Chapter XVI: Part 16

[206] See the profound essay on the Astronomy of the Indians in M. Delambre’s Histoire de l’Astronomie ancienne, vol. i. p. 400-556.

[207] See the Memoir of Sir William Jones, on the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiac, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 289 of the 8vo edition.

[208] The following are Mr Wilfort’s own words, in his memoir on the Testimonies of Ancient Hindoo Books, respecting Egypt and the Nile, Calcutta Memoirs, vol. iii. p. 433 of the 8vo edition:

--“Having desired my pundit, who is a learned astronomer, to point out in the heavens the constellation of Antarmada, he directed me immediately to Andromeda, which I had taken care not to shew him as a constellation that I knew. He afterwards brought me a very rare and curious book, in Sanscrit, in which there was a particular chapter on the Upanacshatras, or extra-zodiacal constellations, with figures of Capeya, of Casyape, seated, and holding a lotus-flower in her hand; of Antarmada, chained, with the fish near her; and of Parasica, holding the head of a monster, which he had killed, dropping blood, and having snakes for hair.”

Who does not recognise in this, Perseus, Cepheus, and Cassiope? But we must not forget that this pundit of Mr Wilfort’s has become much suspected.

[209] Chou-king, p. 6 and 7.

[210] Idem, p. 66. _et seq._

[211] See, in the Connaissance des Temps of 1809, p. 382, and in M. Delambre’s Histoire de l’Astronomie ancienne, vol. i. p. 391, the extract of a memoir by P. Gaubil, on the Observations of the Chinese.

[212] Thus at Dendera, the ancient Tentyris, a city below Thebes, in the portico of the great temple, the entrance of which faces the north, there are seen on the ceiling the signs of the zodiac marching in two bands, one of which extends along the eastern side, and the other along the opposite one. Each of the bands is embraced by the figure of a woman of the same length, the feet of which are toward the entrance, the head and arms toward the bottom of the portico; the feet are consequently to the north, and the heads to the south. (Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. vol. ix. pl. 20.)

The Lion is at the head of the band which is on the western side; his direction is toward the north, or toward the feet of the figure of the woman, and his feet are toward the eastern wall. The Virgin, the Balance, the Scorpion, the Saggittary and the Capricorn, follow marching in the same line. The latter is placed toward the bottom of the portico, and near the hands and head of the large figure of the woman. The signs of the eastern band commence at the extremity where those of the other band terminate, and are consequently directed toward the bottom of the portico, or toward the arms of the large figure. They have the feet toward the lateral wall of their own side, and the heads in the contrary direction to those of the opposite band. The Aquarius marches first, and is followed by the Fishes, the Ram, the Bull, and the Twins. The last of the series, which is the Crab, or rather the Scarabæus, (for this insect is substituted for the crab in the zodiacs of Egypt), is thrown to a side upon the legs of the large figure. In the place which it should have occupied is a globe resting upon the summit of a pyramid, composed of small triangles, which represent a sort of rays, and before the base of which is a large head of a woman with two small horns. A second scarabæus is placed awry and cross-wise upon the first band, in the angle which the feet of the large figure form with the body, and before the space in which the Lion marches, which is a little behind. At the other end of this same band, the Capricorn is very near the bottom, or at the arms of the large figure; and, upon the left band, the Aquarius is separated to some distance from it. The Capricorn, however, is not repeated like the Crab. The division of this zodiac, from the entrance, is therefore made between the Lion and the Cancer; or if it be thought that the repetition of the Scarabæus marks a division of the sign, it takes place in the Crab itself; but that of the lower end is made between the Capricorn and Aquarius.

In one of the inner halls of the same temple, there was a circular planisphere inscribed in a square, the same that has been brought to Paris by M. Lelorrain, and which is to be seen at the Royal Library. In it, also, the signs of the zodiac are observed among many other figures which appear to represent constellations. (Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. vol. iv. pl. 21.) The Lion corresponds to one of the diagonals of the square; the Virgin, which follows, corresponds to a perpendicular line which is directed toward the east; the other signs march in the usual order, till we come to the Crab, which, in place of completing the chain, by corresponding to the level of the Lion, is placed above it, nearer the centre of the circle, in such a manner that the signs are upon a somewhat spiral line. This Crab, or rather Scarabæus, marches in a contrary direction to the other signs. The Twins correspond to the north, the Sagittary to the south, and the Fishes to the east, but not very exactly. At the eastern side of this planisphere is a large figure of a woman, with the head directed toward the south, and the feet toward the north, like that of the portico. Some doubt might therefore also be raised regarding the point at which the series of the signs ought to commence. According as one of the perpendiculars or one of the diagonals is taken, or the place where one part of the series passes over the other part, the division will be judged to be at the Lion, or between the Lion and the Crab; or lastly at the Twins.

At Esne, the ancient Latopolis, a city placed above Thebes, there are zodiacs on the ceilings of two different temples. That of the great temple, the entrance of which faces the east, is upon two bands, which are contiguous and parallel to one another, along the south side of the ceiling. The female figures which embrace them are not placed in the direction of their length, but in that of their breadth, so that one lies across near the entrance, or to the east, the head and arms toward the north, and the feet toward the lateral wall, or toward the south, and the other is in the bottom of the portico, equally across, and looking toward the first. The band nearest the axis of the portico, or the north, presents first, on the side of the entrance, or east, and toward the head of the female figure, the Lion, placed a little behind, and marching toward the bottom, the feet directed toward the lateral wall. Behind the Lion, at the commencement of the band, are two smaller Lions. Before it is the Scarabæus, and then the Twins marching in the same direction; then the Bull and the Ram, and the Fishes close to each other, placed across upon the middle of the band, the Bull having its head toward the lateral wall, the ram toward the axis. The Aquarius is more distant, and resumes the same direction toward the bottom as the first signs. On the band nearest the lateral wall and the north, we see first, but at a considerable distance from the wall of the bottom, or the west, the Capricorn, which marches in a contrary direction to the Aquarius, and is directed toward the east, or the entrance of the portico, having the feet turned toward the lateral wall. Close upon it is the Sagittarius, which thus corresponds with the Fishes and Ram. It also marches toward the entrance; but its feet are turned toward the axis, and in a contrary direction to those of the Capricorn. At a certain distance before, and placed near one another, are the Scorpion and a woman holding the Balance. Lastly, a little before, but still at a considerable distance from the anterior or eastern extremity, is the Virgin which is preceded by a sphinx. The Virgin and the woman holding the Balance, have also their feet toward the wall, so that the Sagittary is the only one which is placed with its head contrary to the other signs.

To the north of Esne is a small isolated temple, equally facing the east, and having a zodiac also in its portico (Great Work on Egypt, Antiquities, vol. i. Plate 87.) This zodiac is upon two lateral and separated bands. That which extends along the south side commences with the Lion, which marches toward the bottom, or toward the west, the feet turned toward the wall, or the south. It is preceded by the Scarabæus, and the latter by the Gemini, marching in the same direction. The Bull, on the contrary, faces them, having a direction toward the east. But the Ram and the Fishes resume the direction toward the bottom, or toward the west. On the band of the north side, the Aquarius is near the bottom, or the west, marching towards the entrance or east, the feet turned toward the wall, preceded by the Capricorn and Sagittary, both marching in the same direction. The other signs are lost; but it is clear that the Virgin must have marched at the head of this band, on the side next the entrance. Among the accessory figures of this small zodiac, must be remarked two winged Rams placed across, the one between the Bull and the Twins, the other between the Scorpion and Sagittary, and each nearly in the middle of its band; the second, however, a little more advanced toward the entrance.

It was at first thought, that, in the great zodiac of Esne, the division of the entrance took place between the Virgin and the Lion, and that of the bottom between the Fishes and the Aquarius. But Mr Hamilton, and MM. de Jollois and Villiers, have supposed, that, in the Sphinx, which precedes the Virgin, they found a repetition of the Lion, analogous to that of the Cancer in the great zodiac of Dendera; so that, according to them, the division would be at the Lion. In fact, without this explanation, there would only be five signs on one side, while there would be seven on the other.

With regard to the small zodiac of the north of Esne, it is not known whether some emblem analogous to this Sphinx may have occurred in it, because this part is destroyed.--See British Review, February 1817, p. 136; and Critical Letter on Zodiacomania, p. 33.

[213] Description of the Pyramids of Ghiza, by M. Grobert, p. 117.

[214] Connaissance des Temps for the year xiv.

[215] Observations upon the zodiac of Dendera, in the Revue Philosophique et Litteraire, 1806, p. 257, _et seq._

[216] Ægyptiaca, p. 212.

[217] See in the British Review of February 1817, p. 13. _et seq._ the article No. vi. upon the origin and antiquity of the zodiac. It is translated at the end of Swartz’s Critical Letter upon the Zodiacomania.

[218] See M. Nouet’s Memoir in Volney’s New Inquiries regarding Ancient History, vol. iii. p. 328-336.

[219] Eratosthenes has made but one constellation of the Scorpion and Talons. He indicates the commencement of the latter without its termination; and as he gives 1823 years to Scorpio, properly so called, there remain 1089 for the other, on the supposition that there is not an empty space between these two constellations.

[220] See the great work on Egypt. Antiq. Mem. vol. i. p. 486.

[221] Rhode. Essay upon the Age of the Zodiac, and the Origin of the Constellations, in German. Breslau, 1809, p. 78.

[222] According to the tables of M. Delambre’s note above, the solstice has remained 3474, or at least 3307 years, in the constellation of virgo, the one which occupies the greatest space in the zodiac, and 2617 in that of the Lion.

[223] Translation of Herodotus by Larcher, vol. ii. p. 570.

[224] See the Dissertation of the Abbé Dominique Testa, Sopra due Zodiaci novellamente scoperte nell’ Egitto, Rome, 1802, p. 34.

[225] Delambre. Note at the end of the Report on the Memoir of M. de Paravey. This report is printed in the Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, vol. viii.

[226] See the work of M. Biot, entitled, Recherches sur plusieurs points de l’Astronomie Egyptienne, appliquées aux monumens astronomiques trouvés en Egypte; Paris, 1823, 8vo.

[227] Letronne. Researches into the history of Egypt during the domination of the Greeks and Romans, p. 180.

[228] Id. ibid. p. xxxviij.

[229] Letronne. Ibid. p. 456, and 457.

[230] Letronne. Critical and Archæological Observations upon the object of the zodiacal representations which remain to us of antiquity, occasioned by an Egyptian zodiac painted in a mummy case, which bears a Greek inscription of the time of Trajan; Paris, 1824, 8vo, p. 30.

[231] Idem, p. 48, and 49.

[232] Varro, de Ling. Lat. lib. vi. Signa, quod aliquid significent, ut libra æquinoctium; Macrob. Sat. lib. i. cap. xxi. Capricornus ab infernis partibus ad superas solem reducens Capræ naturam videtur imitari.

[233] See the Memoir on the Origin of the Constellations, in Dupuis’s Origine des Cultes, vol. iii. p. 324. _et seq._

[234] Id. ibid. p. 267.

[235] Dupuis himself suggests this second hypothesis. Ibid. p. 340.

[236] Ægyptiaca, p. 215.

[237] See in the Great Work on Egypt, Antiq. Mem. vol. i., the memoir of M. Remi Raige upon the nominal and original zodiac of the ancient Egyptians. See also the table of the Greek, Roman, and Alexandrian months, in M. Halma’s Ptolemy, vol. iii.

[238] See the Historical Researches regarding the Astronomical Observations of the ancients, by M. Ideler, a translation of which has been inserted by M. Halma in the third volume of his Ptolemy: and especially M. Freret’s memoir on the opinion of Lanauze, relative to the establishment of the Alexandrian year, in the memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, vol. xvi. p. 308.

[239] See the Memoir of Sir William Jones on the Antiquity of the Indian Zodiac. Calcutta Memoirs, vol. ii.

[240] See the Zodiac explained, or Researches regarding the Origin and Signification of the Constellations of the Greek Sphere, translated from the Swedish of M. Swartz; Paris, 1809.

[241] Saturnalia, lib. i. cap. xxi. sub. fin. _Nec solus Leo, sed signa quoque universa zodiaci ad naturam solis jure referuntur, &c._ It is only in the explanation of the Lion and Capricorn, that he has recourse to some phenomenon relative to the seasons; the Cancer itself is explained in a general point of view, and with reference to the obliquity of the sun’s march.

[242] See the Memoir of M. Guignes on the Zodiacs of the Eastern Nations, in the Memoirs of the Academy of Belles Lettres, vol. xlvii.

[243] See M. de Fortia d’Urban’s History of China before the Deluge of Ogyges, p. 33.

[244] Copies have been printed separately, under the title of _Description Geologique des Environs de Paris_, par MM. G. Cuvier et Al. Brongniart. Second edition. Paris, 1822, 4to.

[245] See Professor Buckland’s work, entitled _Reliquiæ Diluvianæ_. Lond. 1823, 4to, p. 185 et seq.; and the article _Eau_, by M. Brongniart, in the 14th volume of the _Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles_.

[246] A full view of the arrangement of rocks is given in note O.

[247] See my “Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles,” t. v. part ii. p. 300.

[248] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 355 and 525.

[249] See my “Recherches,” vol. v. part ii. p. 447.

[250] Researches, &c. vol. v. part ii. p. 475, _et seq._

[251] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 485 and 486.

[252] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 143.

[253] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 127.

[254] We expect a fuller knowledge of it from M. Conybeare’s researches.

[255] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 343.

[256] Ibid. p. 120.

[257] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 358. _et seq._

[258] Ibid. p. 376.

[259] Ibid. p. 380.

[260] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 225.

[261] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 161, 232, and 350.

[262] Researches, vol. v. part iv. p. 310, _et seq._

[263] Ibid. p. 163.

[264] Ibid. p. 316.

[265] P. 317.

[266] Researches, vol. v. part ii. p. 266.

[267] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 234; and part ii. p. 521.

[268] See my Researches, in the whole of vol. iii., and especially p. 250; and vol. v. part ii. p. 505.

[269] Ibid. vol. v. part ii. p. 505.

[270] Researches, vol. iii. p. 254; and vol. iv. p. 498. and 499.

[271] Ibid. vol. iii. p. 258.

[272] Ibid. vol. v. part ii. p. 505.

[273] See my Researches, vol. ii. part i. p. 177 and 218; vol. iii. p. 394; and vol. iv. p. 498.

[274] Regarding the Anaplotheria, see the whole of the 3d volume of my “Researches,” and particularly p. 250 and 396.

[275] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 398 and 404; vol. iv. p. 501; vol. v. part ii. p. 506.

[276] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 260.

[277] Id. vol. iii. p. 265.

[278] “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 103.

[279] I am indebted for the knowledge of this animal to the Count de Bournon; and as I have not described it in my great work, I have given a figure of it here. See Plate II. figs. 1 and 2.

[280] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 267.

[281] Id. vol. iii. p. 269.

[282] Id. vol. iii. p. 272.

[283] Id. vol. iii. p. 284.

[284] Id. vol. iii. p. 297 and 300.

[285] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 506.

[286] “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 304 _et seq._

[287] Id. vol. v. part ii. p. 166.

[288] Id. vol. iii. p. 335; vol. v. part ii. p. 166.

[289] Id. vol. iii. p. 233.

[290] Id. vol. v. p. 232.

[291] Id. vol. iii. p. 329; vol. v. part ii. p. 222.

[292] “Researches,” vol. v. part ii. p. 223 and 227.

[293] Id. vol. iii. p. 338.

[294] See my “Researches,” vol. iii. p. 351. _et seq._

[295] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 309.

[296] Id. p. 390.

[297] “Researches,” vol. v. part i. p. 393.

[298] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 352. and 357.

[299] “Researches,” vol. i. p. 75, 195 and 335; vol. iii. p. 371 and 405; vol. iv. p. 491.

[300] “Researches,” vol. i. p. 250, 265 and 335; vol. iv. p. 493.

[301] Id. vol. i. p. 206, 249; vol. iii. p. 376.

[302] “Researches,” vol, i. p. 304, 322; vol, iii. p. 380; vol. iv. p. 493.

[303] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 64; and vol. iv. p. 496.

[304] “Researches,” vol. ii. part i. p. 89. vol. iii.; p. 390; and vol. v. part ii. p. 50.

[305] Id. vol. iii. p. 385.

[306] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 71.

[307] Id. vol. ii. part i. p. 89.

[308] See my “Researches,” vol. part i. p. 89.

[309] Id. p. 95.

[310] Id. p. 109.

[311] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 70.

[312] “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 168-225.

[313] Id. p. 89.

[314] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 94.

[315] Id. vol. iv. p. 98.

[316] Id. vol. iv. p. 148; and vol. v. part ii. p. 509.

[317] Id. vol. iv. p. 150; vol. v. part ii. p. 510.

[318] Id. vol. iv. p. 153.

[319] Id. vol. iv. p. 199-204.

[320] Id. vol. iv. p. 174, 177, 196; vol. v. part i. p. 55.

[321] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 178, 202, and 206; vol. v. part i. p. 54.

[322] Id. vol. v. part i. p. 55.

[323] Id. vol. iv. p. 206.

[324] Id. vol. v. part ii. 517.

[325] Id. part i. p. 59.

[326] Id. p. 174; and part ii. p. 519.

[327] See my “Researches,” vol. v. part i. p. 160.

[328] Id. vol. v. p. 193.

[329] Id. vol. iv. p. 193.

[330] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 351.

[331] Id. vol. iv. p. 356 and 357.

[332] Id. vol. iv. p. 392, and 507.

[333] Id. vol. iv. p. 452.

[334] Id. vol. iv. p. 458.

[335] Id. vol. iv. p. 461.

[336] Id. vol. iv. p. 475.

[337] Id. vol. iv. p. 467.

[338] See my “Researches,” vol. iv. p. 378 and 507; and vol. v. part ii. p. 516.

[339] See Mr Buckland’s excellent work, entitled _Reliquiæ Diluvianæ_.

[340] See in the _Reliquiæ Diluvianæ_ of Mr Buckland the account of the skeleton of a woman found in the cave of Pavyland; and in my Researches, vol. iv. p. 193, that of a fragment of a jaw, found in the osseous brecciæ of Nice.

M. de Schlotheim collected human bones in fissures at Kœstritz, where there are also bones of rhinoceroses; but he himself expresses his doubts regarding the epoch at which they were deposited.

[341] Herodotus, i. 2.

[342] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. 35 and 38.

[343] Id. lib. i. cap. 38.

[344] Bruce, French translation, 8vo. vol. viii, p. 264; and Atlas, pl. xxxv., under the name of Abouhannès.

[345] Description d’un Ibis blanc et de deux cicognes, Academie des Sciences de Paris, t. iii, pl. iii. p. 61. of the 4to edition of 1734, pl. xiii. fig. 1. The beak is represented as truncated at the end, but this is a fault of the engraver.

[346] Numenius sordide albo-rufescens, capite anteriore nudo rubro, lateribus rubro purpureo et carneo colore maculatis, remigibus majoribus nigris, rectricibus sordide albo rufescentibus, rostro in exortu dilute luteo, in extremitate aurantio, pedibus griseis. Ibis candida, Brisson, Ornithologia, t. v. p. 349.

[347] Planches Enluminées, No. 389; Histoire des Oiseaux, t. viii. 4to. p. 14. pl. 1. This last figure is a copy of that of Perault, with the same fault.

[348] Handbuch der Naturgeschichte, p. 203. of the edition of 1799; but in the edition of 1807 he has restored the name of Ibis to the bird to which it belongs.

[349] Philosophical Transactions for 1794.

[350] Folio edition, Oxford 1746, pl. v. and pages 64-66.

[351] Hasselquist, Iter Palestinum, p. 249. _Magnitudo gallinæ, seu cornicis_; and, p. 250. _vasa quæ in sepulchris inveniuntur, cum avibus conditis, hujus sunt magnitudinis_.

[352] We have definitively established this genus in our “Regne Animal,” t. i. p. 483, and it appears to have been adopted by naturalists.

[353] Bruce, _loc. cit._; and Savigny, “Mem. sur l’Ibis,” p. 12.

[354] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. 38.

[355] Ψιλὴ τὴν κεφαλὴν, καὶ τὴν δειρὴν πᾶσαν, λευκὴ πτεροῖσι πλην κεφαλῆς, καὶ αὐχένος καὶ ἀκρέων τῶν πτερύγων καὶ τοῦ πυγαίου ἄκρου. Larcher, in his French translation of Herodotus, has properly understood the difference of the words αὐχήν, the nape, and δειρή or δέρη the throat.

[356] Ælian, lib. v. cap. 29.

[357] Ælian, lib. ii. cap. xxxv;--Plut. De Solert. An.; Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. ii.;--Phil. de Anim. prop. 16. &c.

[358] De Med. Ægypt. lib. i. fol. i. vers. Paris Edition, 1646.

[359] Rer. Ægypt. lib. iv. cap. i. t. i. p. 199 of the Leyden Edition.

[360] See the French Translation, vol. ii. p. 167.

[361] Description de l’Egypte, part ii. p. 23.

[362] Antiq. Monum. Pl. x. p. 129.

[363] Hist. Anim. lib. ix. cap. xxvii. and lib. x. cap. xxx.

[364] Buffon, Histoire Naturelle des Oiseaux, 4to, vol. viii. p. 17.

[365] Belon, Nature des Oiseaux, p. 159 and 200; and Portraits d’Oiseaux, folio 44, vers.

[366] Observations de plusieurs singularités, &c.

[367] Savigny, Mémoire sur l’Ibis, p. 37.

[368] Idem, ibid.

[369] See the Great Work on Egypt, Natural History of Birds, pl. vii. fig. 2.

[370] Euterpe, cap. lxxv. Herodotus says a place in Arabia, but it is not seen how a place in Arabia could have been _near the city of Buto_, which was in the western part of the Delta.

[371] Avis excelsa, cruribus rigidis, corneo proceroque rostro. Cic. de Nat. Deor. lib. i.

[372] Strabo, lib. xvii.

[373] Ælian, Anim. lib. x. cap. xxix.

[374] Leopold de Buch, Voyage en Norwege, t. i. p. 30. of the German edition.

[375] The _Sierra Parima_.

[376] T. ii. p. 233, 236, 252, 273, 288, 382, 597, 627, and 633.

[377] Are there any blocks in North America to the north of the Great Lakes?

[378] In Silliman’s American Journal there are many interesting details in regard to the distribution of boulders in the northern parts of North America.

[379] By _geest_ is understood the alluvial matter which is spread over the surface both of the hilly and low country, and appears, according to De Luc, to have been formed the last time the waters of the ocean stood over the surface of the earth.--J.

[380] By _marsch_, according to De Luc, is understood the new land added to the coasts since the last retiring of the water of the globe from the surface of the earth, and is formed by the sediments of rivers, mixed more or less with sand from the bottom of the sea.--J.

[381] Vol. II. p. 114, 115, 116.

[382] A remarkable fact of this kind is related by Salt, in his second journey to Abyssinia. The Bay of Amphila, in the Red Sea, is formed, he says, of twelve islands, eleven of which are in part composed of alluvial matters, consisting of corallines, madrepores, echinites, and a great variety of shells common in that sea. The height of these islands is sometimes thirty feet above high water. The small island, which differs from the eleven others, is composed of a solid limestone rock, in which veins of calcedony are observed. Does not this small island, we may ask, indicate that some cause has prevented the madrepores from covering it, while they constructed their habitations in the neighbourhood, on bases which probably must be of the same nature as those of the small island?

[383] On glancing over the charts of Kotzebue’s voyage, we are struck at seeing several of these islands grouped in a circular form, connected with one another by reefs which appear to consist of madrepores, and to present, by this arrangement, a small internal sea of great depth, to which an entrance is afforded by one or more openings. May not this arrangement be owing to submarine craters, on the edge of which the lithophytes have erected their habitations?

[384] 1824, St. 12. p. 443.

Malté Brun. Precis de la Geogr. Univers. T. ii. p. 459.; Catteau Calleville, Tabl. de la Mer Balt. T. i. p. 158, 188.

[385] See the excellent figures in Blumenbach’s Decades.

[386] Equal to 27,340 yards and 10 inches English measure, or 15½ miles and 60 yards.

In these reductions of the revolutionary French _metres_ to English measure, the _metre_ is assumed as 39.37 English inches.--_Transl._

[387] Or 10,936 yards and 4 inches, equal to 6 miles and nearly a quarter, English measure.

Hence the entire advance of the alluvial promontory of the Po appears to have extended to 21 miles 5 furlongs and 216 yards.--_Transl._

[388] Equal to 10,936 or 12,030 yards English measure.--_Transl._

[389] Or 2,186 yards 2 feet English.--_Transl._

[390] Or 20,778 yards 1 foot 10 inches.--_Transl._

[391] Or 21,872 yards.--_Transl._

[392] Or 18,591 yards.--_Transl._

[393] Equal to 9,842 or 10,936 yards.--_Transl._

[394] Equal to 6,564 or 7,655 yards.--_Transl._

[395] From 19 miles 7 furlongs and 15 yards, to 20 miles 4 furlongs and 9 yards, English measure.--_Transl._

[396] Or 15,366 yards.--_Transl._

[397] Equal to 9,842 or 10,936 yards.--_Transl._

[398] 20,231 yards.--_Transl._

[399] Exactly 27 yards 1 foot and ¼ of an inch English.--_Transl._

[400] Already stated at from 19¾ to 20½ miles; or more precisely, from 34,995 yards 1 foot 8 inches, to 36,089 yards 10 inches English measure.--_Transl._

[401] Equal to 76 yards 1 foot 7 inches and 9/10ths.--_Transl._

[402] In the salt lakes of Westphalia, we find Lymnæa and fresh water plants in abundance.

[403]
“Jamque erat in totas sparsurus fulmina terras,
Tela reponuntur, manibus fabricata Cyclopum:
Pœna placet diversa; genus mortale sub undis
Perdere, et ex omni nimbos dimittere cœlo.”
OVID. _Met._ lib. i. v. 255.

[404] Vide note on the Non-mechanical Action of pure Water.

[405] T. ix. c. 6. Claudian describes this occurrence in the following words:

“Cum Thessaliam scopulis inclusa teneret
Peneo stagnante palus, et mersa negarent
Arva coli, trifida Neptunus euspide montes
Impulit adversos: tum forti saucius ictu
Dissiluit gelido vertex Ossæus Olympo.”
_De raptu Proserp._ I. ii. v. 179.

[406] L. i c. 3.

[407] According to Wheeler, who was on the spot, it appears to have broken through the Mount Ptous.

[408] Bibliothec. Historic. l. v. c. 47.

[409] Vol. xiv. p. 205.

[410] The remarks on the connection of geology with agriculture and planting, are inserted here as an illustration of some of the details in the body of the work. They will, we think, be useful to students of agriculture and geology, and interesting to the general reader.

[411] The dryness depends chiefly, if not entirely, on the fissures or divisions in the rocky base of the soil; for, in some parts of Sologne in France, as stated by Mr Arthur Young, and in sundry districts of England, chalk and limestone bottoms are occasionally observed to be retentive and wet. Undergrounds, formed of chalk or limestone, have frequently a thin covering of vegetable mould, from their being, in some cases, over close and wet, and in others over open and dry; the former condition being unfriendly to vegetation and the formation of mould, and the latter too readily permitting its departure when formed, or otherwise favouring the decomposition and waste of that material.

[412] The reason here assigned is confirmed by some observations delivered by one of the latest and most intelligent of the English writers on agriculture. “If,” says Mr Marshall, “the several strata” (viz. the subsoil and base) “are of so loose a texture, as to permit the waters of rains to pass quickly downward, without being in any sufficient degree arrested by the soil, the land may be said to be worthless to agriculture.” He adds, “Before we suggest any improvement of lands of the latter description, it will be proper to premise, that many of the light sandy soils of Norfolk, which would otherwise be uniformly absorbed to a great depth, have a thin earthy substance, or ‘Pan,’ which intervenes between the soil and the subsoil, and which is of such a texture, as to check the descent of rain waters, and thereby retain them the longer in the soil, as well as to prevent the manure it contains from being carried away by their rapid descent; yet sufficiently pervious to prevent a surcharge of moisture from injuring the produce. To this fortunate circumstance is principally owing the fertility of the lands of East Norfolk: for wherever this filter happens to be broken by the plough, or otherwise, the soil becomes unfertile, and continues to be so for a length of years.”--(_See Norfolk_, vol. i. page 11.) “This fact aptly suggests the expedient of improving, or fresh forming, a filter of this kind; seeing how capable it is of producing so many valuable advantages; the more especially, as it is probably the Norfolk pan owes its origin to fortuitous art, rather than to nature.”--(_See Norfolk_, vol. i. page 12.) “A millstone, or other heavy wheel-shaped stone, made to run upon its edge, in the bottom of the plough-furrow (the thickness of its edge being equal to the width of the furrow), by the help of an axle and wheels, would greatly compress a light, porous subsoil. The idea of forming a pan artificially, struck me first in Norfolk; and time and experience have strengthened it. If the experiment be made on a compressible subsoil, as sandy loam, or the soft rubble which sometimes intervenes between an absorbent soil and an open rock, there can be little doubt of its success. But on loose open gravel, which is not sufficiently mixed with tenacious mould to sheath it, and lying on an open base, less utility may be expected from it.”

[413] _Vide_ Dr Adam of Calcutta’s Remarks on the Rocks and Soil of Constantia at the Cape of Good Hope, in an early number of the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal.

[414] The ochre yellow colour of the decayed greenstone around Edinburgh, and in general in many trap districts in this country, is caused by the decomposition of the imbedded iron pyrites.

[415] The Streams of Obsidian in Iceland, Lipari, Peak of Teneriffe, Ascension, and Mexico, afford striking examples of the fact stated above.

[416] Those who feel disposed to examine the connection of Geology and Agriculture, will find many additional details and views given in Hausmann’s work, of which the above may be considered in some degree as a condensed view.

[417] John Hart, Esq. Member of the Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, some time ago sent to me a copy of a very interesting tract entitled “A Description of the Skeleton of the Fossil Deer of Ireland, _Cervus megaceros_; drawn up at the instance of the Committee of Natural Philosophy of the Royal Dublin Society.” The details in the text are extracted from Mr Hart’s memoir, and the engraving of the Elk is copied from Mr Hart’s lithographic delineation.

[418] In a Report which Mr Hart made to the Committee of Natural Philosophy of the Royal Dublin Society, and which was printed in their Proceedings of July 8. 1824, he alluded to an instance of a pair of these horns having been used as a field gate near Tipperary. Since that he has learned that a pair had been in use for a similar purpose near Newcastle, county of Wicklow, until they were decomposed by the action of the weather. There is also a specimen in Charlemont House, the town residence of the Earl of Charlemont, which is said to have been used for some time as a temporary bridge across a rivulet in the county of Tyrone.

[419] I have seen this antler divided into three points in two specimens, one at the Earl of Besborough’s, county Kilkenny (which measured eight feet four inches between the tips), the other in the hall of the Museum of Trinity College: it is single in the greater number of specimens, as in those which Cuvier describes.

[420] Vide Annales du Museum d’Histoire Naturelle, tome xii. et Ossemens Fossiles, tome iv.

[421] Philosophical Transactions, vol. xix.

[422] A fine pair of this species, male and female, were exhibited by Mr Bullock in this city a few summers ago. They did not answer to any description of Pennant or of Dr Shaw, but had the characters of C. canadensis as given by Cuvier.

[423] Dr Percy, Bishop of Dromore, describes a pair which measured fourteen feet by the skull. Archæologia Brit. v. vii.

[424] Pennant’s Zoology, vol. i.

[425] Organic Remains, vol. iii.

[426] Ossemens Fossiles, tom. iv.

[427] The elk, when pursued in the forests of North America, breaks off branches of trees as thick as a man’s thigh.

[428] It is evidently not the animal mentioned by Julius Cæsar, under the name of Alces; vide Comment. de Bello Gallico, vi. cap. x.; nor is it the Alces of Pliny.

[429] I am well aware of the occasional existence of holes in the ribs, a few instances of which I have seen in the human subject: but they differ essentially in character from the opening here described, as they occupy the centre of the rib, mostly in its sternal extremity, and have their margin depressed on both sides.

[430] In A. W. Schlegel’s Contributions to the History of the Elephant, in the Indische Bibliothek, i. 2, are enumerated many facts not generally known regarding the African and Asiatic Elephants, and the details are accompanied with interesting inferences.

[431] According to Schleiermacher, Goldfuss and Von Bachr, fossil tusks, resembling those of the African Elephant, have been found in some districts. Cuvier, however, questions their being in a true fossil state.

[432] This plate forms the frontispiece to the present work.

[433] Sœmmering über die fossilien Knocken, welche in der _Protogæa_ Von Leibnitz abgebildet sind: eine Abhandlung in der Magazin für die Naturgeschichte des Menschen von C. Grosse, iii. 1790, s. 73.

[434] Rosenmüller, Beschreib. des Höhlenbären, s. 2.

[435] Further information in regard to these caves will be found in Leonhard Taschenb. der Min. vii. 2. S. 439; and in Nöggerath’s Gebirge in Rheinland-Westphalen, ii. S. 27. and iii. 1. 13.

[436] In England and Wales the following caves have been found to contain fossil bones:

1. Cave in _Duncombe Park_, not far from that of Kirkdale. It contains only recent bones.

2. Cave of _Hutton_, a village in Somersetshire, at the foot of the Mendip Hills. Bones of elephants, horses, hogs, of two species of deer, of oxen, the nearly entire skeleton of a fox, and the metacarpal bone of a large bear, have been found in it.

3. Cave of _Derdham Down_, near to _Clifton_, to the westward of Bristol. Bones of horses were found in it.

4. Cave of _Balleye_, near to _Warksworth_, in Derbyshire. In 1663, teeth of elephants, some of which are still preserved, were found in it.

5. Cave of _Dream_, at the village of _Callow_, near to _Warksworth_. It was discovered in the year 1822, by some miners in search of lead-ore. Nearly all the bones of a rhinoceros, in a good state of preservation, were found enclosed in a bed of mud in this cave.

6. Fissures and caves at _Oreston_. These are in transition limestone. Bones of the rhinoceros, hyæna, tiger, wolf, deer, ox, and horse, have been found in them.

7. Cave of _Nicholaston_, near the coast of _Glamorgan_, in the Bay of _Oxwich_. In the year 1792, bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, ox, deer, and hyæna, were found in it.

8. Caves of _Paveland_, in the county of _Glamorgan_, between the Bay of Oxwich and Cape Worms, at the entrance of the English Channel. There are two openings in a cliff thirty or forty feet above the level of the sea, which we cannot reach but at low water. The clergyman and the surgeon of the neighbouring village of Portinan found in them a tusk and grinder of an elephant; afterwards other bones of the elephant, rhinoceros, horse, bear, hyæna, fox, wolf, ox, deer, rat, of birds, the _skeleton of a woman_, and splinters of bones, were also found. But many of these bones are modern; and the diggings made at remote and unknown periods have displaced the ancient bones, and mixed them with the modern, and also with shells of the present sea.

Professor Goldfuss, in the 11th volume of the _Nova Acta Physico-medica Academiæ Cæsareæ Leopoldino-Carolinæ Naturæ Curiosorum_, published in 1823, gives an account of the fossil bones he met with in the caves of Westphalia and Franconia. Speaking of the Cave of Gaylenreuth, he says, that Esper has the following remarks on the quantity of bones taken from these caves:

On first examination, there were collected, in a very short time, in the dust of the floors of these caves, upwards of 200 different teeth; and we may assume that, by the end of the year 1774, some thousands were collected. It is difficult to form a conception of the number of these zoolithes, and of the earth in which they are contained; and I do not hesitate in believing, that, at the lowest estimate, several hundred waggons load would not remove the whole. The animal earth, with intermingled bones, was, in many places, eight or ten feet deep. Esper calculated that, in his time, 180 skulls had been taken out of the loose animal earth, the conglomerate not having been broken up for this purpose. Of late years, the conglomerate afforded, in the space of three years, 150 skulls; and we may estimate that twice as many more were destroyed in breaking them out of the hard stalactitic matter. If we add to this the pieces of skulls which occur in this repository, more frequently than perfect skulls, we may estimate that more than a thousand individuals lie buried here.

These bones occur now, as formerly, irregularly dispersed; that is, teeth, cylindrical bones, cranial bones, and vertebræ of different species, and of different individuals of different ages, and of various sizes, occur conglutinated together. We never find the under jaw of the same skull near to it, and rarely the two separated portions of the same lower jaw together; the skulls occurring all in the deeper places: and Esper found the teeth forming a bed by themselves. The bones still possess their sharper edges, and are neither rubbed nor gnawed.

If we assume a thousand buried individuals, the proportion of the different species will be, according to Dr Goldfuss, as follows:

1. Hyæna spelæa, 25
2. Canis spelæus, 50
3. Felis spelæa, 25
4. Gulo spelæus, 30
5. Ursus priscus, 10
6. Ursus arctoideus, 60
7. Ursus spelæus, 800

The bones of small animals, mentioned by Esper, are now no longer met with; and, in the collections of Esper and Frischmann, Dr Goldfuss saw only a few dozen of the glutton (Gulo.) The contents of a peculiar conglomerate described by Esper, cannot now be determined. It consisted of a confused assemblage of very small bones, the fracture surfaces of which were fibrous, and contained also the thigh-bone and rib of a bird, which were conjectured to equal in size those of the eagle; hence Esper inferred that the mass was made up of the remains of reptile and fish bones.

No remains have hitherto been found in these caves; but in former times we are told that teeth of the elephant were found in the Zahnloch, and a vertebra, supposed, of a rhinoceros, in the Schneiderloch. The bones of domestic animals, such as deer, roes, foxes, and badgers, frequently found in the caves, shew, at a glance, that they have come into their present situation accidentally, at a modern period.

The cave at _Mockas_ formerly contained in its deepest fissures, teeth and fragments of bones of bears, associated with rolled stones, and enveloped in earthy marl. The entrance to this cave is situated on the acclivity of a hill. Goldfuss ascended to the entrance of it by means of a rope, and found in its interior many narrow, wide extended hollows, which are generally so confined that we can only visit them by creeping. Here and there there are small widenings, and frequently narrow outlets occur in the roof.

The _Zahnloch_ and the _Schneiderloch_, which also contain single bones of bears, are small vaults, with wide openings, into which we can penetrate without difficulty.

[437] The fact mentioned in the text brings to our recollection an interesting Memoir of Professor Walther, entitled, “On the Antiquity of diseases in Bones,” printed in Grasse and Walther’s Journal der Chirurgie und Augenheil Kunde, viii. From eleven specimens of bones of cave-bears found in the Caves of Sundwich, described by Walther, a proof is obtained, that the common forms of osseous diseases occur in them, just as they are observed at present in the human species, viz. necrosis, anchylosis, caries, exostosis, formation of new bony matter, thickening, thinning, and arthritic properties of diseased bones. Most of those diseases are such as would result from violent injuries, and the consequent very tedious organo-vital reaction. Such mechanical injuries would give rise to necrosis, caries, exostosis, &c. We can easily conceive, says Walther, how that the rapacious animals of a former world may have been exposed to violent mechanical injuries of their bodies, and of single parts of them. It is worthy of remark, that most of the diseased bones are of the lower jaw, the alveolar processes of it and the walls of single alveolæ. During the combats of the cave bears for their prey amongst themselves, or with other gigantic animals, the jaws and teeth must have experienced the greatest mechanical injuries. The necroses of the humeral bones are such as might result from a bruising of the bones, and the caries of the upper surface of the bodies of the lumbar vertebræ, may have been occasioned by external violence. Walther is also of opinion, that the cave-bears suffered from diseases of the bones not referrible to mechanical injuries. He remarks of a radius and a vertebra, whose arthritic condition he carefully describes, “These bones have experienced pathological changes, which could only arise from a long continued diseased condition of the nutritive process. They are very light, have an extremely thin crust, the greater part of their mass is of a spongy, very porous substance, and are uncommonly fragile. Such a change could not be produced by any external mechanical injury, nor by any slight action of the weather; but must proceed from a tedious constitutional disease, connected with a total change of the organo-forming plastic activity, and proceeding from a peculiar dyscrasia.” Hence it is probable, these cave-bears even suffered from gout, scrophula, and other similar diseases.

[438] According to Laugier, in 100 parts of the earth in which the bones in the caves of Gaylenreuth are imbedded, he found the following proportional quantity of constituent parts:

1. Lime, with a little magnesia, in the state of carbonate, 32.0
2. Carbonic acid and moisture, 24.0
3. Phosphate of lime, 21.5
4. Animal matter and water, 10.0
5. Alumina slightly coloured with manganese, 4.0
6. Silica coloured with iron, 4.0
7. Oxide of iron, probably combined with phosphoric acid, 3.5
8. Loss, 1.0
-----
100.0

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TRANSCRIBER’S NOTE

Obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been
corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within
the text and consultation of external sources.

There are several references to both ‘De Luc’ and ‘Deluc’; these
refer to the same person, and have not been changed.

Except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text,
and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained.

Pg vi: ‘gradual developement’ replaced by ‘gradual development’.
Pg xxi: ‘Zodaical’ replaced by ‘Zodiacal’.
Pg xxii: ‘Horse, 288’ replaced by ‘Horse, 285’.
Pg 3: ‘of the Peleponnesus’ replaced by ‘of the Peloponnesus’.
Pg 21: ‘formations, aud’ replaced by ‘formations, and’.
Pg 58: ‘lama, the vicuna’ replaced by ‘llama, the vicuna’.
Pg 68: ‘large qradupeds’ replaced by ‘large quadrupeds’.
Pg 74: ‘Three several’ replaced by ‘Three separate’.
Pg 78: was incorrectly labelled as ‘87’ in the original book.
Pg 80: ‘lama, the vicunna’ replaced by ‘llama, the vicuna’.
Pg 84: ‘corrrespond, and’ replaced by ‘correspond, and’.
Pg 112: ‘that the fosil’ replaced by ‘that the fossil’.
Pg 138: ‘by the Phenicians’ replaced by ‘by the Phœnicians’.
Pg 149: ‘a very reremote’ replaced by ‘a very remote’.
Pg 155: ‘the Bramins, and’ replaced by ‘the Brahmins, and’.
Pg 172: was incorrectly labelled as ‘146’ in the original book.
Pg 211: ‘even admiting’ replaced by ‘even admitting’.
Pg 212: ‘Zodaical’ replaced by ‘Zodiacal’.
Pg 212: ‘1_{s}’ (subscript s) replaced by ‘1^s’ (superscript s).
Pg 222: ‘double suppositon’ replaced by ‘double supposition’.
Pg 225: ‘found bebetween’ replaced by ‘found between’.
Pg 227: missing anchor for Footnote [226] inserted after
‘at that period’.
Pg 249 Table: the duplicate headings ‘Transition Formations’ and
‘Primitive Formations’ have been removed from the last two
blocks of the table.
Pg 263: ‘named it _Iquanodon_’ replaced by ‘named it _Iguanodon_‘.
Pg 263: missing anchor for Footnote [261] inserted after
‘_Iguanodon_‘.
Pg 279: ‘whereever our ancient’ replaced by ‘wherever our ancient’.
Pg 280: ‘or anaplothæria,’ replaced by ‘or anaplotheria,’.
Pg 302: ‘of Bufffon’ replaced by ‘of Buffon’.
Pg 360: ‘is very obsure’ replaced by ‘is very obscure’.
Pg 361: ‘Letters sur l’Histoire’ replaced by ‘Lettres sur l’Histoire’.
Pg 367: ‘islands of Pelworm’ replaced by ‘islands of Pellworm’.
Pg 374: ‘of Maviston’ replaced by ‘of Mavieston’.
Pg 378: ‘Great Britian’ replaced by ‘Great Britain’.
Pg 379: ‘sands of Barrey’ replaced by ‘sands of Barray’.
Pg 385: ‘breaks of in’ replaced by ‘breaks off in’.
Pg 401: ‘1770’ replaced by ‘1700’.
Pg 461: ‘a slop of even’ replaced by ‘a slope of even’.
Pg 475: ‘sol d crust’ replaced by ‘solid crust’.
Pg 476: ‘it of contributiug’ replaced by ‘it of contributing’.
Pg 493: ‘with the\nPalm,’ replaced by ‘with the Palm’.
Pg 506 Table: the heading ‘HEAD.’ has been inserted at the top of
column 1.
Pg 522: ‘various corridores’ replaced by ‘various corridors’.
Pg 541: ‘crosses the torent’ replaced by ‘crosses the torrent’.
Pg 547 Table: this multipage Table has been split into three parts.
The right-hand column ‘OBSERVATIONS’ with four entries has
been replaced by four Notes (a) to (d) below the Table.
Pg 549: Note (d); ‘the fissil rocks’ replaced by ‘the fossil rocks’.
Pg 550 Table: this wide Table has been split into two parts.
The right-hand column ‘OBSERVATIONS’ with a single entry has
been replaced by a Note (a) below the Table.