energy.

METABOLISM OF PROTEIDS

[Sidenote: Importance of proteid or nitrogenous foods]

Owing to the fact that the tissues of the normal body are constructed chiefly from proteids, the metabolism of proteids or nitrogenous foods is of very great importance. When we realize the fact that muscle, blood, brain, nerves, cartilage, tendons, the various internal organs and the tougher material of the skeleton are only various forms of proteid material, and must contain their proportions of available or organic nitrogen, we can understand why nitrogenous foods form a distinct class that must be considered by themselves. Only the mineral deposits of the bones and the teeth, and the globules of fat that are deposited as a source of stored energy represent the nitrogen-free class of substances within the animal body.

THE USE OF PROTEIDS IN THE BODY

[Sidenote: Proteids as tissue-builders]

The first use Nature makes of proteids in the body is in the actual adding to or increasing of body-tissue. When an emaciated young man from the city goes to work on a farm and gains twenty pounds, the cells of his muscles have actually increased in size and number. This requires proteids, which can be obtained only from the nitrogenous material in food. The growth during early life is due to an actual increase in the size of all the organs of the body, and is merely an accumulation of proteid substance.

[Sidenote: Proteids form the nitrogenous part of the body]

The second use of proteids, and the one which, in matured life, is of more importance than those already referred to, is in the formation of the various nitrogenous products which are produced in connection with the different processes of the body and which are destroyed by the function of life. For example, the pepsin of the gastric juice is a nitrogenous substance which can be formed only from proteids. All digestive enzyms and other substances in the muscles, nerves, and in the various organs throughout the body are of a nitrogenous nature, and in their formation and use a certain amount of proteid material is consumed. When the digestive enzyms are formed from proteids, they consume more than their own weight of proteid material.

[Sidenote: Proteids replace worn-out cells]

The third form in which proteids may be consumed in the body is in the actual replacement of worn-out cells. The skin, the hair, and the mucous or lining membranes of the body-cavities are constantly being cast off on the external surface, new cells being formed underneath. When cells within the interior of the body have become injured, or have passed their usefulness, they are removed by the phagocytes or white blood-corpuscles, and must be replaced by other cells. In the case of bacterial infections, as tumors, boils, or contagious dis-eases, the bacteria feed upon the proteids of the blood. The white blood corpuscles are destroyed in the conflict, or effort to remove the intruders, and all these substances must be replaced by proteids from food.

THE ACTION AND THE COMPOSITION OF PROTEIDS

[Sidenote: Determination of income and outgo of nitrogen]

The gain or loss of body-proteids is indicated by the gain or loss of nitrogen. The income of nitrogen can be ascertained by analyzing the food. The outgo of nitrogen is computed by analyzing the products excreted from the body. If the body at the beginning and at the end of an experimental period is carefully watched, and the income and the outgo of nitrogen determined, we can compute the amount of gain in the body that is nitrogenous tissue. The other gain or loss of body-weight must be fat. These calculations cannot be made exact, owing to the amount of food and water that may be in the digestive organs at the time the various weighings are made.

[Sidenote: Why proteids are converted into peptones]

We have learned that in the digestive tract foods are converted into a soluble form of proteid known as peptone. The purpose of this conversion and the fine subdivisions of food produced by the various digestive juices are to reduce it to a form which will readily pass through the walls of the alimentary canal.

[Sidenote: Nitrogen and urea]

This is all that was known about proteid metabolism until within very recent years. The older scientists followed proteid digestion until the soluble peptone stage was reached, at which point all track was lost of the chemical changes and processes until the nitrogen was again excreted by the kidneys in the form of urea.

No scientist attempted to explain how the radically different proteids, such as egg-albumin, milk-casein, and wheat-glutin could appear in the body as blood-globulin, brain-lecithin, or as a myosis of the muscles.

The history of all these investigations cannot be fully explained here, but the discussion must be confined to that which actually takes place in the metabolism of proteids.

[Sidenote: Composition of proteids]

Proteids, as the student will remember, contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and sometimes small quantities of sulfur, phosphorus, or iron. These forms of proteids are now known to be chemically changed, by the digestive enzyms of the intestines, into simpler compounds containing these same elements.

[Sidenote: How proteids may form body-fats]

These simple nitrogenous substances pass into the liver. Just as the liver regulates the supply of blood sugar, so it regulates the supply of nitrogenous compounds in the blood. A certain amount of proteid-forming material is passed through the liver, and goes on to perform the various functions for which proteid is utilized in the body. All nitrogenous material in excess of the amount required by the body is secreted by the liver, and the nitrogen, together with a portion of the carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, is split off, forming urea, which is excreted by the kidneys. The remainder of the proteid substance, having been robbed of its nitrogen, is now essentially the same as carbohydrates, and goes to form glucose or blood-sugar, which may in turn form body-fats.

[Sidenote: Excess of proteids harmful]

In the light of this explanation, we can understand several things already mentioned. It has been stated that proteid is the most essential food material of the body because it alone contains the nitrogenous compounds from which the body-tissues, and the chemical enzyms which control all living processes, can be constructed. But we now see that as important as is a supply of proteid materials, any excess above the body-needs is immediately turned into glucose and urea. The glucose, though useful to the body, could be taken in a simpler and less expensive form, while the urea is a waste-product, harmful to life, and must be immediately excreted by the kidneys.

The nitrogen that is actually used in the body serves a different purpose from that which is split off from the excessive proteid taken as food. The food proteid is simply split by the chemical addition of water, much the same as starch and other carbohydrates are changed into glucose. The proteid that is really used by the body is oxidized, and is excreted by the kidneys chiefly in the form of creatinin and uric acid.

FOOD STANDARDS

[Sidenote: Incorrect interpretation of scientific data]

The term "dietary standard," as it has been applied in the past, means the quantity of the several nutrients that should be taken by the human body under its varying conditions. During the past twenty-five years, many investigations have been made in this country, Europe, and Japan, regarding the amount of foods consumed by various groups of people. All the facts gathered, which include more or less accurate records of the foods eaten by many thousands of individuals under all circumstances and conditions of life, are invaluable scientific data, but the interpretation that has been placed upon these interesting observations is one of the most conspicuous blunders made by the scientific world. Whether this criticism should fall wholly upon the men of science, who made these investigations, or upon the people who misinterpreted their meaning, is perhaps an open question; but the fact remains that from the general teachings in physiologies, and from popular bulletins published by the National Government, very incorrect ideas have been widely spread respecting the amount of food required to maintain life and health.

[Sidenote: Data of foods consumed daily by various people]

In order to give the reader some idea of the results obtained, when data is kept each twenty-four hours, of the amount of food consumed by various people on the conventional diets of civilization, I will select at random some of the results that have been recorded in these investigations, and will give in the Vieno System the approximate results. (See "Vieno System of Food Measurement," Vol. III, p. 639):

_Decigrams_
_Nitrogen_
_Vienos Consumed_

California Football Team 66 375
New England Rowing Club 40 255
Wealthy Class in American Cities 30 250
U. S. Army Rations. 37 200
Farmers, Eastern U. S. 34 160
Skilled laborers, U. S. Cities. 40 220
Alabama Negroes 34 145
Japanese Peasants 20 100

[Sidenote: Atwater's Government Standards]

From such records Government standards have been roughly approximated. The standards published by the Government, computed by Prof. Atwater, and commonly known as the Atwater standards, are as follows, expressed in vienos:

_Decigrams_
_Nitrogen_
_Vienos Consumed_

Man at hard muscular work 55 280
Man at hard work 41½ 240
Man at moderate work 34 200
Man at light muscular work 30½ 180
Man of sedentary habits 27 160

The Atwater standard for women is estimated to be four-fifths of the amount of food required for a man under similar conditions.

[Sidenote: Faulty standards due to inexperience]

It is generally recognized by investigators that these so-called standards are faulty, but by mutual agreement it seems that they have been accepted as the best that could be given. They lack accuracy because the men who prepared them lacked experience. Accuracy can come only from experience gained in the practical work; that is, in prescribing food, and combinations of food, for people under all the varying conditions of age, climate, and activity, and having these people report, at stated periods, the results of their dietetic prescriptions.

[Sidenote: Importance of correct dietary standards]

The average person eats what is set before him and asks no question about nitrogen and energy; nevertheless, advice so universally distributed as the Government Dietary Standards must exert much influence and have a considerable effect upon the habits of the people. Obviously the correctness of these standards is of vital importance to the health and the welfare of the nation.

[Sidenote: What a dietary standard should contain]

A dietary standard should tell the quantity and the proportion of food required to keep the human body in its very best working state. The great error committed by the man who planned the above-named standards has been that he assumed that an average of what a man _does_ eat is a criterion of what he _should_ eat in order to maintain the best mental and physical condition. A greater error could not have been made. _Our feeding instincts have been lost in the chaos of civilization._ Both our appetite and our food have been perverted. We have been trained to want or to crave intoxicants, stimulants and sedatives; we have learned to relish things that have no food value, and we have grown to dislike the best food that nature produces, and to accept many of her worst. Dietary standards, therefore, made up from the conventional eating habits of the people, merely endorse their errors and pass them on to future generations. The work, therefore, of the true scientist is to point out these errors and to prescribe a remedy.

[Sidenote: We are creatures of many (bad) habits]

Man is a creature of habits, and civilized man is a creature of a great many bad habits. The argument that the average amount of food eaten is the amount that should be eaten falls under suspicion at once when we consider the fact that by a similar line of reasoning we could prove that the use of tobacco is necessary because the majority of men use it, or that slender waists are necessary to good social standing because a few million women so consider them.

[Sidenote: American prosperity not due to rich diet]

The idea has been spread far and wide that the diet of the American working man, which is the richest in proteid of any race in the world, is responsible for the greater economic thrift of the American people. It is a matter of history that rich diet is always associated with prosperity, but the theory that the diet is the cause of the prosperity is an egregious error. Meat and rich foods gain a hold upon the appetite as do alcohol and narcotics. When nations or cities become wealthy, intemperance in eating is the usual result, but this in nowise indicates that a heavy consumption of food is the cause of a nation's greatness. History recites many instances of the rise and growth of a people to power and prosperity, together with the consequent adoption of excessive and luxurious habits of eating and drinking, only to be followed by physical deterioration.

[Sidenote: Excessive food a waste of energy]

It is not the quantity of food that is eaten, but the quantity of food that will give the greatest vitality and capacity to do things, that should determine our dietary standards. It is reasonable to assume that this amount would be the least quantity that would maintain activity without using up the food material stored in the body. All food taken in excess of the amount actually required must be cast from the body at a tremendous expense of energy. To do a given amount of work, or to add one pound of muscular tissue to the body, requires a definite quantity of energy-yielding or tissue-building material, but if more food is taken than the body can use, the excess ferments in the stomach and in the alimentary tract, producing poisonous products which are absorbed into the blood. These poisonous products cause a great number of human ills. The process of eliminating these poisons we call "dis-ease."

[Sidenote: Former dietary standards cut in half]

The assumption that the correct amount of food that should be taken by the body is the least quantity that will maintain normal body-functions, has been amply proved by recent scientific investigations to be correct. Many years of experience on the part of the writer have shown that to make food remedial and curative, the old dietary standards must be, roughly speaking, cut in half.

TRUE FOOD REQUIREMENTS

[Sidenote: Quantity of food required for various occupations]

The degree of energy required by the body depends very largely upon the amount of work or activity it undergoes, hence the amount of food required to supply this activity cannot be accurately prescribed when the degree of required energy is unknown. However, there is a certain amount of work performed by the beating of the heart and in the maintenance of body-heat which can be fairly well estimated. The quantity of energy-yielding food required, each twenty-four hours, for the maintenance of the activities of life is about one vieno for every ten pounds of body-weight. For a man at steady muscular work, such as a carpenter or a farmer, this quantity should be about doubled. The quantity required by a man of sedentary habits, but who takes regular exercise for an hour or two each day, is about half way between these two amounts. Thus, a man weighing one hundred forty pounds would require one and one-half vienos for each ten pounds, or twenty-one vienos of food each day. These weights apply only to people of normal flesh, who desire neither to gain nor to lose.

The fact that either fat or carbohydrates can be used as a source of muscular energy may be taken advantage of in prescribing dietaries for persons whose digestive organs are so impaired that they cannot digest a normal quantity of either of these nutrients, but who could digest a small quantity of either. This does not mean, however, that the proportion of fat and of carbohydrates in the food can be disregarded. The digestive processes involved are radically different, hence a suitable proportion of carbohydrates and fats should always be maintained.

[Sidenote: Proportion of fat required under ordinary conditions]

With a view to guiding in a general way those who wish to adopt a standard of diet for ordinary use, and who consult tables in which fats and carbohydrates are listed separately, I might state that the fat should form about one-eighth the total source of energy, or one-sixteenth the weight of all water-free (solid) food eaten.

[Sidenote: Fallacy of lean meat producing muscle]

Until forty years ago the idea was held by scientists, and is still a matter of popular belief, that nitrogenous foods are the sole source of all muscular energy. This is quite a natural assumption. Lean meat is muscle. If a man eats the muscle of another animal, by the primitive process of reasoning, he should acquire muscle. This belief among people who are not acquainted with physiological chemistry is almost universal, while the facts are, the man who eats the muscle of an ox for the purpose of adding strength to his own biceps is acting no more wisely than the college boy who takes calf's brain for breakfast the day before examination.

[Sidenote: Nitrogenous foods not a source of muscular energy]

The fact that nitrogenous foods are not a source of muscular energy has been repeatedly proved by experiments on man and animals too numerous to relate here. The sugar and the fat in the blood are taken into the muscle-cells, and there unite with the oxygen brought from the lungs, producing energy. When the body is fed upon proteids lacking a sufficient quantity of other food elements, a portion of this proteid is converted into glucose or sugar, which maintains body-heat and energy. This is what happens in the case of carnivorous animals that have excretory organs especially adapted to the converting and the eliminating of useless or surplus products.

[Sidenote: Small amount of proteid matter required by animals]

It has been proved that dogs are capable of living for an indefinite period of time upon a diet containing only a small proportion of proteid matter, while maintaining health and increasing in weight. Thus we see that even carnivorous animals require, for the maintenance of the body-functions, a comparatively small amount of nitrogenous material. Their strength and heat-forming elements can be secured from carbohydrates and fats, probably to their actual benefit. It is interesting to note, however, that dogs as a general rule cannot live and thrive on a vegetable diet; a certain amount of animal proteids seems indispensable. The same principle applies to other carnivorous animals. Even ducks and chickens need a small percentage of animal proteids in order to properly thrive and develop.

[Sidenote: Conditions governing quantity of nitrogen]

In order to maintain good health, every person requires a certain amount of nitrogen, the quantity being governed by activity, exposure, age, and temperature of environment. The growing youth needs nitrogen to supply material for the tissue growth of his body; an emaciated person who wishes to increase weight, a person recovering from illness, or a man who is constantly performing strenuous work, would all require a generous quantity of nitrogenous food.

[Sidenote: Lowest daily amount of nitrogen required]

The lowest possible nitrogen requirement for one of normal weight has been determined by various methods to be from 40 to 60 decigrams per day. This quantity, however, is the actual amount that is used in the body-processes, and should be increased according to activity or exposure to the open air.

[Sidenote: Amount of nitrogen required by the body]

From the results of numerous experiments under normal activity, the quantity of nitrogenous food estimated to maintain the best bodily condition is about three-fourths of a decigram for each pound of body-weight; less than one-half of a decigram per pound of body-weight would cause nitrogen starvation, while more than one decigram per pound, except in the cases just mentioned, would result only in thrusting needless work upon the liver and the kidneys, whose duties are to guard the body against the results of incorrect eating. There are certain conditions under which this amount of nitrogen may be exceeded in order to gain definite and specific purposes, but in such cases the nature of the proteid is of great importance. In certain occupations, for instance sedative labor, the most soluble proteids, such as egg albumin (white of eggs), milk, and green peas and beans should be selected; while in cases of heavy manual labor, the heavier proteids, such as nuts, cheese, dried legumes, fish and fowl should be selected.

LESSON VII

FOODS OF ANIMAL ORIGIN

An intelligent discussion of this lesson leads us directly into a subject commonly known as "vegetarianism." The question whether man should eat the flesh of animals is especially fascinating for those who give attention to the food they eat. There are many standpoints, however, from which the subject of vegetarianism may be discussed.

[Sidenote: Influence of religion on man's food]

In the first place, nearly all religious teachings that have wielded such a powerful influence over the civilization and destiny of men, have laid some restrictions upon the flesh-eating habit. Some religions require man to refrain from all animal products, while others interdict only the flesh of certain animals. Coupled with man's world-wide search for food, these religious teachings have played a conspicuous part in the question of human nutrition.

[Sidenote: Vegetarianism from animal's standpoint]

The second phase of the question that merits attention is the moral side, or vegetarianism from the animal's standpoint; in other words, the cruelty involved in the slaughter of our dumb friends and helpers, for whose presence here we are largely responsible. That the practises and customs which train humanity in cruelty toward animal life, are to be discouraged, cannot well be disputed, but this phase of vegetarianism is one which is somewhat without the realm of applied food chemistry, hence is mentioned only as a factor in the general discussion.

[Sidenote: Vegetarianism from standpoint of scientific living]

I will now consider vegetarianism from the standpoint of true food science, or the welfare of the physical man. It will be observed that in the lesson entitled "Evolution of Man," one of the first considerations taken up is the scientific discussion of man's natural adaptation to the use of flesh foods. By natural adaptation I mean Nature's evolutionary plan of fitting the physiological organism to the food man is able to procure. The organism of man will, to a certain extent, adapt itself to a given diet within the brief period of one generation, just as, in the long ages of evolution, the digestive organs of any species of animal become adapted to such diet as may be procured. Thus it is of especial importance for us to know the diet of primitive man at a time before his intellectual resourcefulness made it possible for him to gather his bill of fare from the four corners of the earth.

[Sidenote: Primitive diet of man]

The diet of our related anthropoid apes, of every primitive savage tribe, and of our ancestors, indications of which have been found in fossils and caves--all three throw light upon the subject. The consensus of these various studies indicates that the original or natural diet of man was one drawn chiefly from the vegetable kingdom, but not entirely so. Fruits, nuts, green vegetables, edible foliage, tubers or roots were all included in man's primitive diet. The foods of animal origin were varied, and consisted of such articles as birds, eggs, shell-fish, many insects, and other forms of lower animal life, of which our modern habit of eating frogs' legs, eels, escargots (snails), etc., is merely an inheritance.

[Sidenote: Why flesh-eating is unnecessary]

Since the digestive, the assimilative, and the excretory organs of man have been constructed from, and adapted to, the use of vegetables, it is obvious that the flesh of animals is unnecessary, especially in view of the fact that there is nothing in flesh that cannot be secured from the vegetable world in its best and purest form. Man's primitive diet does not prove that he is by nature a vegetarian, as is the cow, and therefore entirely unsuited to digest any material of animal origin. The anatomy of man's teeth and of his digestive organs, however, indicates that he is by nature a vegetarian, and that his digestive organs are prepared to dissolve and to assimilate a diet that is somewhat more bulky than that of carnivorous animals, but, on the other hand, less bulky than the diet of animals which subsist wholly upon succulent plants, as do the purely herbivorous species.

[Sidenote: Food problem of the Aryan races]

Man is by nature a tropical animal, and so long as his habitat was confined to that section, he could live from the prodigality of Nature, but when he began his early migration northward, his food was the greatest problem he had to solve. He was often forced to choose between eating the flesh of animals and death from starvation. It was this fierce struggle for food, not the character of his food, which exercised both the physical and the mental powers, and caused the Aryan or northern races to think, and therefore to develop into people so much superior to their tropical brothers.

[Sidenote: Forced to think and to work, man became civilized]

The defenders of flesh food often point to the fact that flesh-eating people have achieved the highest civilization. Man's superior achievement in northern countries can no more be credited to flesh-eating than to the wearing of fur caps or leather boots. To meet the exigencies of his environment, he was forced to think and to work, and thinking and working developed the brain and laid the foundation for his present stage of civilization.

Another reason for the early habit of flesh-eating is found in the fact that in order to sustain the required amount of body-heat in cold climates, a liberal consumption of fat was necessary. Vegetable fats not being available, his only source of supply was from the body-fat of animals.

[Sidenote: Use of meat unscientific]

Aside from fat, protein is the only nutritive element meat contains. With the variety of vegetable and butter-fats, and vegetable proteids available in this age, supplemented by our knowledge of chemistry as a guide in their use, the consumption of flesh as an article of human food is entirely unscientific and wholly without reason.

[Sidenote: Life MAY BE maintained by meat]

A diet composed exclusively of flesh contains fat and nitrogenous compounds only. These two classes of foods can, of course, maintain life, as was explained in our sixth lesson, as proteid is capable of forming blood, sugar, and body-fat. The fact, however, that the proteid or the fat of meat can be made to fill, in the physiological economy, the place naturally supplied by the carbohydrate materials of vegetable food, does not prove that such a diet is without its harmful effects. The living body has many wonderful provisions whereby life is maintained under unfavorable influences. Just as a blind person develops a sense of touch which in a way acts as a substitute for sight, so the ability of the body to convert either proteids or fats into sugar, may be utilized in cases of emergency, but the using of this emergency or substitute function of the body cannot develop and energize the human machine as well or as perfectly as can a naturally balanced diet. The fact that some people exist largely upon a meat diet does not prove that this is without its handicapping and evil influences, any more than the use of alcohol and tobacco proves that man is benefited by indulging in intoxicants and sedative poisons.

[Sidenote: Flesh-eating produces appetite for stimulants]

That flesh-eating is largely responsible for the universal desire among civilized people for some form of stimulant has ceased to be questioned by those who have been placed in a position to make experiments--the source from which all real knowledge is obtained. These conclusions were first forced upon the writer by noticing the gradual decline of appetite for coffee and tobacco in his own case, when he began to subsist upon natural foods. With this hint no opportunity was lost, among the thousands of patients he treated, to observe the effects and get at the truth. If only one or two people had completely lost their appetite for all forms of stimulation, after following a natural food regimen, it might have revealed only an idiosyncrasy. When a dozen undergo the same treatment, with the same results, it leaves but little doubt that the theory may be true, but when many hundreds give the same testimony, through a period of a dozen years' practise, it reveals a truth that cannot be consistently doubted. Such experience proves beyond doubt that flesh-eating supports and perpetuates the habit of taking distilled and ardent liquors, tobacco, tea, and coffee, and the numerous drugs which, altogether, have done the human race more harm; dethroned more intelligence; sapped from the human economy more vitality; ruined more homes; made more widows and orphans; changed more natural virtue into vice, and caused more sorrow and tears, more failure and fears, than all other agencies of destruction combined.

Since fats and proteids are the only nutrients supplied by flesh foods, we may well ask, "Is meat the best source from which these elements may be secured?"

[Sidenote: Flesh food contains unexcreted waste matter]

The proteid substance of meat includes all the edible portion of a carcass except the fat. The proteid of meat is more easily and more rapidly digested than the proteid of vegetables. Notwithstanding this fact, there are serious objections to the use of meat as a source of nitrogen. All flesh food contains the unexcreted waste matter of the slaughtered animal. When the process of metabolism that is continually going on during life is suddenly arrested by death, the effete and decomposing cells, and the partly oxidized waste-products which are still held in the muscle-tissues, are left in the flesh of the dead animal, hence these poisons must be consumed by the flesh-eater in order to secure the meat proteids and fats.

[Sidenote: Body-poisons generated by fear]

It is now a matter of common knowledge among scientists, and among the more advanced school of pathologists, that the usual conditions under which animals are slain change the chemical constituents of the blood-serum, charging it with a form of poison that to the chemist is as yet unknown, but the presence and the potency of which is attested by its effect.

The method of slaughtering animals in the great abattoirs is especially conducive to the generation of these poisons. The condemned herd is driven to the place of slaughter and killed, one at a time, in plain view of their fellows. These animals are very intelligent and possess remarkable senses of danger. They are as conscious of approaching death as the creature who takes their lives, hence the amount of poisons generated in their bodies is measured by the time they are kept in waiting. Most animals when killed labor under these conditions, and that these mental states render their flesh entirely unfit for human nutrition can no longer be questioned.

[Sidenote: Mother's milk poisoned by fear or anger]

We find fragments of evidence supporting this theory in the fact that Nature's perfect food--the milk of a nursing animal, or of a nursing mother--can be changed in an instant into a poison by sudden fright, anger, or fear.

[Sidenote: Meat a source of autointoxication]

Thus we see that in eating meat, we are eating animal waste-material similar to that thrown off through our own body-cells. The waste material in meat being soluble, passes through the walls of our digestive organs, and enters the circulation, where it is added to similar poisons which are constantly being produced within our own bodies. It is the universal law of animal cell-growth that the waste matter of the cell acts as its own poison. When bacteria, growing in a solution of sugar, have excreted alcohol until it forms a certain percentage of the total contents, their activity ceases--they die from poisons thrown off from their own bodies. This is the reason that liquids containing a high percentage of alcohol must be distilled, and cannot be brewed. It is obvious, therefore, that in the consumption of flesh, we are adding to our bodies the poisons that are residual in the body of other animals, and are, therefore, approaching the conditions under which bacteria kill themselves by autointoxication or self-poisoning.

Plants utilize the carbon dioxid excreted by the animal, and the excrement of animals is in turn used to fertilize our fields. Although one form of life may utilize what is excreted by another form of life, the living thing that cannot get away from the excreted matter of its own activity is poisoned thereby.

[Sidenote: Flesh food burdens the excretory organs]

The flesh of animals whose physiological processes are almost identical with our own, containing as it does waste-products that have not yet been excreted, must, when taken into the human body, add extra burdens to our excretory organs which are usually burdened with all they can do. Carnivorous animals are especially provided with an excretory system capable of taking care of such matter, but it is unreasonable to expect the excretory organs of man, which are not adapted to such a purpose, to throw off, in addition to the regular body-poisons, similar decomposing products of other animals.

[Sidenote: Flesh-eating will disappear as science advances]

It is true that flesh will support, and has supported what is commonly regarded as a high form of anthropoid life (man), but not having the natural standard from which to measure, we do not know how much better the opposite course would have been, or just how much longer one would live under a perfectly natural regimen. The effects of flesh-eating have not been definitely known until recent years, but is now acknowledged by the most advanced authorities to be one of the greatest errors of civilized people, and will, within a few years, disappear from the catalog of human habits, when the great masses of people are made familiar with the chemistry of food, and how to secure vegetable instead of animal proteids and fats.

MEAT

Meat, in the sense the word is here used, includes beef, mutton, pork, and an occasional allowance of wild game. Chemically considered, meat may be divided into two classes, namely (1) flesh or lean meat, and (2) animal fats. The former will be first considered.

1 FLESH OR LEAN MEAT

[Sidenote: Composition of lean meat]

Lean meat is composed of the muscles of the animal. Approximately it is 70 per cent water, 20 per cent protein, and 10 per cent fat. The protein is composed of connective tissue, which is a tough, fibrous substance that forms tendons, and holds the muscle-cells in place. Chemically, connective tissue is formed of albuminoids, which were discussed in Lesson IV. These substances are somewhat difficult to digest, and are not of very great importance in the human body, as they cannot take the place of true proteid in tissue-formation.

The percentage of connective tissue in flesh depends upon the cut of the meat. As every housewife knows, the cheapest cuts of meat contain a larger amount of this material.

The gelatin of commerce is a manufactured product derived from the connective tissue of animals.

Other forms of protein are globulin and myosin, which form the actual muscle-substance. These elements form perhaps three-fourths of the entire proteid of the animal, and are the most valuable substances of flesh food. A very small portion of meat proteids is formed by the free albumins of the blood, which are mechanically retained in the muscle-cells, the purpose of which is the nourishment of the animal, and therefore are not unwholesome as food.

[Sidenote: Meat extractives and their composition]