Chapter VII: Part 7

The management of the fire in cooking is, in all cases, a matter of great importance; but in no case is it so necessary to be attended to as in preparing the cheap and nutritive soups here recommended.--Not only the palatableness, but even the strength or richness of the soup, seems to depend very much upon the management of the heat employed in cooking it.

From the beginning of the process to the end of it, the boiling should be as gentle as possible;--and if it were possible to keep the soup always JUST BOILING HOT, without actually boiling, it would be so much the better.

Causing any thing to boil violently in any culinary process is very ill judged; for it not only does not expedite, even in the smallest degree, the process of cooking, but it occasions a most enormous waste of fuel; and by driving away with the steam many of the more volatile and more savoury particles of the ingredients, renders the victuals less good and less palatable. --To those who are acquainted with the experimental philosophy of heat, and who know that water once brought to be BOILING HOT, however gently it may boil in fact, CANNOT BE MADE ANY HOTTER, however large and intense the fire under it may be made, and who know that it is by the HEAT--that is to say, THE DEGREE or intensify of it, and the TIME of its being continued, and not by the bubbling up or BOILING, (as it is called) of the water that culinary operations are performed--this will be evident, and those who know that more than FIVE TIMES as much heat is required to SEND OFF IN STEAM any given quantity of water ALREADY BOILING HOT as would be necessary to heat the same quantity of ICE-COLD water TO THE BOILING POINT --will see the enormous waste of heat, and consequently of fuel, which, in all cases must result from violent boiling in culinary processes.

To prevent the soup from burning to the boiler, the bottom of the boiler should be made DOUBLE; the false bottom, (which may be very thin) being fixed on the inside of the boiler, the two sheets of copper being every where in contact with each other; but they ought not to be attached to each other with solder, except only at the edge of the false bottom where it is joined to the sides of the boiler.--The false bottom should have a rim about an inch and a half wide, projecting upwards, by which it should be riveted to the sides of the boiler; but only few rivets, or nails, should be used for fixing the two bottoms together below, and those used should be very small; otherwise where large nails are employed at the bottom of the boiler, where the fire is most intense, the soup will be apt to BURN TO; at least on the heads of those large nails.

The two sheets of metal may be made to touch each other every where, by hammering them together after the false bottom is fixed in its place; and they may be tacked together by a few small rivets placed here and there, at considerable distances from each other; and after this is done, the boiler may be tinned.

In tinning the boiler, if proper care be taken, the edge of the false bottom may be soldered by the tin to the sides of the boiler, and this will prevent the water, or other liquids put into the boiler, from getting between the two bottoms.

In this manner double bottoms may be made to sauce-pans and kettles of all kinds used in cooking; and this contrivance will, in all cases, most effectually prevent what is called by the cooks burning to[9].

The heat is so much obstructed in its passage through the thin sheet of air, which, notwithstanding all the care that is taken to bring the two bottoms into actual contact, will still remain between them, the second has time to give its heat as fast as it receives it, to the fluid in the boiler; and consequently never acquires a degree of heat sufficient for burning any thing that may be upon it.

Perhaps it would be best to double copper sauce-pans and small kettles throughout; and as this may and ought to be done with a very thin sheet of metal, it could not cost much, even if this lining were to be made of silver.

But I must not enlarge here upon a subject I shall have occasion to treat more fully in another place.--To return, therefore, to the subject more immediately under consideration, Food.

CHAPTER. IV.

Of the small expense at which the Bavarian soldiers are fed. Details of their housekeeping, founded on actual experiment. An account of the fuel expended by them in cooking.

It has often been matter of surprise to many, and even to those who are most conversant in military affairs, that soldiers can find means to live upon the very small allowances granted them for their subsistence; and I have often wondered that nobody has undertaken to investigate that matter, and to explain a mystery at the same time curious and interesting, in a high degree.

The pay of a private soldier is in all countries very small, much less than the wages of a day-labourer; and in some countries it is so mere a pittance, that it is quite astonishing how it can be made to support life.

The pay of a private foot-soldier in the service of His Most Serene Highness the Elector Palatine, (and it is the same for a private grenadier in the regiment of guards,) is FIVE CREUTZERS a-day, and no more.--Formerly the pay of a private foot-soldier was only four creutzers and a half a-day, but lately, upon the introduction of the new military arrangements in the country, his pay has been raised to five creutzers;--and with this he receives one pound thirteen ounces and a half, Avoirdupois weight, of rye-bread, which, at the medium price of grain in Bavaria and the Palatinate, costs something less than three creutzers, or just about ONE PENNY sterling.

The pay which the soldier receives in money,-- (five creutzers a-day,) equal to one penny three farthings sterling, added to his daily allowance of bread, valued at one penny, make TWO PENCE THREE FARTHINGS a-day, for the sum total of his allowance.

That it is possible, in any country, to procure Food sufficient to support life with so small a sum, will doubtless appear extraordinary to an English reader;--but what would be his surprise upon seeing a whole army, composed of the finest, stoutest, and strongest men in the world, who are fed upon that allowance, and whose countenances show the most evident marks of ruddy health, and perfect contentment?

I have already observed, how much I was struck with the domestic economy of the Bavarian soldiers. I think the subject much too interesting, not to be laid before the Public, even in all its details; and as I think it will be more satisfactory to hear from their own mouths an account of the manner in which these soldiers live, I shall transcribe the reports of two sensible non-commissioned officers, whom I employed to give me the information I wanted.

These non-commissioned officers, who belong to two different regiments of grenadiers in garrison at Munich, were recommended to me by their colonels as being very steady, careful men, are each at the head of a mess consisting of twelve soldiers, themselves reckoned in the number. The following accounts, which they gave me of their housekeeping, and of the expenses of their tables, were all the genuine results of actual experiments made at my particular desire, and at my cost.

I do not believe that useful information was ever purchased cheaper than upon this occasion; and I fancy my reader will be of the same opinion when he has perused the following reports, which are literally translated from the original German.

"In obedience to the orders of Lieut. General Count Rumford, the following experiments were made by Serjeant Wickenhof's mess, in the first company of the first (or Elector's own) regiment of grenadiers, at Munich, on the 10th and 11th of June 1795.

June 10th, 1795. BILL OF FARE Boiled beef, with soup and bread dumplins. Details of the expence, etc. For the boiled beef and the soup.

lb. loths. Creutzers.
2 0 beef[10] ... ... ... 16
0 1 sweet herbs ... ... ... 1
0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... ... ... 0 1/2
0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2
1 14 1/2 ammunition bread, cut fine 2 7/8
9 20 water ... ... ... ... 0
------- ------
Total 13 10 Cost 20 7/8

All these articles were put together into an earthen pot, and boiled two hours and a quarter. The meat was then taken out of the soup and weighed, and found to weigh 1 lb. 30 loths; which, divided into twelve equal portions, gave FIVE LOTHS for the weight of each.

The soup, with the bread, etc. weighed 9 lb. 30 1/2 loths; which, divided into twelve equal portions, gave for each 26 7/12 loths.

The cost of the meat and soup together, 20 7/8 creutzers, divided by twelve, gives 1 3/4 creutzers, very nearly, for the cost of each portion.

For the bread dumplins.

lb. loths. Creutzers.
1 13 of fine semel bread 10
1 0 of fine flour ... 4 1/2
0 6 salt ... ... ... 0 1/2
3 0 of water ... ... 0
-------- ------
Total 5 19 Cost 15

This mass was made into dumplins, and these dumplins were boiled half an hour in clear water. Upon taking them out of the water, they were found to weigh 5 lb. 24 loths; and dividing them into twelve equal portions, each portion weighed 15 1/3 loths; and the cost of the whole (15 creutzers), divided by twelve, gives 1 1/4 creutzers for the cost of each portion.

The meat, soup, and dumplins were served all at once in the same dish, and were all eaten together; and with this meal, (which was their dinner, and was eat at twelve o'clock,) each person belonging to the mess was furnished with a piece of rye-bread, weighing ten loths, and which cost 5/16 of a creutzer. --Each person was likewise furnished with a piece of this bread, weighing ten loths, for his breakfast;--another piece, of equal weight, in the afternoon at four o'clock; and another in the evening.

Analysis of this Day's Fare.

Each person received in the Amount of cost in course of the day Bavarian money.

In solids. In fluids.
lb. loths. lb. loths. Creutzers.
Boiled beef 0 5 ... ... ... ....... 1 1/6
In the soup.
Rye-bread 0 3 7/8 ]
Sweet herbs 0 0 1/12 ]
Salt ... ... 0 0 1/24 ].... 0 7/16
Pepper ... ... 0 0 1/24 ]
Water ... ... 0 23 1/2 ]
---------- --------- ]
Total 0 4 2/24 0 23 1/2 ]

In dumplins.
Wheaten-bread 0 3 3/4 ]
Ditto flour 0 2 2/3 ]
Salt ... ... 0 0 1/24 ].... 1 1/4
Water ... ... 0 7 1/12 ]
---------- --------- ]
Total 0 6 11/24 0 7 7/12 ]

Dry bread.
For breakfast 0 10 ]
At dinner 0 10 ]
In the afternoon 0 10 ].... 2 1/2
At supper 0 10 ]
------ ]
Total 1 8 ]
------ ----------
General total 2 24 13/24 0 31 1/2 which cost 5 17/48

The ammunition bread is reckoned in this estimate at two creutzers the Bavarian pound, which is about what it costs at a medium; and as the daily allowance of the soldiers is 1 1/2 Bavarian pounds of the bread, this reckoned in money amounts to three creutzers a-day; and this added to his pay at five creutzers a-day, makes eight creutzers a-day, which is the whole of his allowance from the sovereign for his subsistence.

But it appears from the foregoing account, that he expends for Food no more than 5 17/48 creutzers a-day, there is therefore a surplus amounting to 2 31/48 creutzers a-day, or very near ONE-THIRD OF HIS WHOLE ALLOWANCE, which remains; and which he can dispose of just as he thinks proper.

This surplus is commonly employed in purchasing beer, brandy, tobacco, etc. Beer in Bavaria costs two creutzers a pint, brandy, or rather malt-spirits, from fifteen to eighteen creutzers; and tobacco is very cheap.

To enable the English reader to form, without the trouble of computation, a complete and satisfactory idea of the manner in which these Bavarian soldiers are fed, I have added the following Analysis of their fare; in which the quantity of each article is expressed in Avoirdupois weight, and its cost in English money.

Analysis.

Each person belonging to the mess received in the course of the day, Cost in English June 11th, 1795. money.

lb. oz. s. d.
Dry ammunition bread 1 8 76/100 0 0 10/11
Ammunition bread cooked
in the soup ... ... ... 0 2 4/10 0 0 23/264
Fine wheaten (semel)
bread in the dumplins ... 0 2 3/10 0 0 10/33
----------
Total bread 1 13 46/100

Fine flour in the dumplins 0 1 65/100 0 0 18/33
Boiled beef ... ... ... 0 3 1/10 0 0 72/198
In seasoning; fine herbs,
salt and pepper ... ... 0 0 13/100 0 0 2/33
-----------
Total solids 2 2 34/100

Water prepared by cooking.
In the soup ... ... ... 0 14 52/209
In the dumplins ... ... 0 4 32/100
-----------
Total prepared water 1 2 84/100
-----------
Total solids and fluids 3 5 18/100

Total expense for each person 5 17/48 creutzers, equal to TWO PENCE sterling, very nearly.

But as the Bavarian soldiers have not the same fare every day, the expences of their tables cannot be ascertained from one single experiment. I shall therefore return to Serjeant Wickenhof's report.

11th of June 1795. Bill of Fare. Bread, dumplins, and soup. Details of expenses, etc.

For the dumplins. lb. loths. Creutzers. 2 13 wheaten bread ... ... 14 0 16 butter ... ... ... 9 1 0 fine flour ... ... 4 1/2 0 11 eggs ... ... ... ... 3 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... ... 0 1/2 3 16 water ... ... ... ... ------- ------- 7 30 1/2 Cost 31 1/2 creutzers.

This made into dumplins;--the dumplins, after being boiled, were found to weigh eight pounds eight loths, which, divided among twelve persons, gave for each twenty-two loths.--And the cost of the whole (31 1/2 creutzers), divided by 12, gives 2 15/24 creutzers for each portion.

For the soup. lb. loths. Creutzers. 1 14 1/2 ammunition bread ... 2 7/8 0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2 0 1 sweet herbs ... ... 1 12 0 water ... ... ... ... ------- ------- 13 21 1/2 Cost 4 3/8 creutzers.

This soup, when cooked, weighed 11 lb, 26 loths; which, divided among the twelve persons belonging to the mess, gave for each 31 1/2 loths; and the cost (4 3/8 creutzers), divided by twelve, gives nearly THREE-NINTHS of a creutzer for each portion.

For bread.

Four pieces of ammunition bread, weighing each ten loths, for each person,--namely, one piece for breakfast--one at dinner--one in the afternoon,--and one at supper; in all, 40 loths, or one pound and a quarter, costs two creutzers and a half.

Details of expenses, etc. for each person.

lb. loths. Creutzers
For 1 8 dry bread ... ... 2 1/2
For 0 22 bread dumplins ... 2 15/24
For 0 31 1/2 bread soup ... ... 0 3/8
--------- -----
2 30 1/2 of Food Cost 5 1/2 creutzers.

The same details expressed in Avoirdupois weight, and English money:

For each person
lb. oz. Pence
1 8 76/100 dry ammunition bread 0 10/11
0 13 6/10 bread dumplins ... 0 693/792
1 3 1/2 bread soup ... ... 0 36/264
------------ ---------
3 9 86/100 of Food Cost 2 pence.

June 20th, 1795. Serjeant Kein's mess, second regiment of grenadiers.

Bill of Fare.

Boiled beef--bread soup--and liver dumplins. Details of expenses, etc. For the boiled beef and soup.

lb. loths. Creutzers.
2 0 beef ... ... ... 15
0 6 1/2 salt ... ... ... 0 1/2
0 0 1/2 pepper ... ... 0 1/2
0 2 sweet herbs ... 0 1/2
2 24 ammunition bread 3 1/4
17 0 water... ... ...
---------- -------
22 1 Cost 19 1/2 creutzers.

These ingredients were all boiled together two hours and five minutes; after which the beef was taken out of the soup and weighed, and was found to weigh 1 lb. 22 loths; the soup weighed 15 lb.; and these divided equally among the twelve persons belonging to the mess, gave for each portion, 4 1/2 loths of beef, and 1 lb. 8 loths of soup; and the cost of the whole (19 3/4 creutzers), divided by 18, gives 1 31/48 creutzers for the cost of each portion.

Details of expenses, etc. for the liver dumplins.

lb. loths. Creutzers.
2 28 of fine semel bread 15
1 0 of beef liver ... ... ... 5
0 18 of fine flour ... ... ... 2 1/2
0 6 of salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2
2 24 of water ... ... ... ... ---
-------- --------
Total 7 12 Cost 23 creutzers.

These ingredients being made into dumplins, the dumplins after being properly boiled were found to weigh 8 lb.--This gave for each portion 21 1/3 loths; and the amount of the cost (23 creutzers), divided by 12, the number of the portions, gives for each 1 11/12 creutzers.

The quantity of dry ammunition bread furnished to each person was 1 lb. 8 loths; and this, at two creutzers a pound, amounts to 2 1/2 creutzers.

Recapitulation.

For each person
lb. loths. Creutzers.
0 4 1/2 of boiled beef, and ] ... 1 31/48
1 8 of bread soup ]
0 21 1/4 of liver dumplins ... ... 1 11/12
1 8 of dry bread ... ... ... 2 1/2
---------- ---------
3 9 5/6 of Food Cost 6 3/48 creutzers.

In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it is,--for each person:

lb. oz.
0 2.78 of boiled beef, and ] ... 0 948/1584
1 8.91 of bread soup ]
0 13.19 of liver dumplins ... ... 0 276/306
1 8.76 of dry bread ... ... ... 0 10/11
------- -----------
4 1.54 of Food Cost 2 1/5 pence.

June 21st, 1795. Bill of Fare. Boiled beef, and bread soup, with bread dumplins. Details of expenses, etc. for the boiled beef and bread soup. The same as yesterday, For the dumplins.

lb. loths. Creutzers.
2 30 semel bread ... ... ... 15 1/2
0 18 fine flour ... ... ... 3
0 6 salt ... ... ... ... 0 1/2
3 0 water ... ... ... ...
------- -------
6 22 Cost 19 creutzers.

These dumplins being boiled, were found to weigh 7 lb. which gave for each person 18 2/3 loths; and each portion cost 1 7/12 creutzers.

Dry ammunition bread furnished to each person 1 lb. 8 loths, which cost 2 1/2 creutzers.

Recapitulation.

Each person belonging to the mess received this day:

lb. loths. Creutzers.
0 4 1/2 of boiled beef, and ] ... 1 31/48
1 8 of bread soup ]
0 18 2/3 of bread dumplins ... ... 1 7/12
1 8 of dry bread ... ... ... 2 1/2
--------- -------
3 7 1/6 of Food Cost 5 35/42 creutzers

In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it is,

lb. oz.
0 2.78 of boiled beef, and ] ... 0 948/1584
1 8.76 of bread soup ]
0 11.54 of bread dumplins ... ... 0 228/396
1 8.76 of dry bread ... ... ... 0 10/11
------- ----------
4 0 of Food Cost 2 1/12 pence.

June 22d, 1795. Bill of Fare. Bread soup and meat dumplins. Details of expenses, etc.

lb. loths.
2 0 of beef ... ... ... 15
2 30 of semel bread ... 15 1/2
0 18 of fine flour ... ... 3
0 1 of pepper ... ... 1
0 12 of salt ... ... ... 1
0 2 of sweet herbs ... 0 1/2
2 24 of ammunition bread 3 1/4
2 16 of water to the dumplins
------
Cost 39 1/4 creutzers.

The meat being cut fine, or minced, was mixed with the semel or wheaten bread; and these with the flour, and a due proportion of salt, were made into dumplins, and boiled in the soup.--These dumplins when boiled, weighed 10 lb. which, divided into 12 equal portions, gave 20 2/3 loths for each.

The soup weighed 15 lb. which gave 1 lb. 8 loths for each portion. --Of dry ammunition bread, each person received 1 lb. 8 loths, which cost 2 1/2 creutzers.

Recapitulation.

Each person received this day

lb. loths. Creutzers
0 20 2/3 of meat dumplins, and ] ... 3 13/48
1 8 of bread soup ]
1 8 of ammunition bread 2 1/2
--------- -------
3 4 2/3 of Food Cost 5 37/48 creutzers.

In Avoirdupois weight, and English money, it is,

lb. oz. Pence.
0 12.77 of meat dumplins, and ] ... 1 300/1584
1 8.76 of bread soup ]
1 8.76 of ammunition bread ... ... 0 10/11
-------- ----------
3 14.29 of Food Cost 2 1/10 pence.

The results of all these experiments, (and of many more which I could add,) show that the Bavarian soldier can live,--and the fact is that he actually does live,--upon a little more than TWO THIRDS of his allowance.--Of the five creutzers a-day which he receives in money, he seldom puts more than two creutzers and a half, and never more than three creutzers into the mess; so that at least TWO-FIFTHS of his pay remains, after he has defrayed all the expenses of his subsistence; and as he is furnished with every article of his clothing by the sovereign, and no stoppage is ever permitted to be made of any part of his pay, on any pretence whatever, THERE IS NO SOLDIER IN EUROPE WHOSE SITUATION IS MORE COMFORTABLE.

Though the ammunition bread with which he is furnished is rather coarse and brown, being made of rye-meal, with only a small quantity of the coarser part of the bran separated from it, yet it is not only wholesome, but very nourishing; and for making soup it is even more palatable than wheaten bread. Most of the soldiers, however, in the Elector's service, and particularly those belonging to the Bavarian regiments, make a practice of selling a great part of their allowance of ammunition bread, and with the money they get for it, buy the best wheaten bread that is to be had; and many of them never taste brown bread but in their soup.

The ammunition bread is delivered to the soldiers every fourth day, in loaves, each loaf being equal to two rations; and it is a rule generally established in the messes, for each soldier to furnish one loaf for the use of the mess every twelfth day, so that he has five-sixths of his allowance of bread, which remains at his disposal.

The foregoing account of the manner in which the Bavarian soldiers are fed, will, I think, show most clearly the great importance of making soldiers live together in messes.--It may likewise furnish some useful hints to those who may be engaged in feeding the Poor, or in providing Food for ships's companies, or other bodies of men who are fed in common.

With regard to the expense of fuel in these experiments, as the victuals were cooked in earthen pots, over an open fire, the consumption of fire-wood was very great.

On the 10th of June, when 9 lb. 30 1/2 loths of soup, 1 lb. 28 loths of meat, and 5 lb. 24 loths of bread dumplins, in all 17 lb. 18 1/2 of Food were prepared, and the process of cooking, from the time the fire was lighted till the victuals were done, lasted two hours and forty-five minutes, and twenty-nine pounds, Bavarian weight, of fire-wood were consumed.

On the 11th of June, when 11 lb. 26 loths of bread soup, and 8 lb. 8 loths of bread dumplins, in all 20 lb. 2 loths of Food were prepared, the process of cooking lasted one hour and thirty minutes;--and seventeen pounds of wood were consumed.

On the 20th of June, in Serjeant Kein's mess, 15 lb. of soup; 1 lb. 22 loths of meat, and 8 lb. of liver dumplins, in all 24 lb. 22 loths of Food were prepared, and through the process of cooking lasted two hours and forty-five minutes, only 27 1/2 lb. of fire-wood were consumed.

On the 21st of June, the same quantity of soup and meat, and 7 lb. of bread dumplins, in all 23 lb. 22 loths of Food were prepared in two hours and thirty minutes, with the consumption of 18 1/2 lb. of wood.

On the 22nd of June, 15 lb. of soup, and 10 lb. of meat dumplins, in all 25 lb. of Food, were cooked in two hours and forty-five minutes, and the wood consumed was 18 lb. 10 loths.

The following table will show, in a striking and satisfactory manner, the expense of fuel in these experiments:

Date of the Time employed Quantity Quantity Quantity Experiments. in cooking. of Food of Wood of Wood to prepared. consumed. 1 lb. of Food.

June 1795. Hours. min. lb. loths. lb.
10th 2 45 17 18 1/2 29
11th 1 30 20 2 17
20th 2 45 24 22 17 1/2
21st 2 30 23 22 18 1/2
22d 2 45 25 0 18 1/4
-------- ----------- -------
Sums 5 12 15 111 0 1/2 100 1/4
-------- ----------- -------
Means 2 23 22 0 1/5 20 1/20 10/11 lb.

The mean quantity of Food prepared daily in five days being 22 lb. very nearly, and the mean quantity of fire-wood consumed being 20 1/20 lb.; this gives 10/11 lb. of wood for each pound of Food.

But it has been found by actual experiment, made with the utmost care, in the new kitchen of the House of Industry at Munich, and often repeated, that 600 lb. of Food, (of the Soup No. I. given to the Poor,) may be cooked with the consumption of only 44 lb. of pine-wood. And hence it appears how very great the waste of fuel must be in all culinary processes, as they are commonly performed; for though the time taken up in cooking the soup for the Poor is, at a medium, more than FOUR HOURS AND A HALF, while that employed by the soldiers in their cooking is less than TWO HOURS AND A HALF; yet the quantity of fuel consumed by the latter is near THIRTEEN TIMES greater than that employed in the public kitchen of the House of Industry.

But I must not here anticipate here a matter which is to be the subject of a separate Essay; and which, from its great importance, certainly deserves to be carefully and thoroughly investigated.

CHAPTER. V.

Of the great importance of making soldiers eat together in
regular messes.
The influence of such economical arrangements extends even to
the moral character of those who are the objects of them.
Of the expence of feeding soldiers in messes.
Of the surprising smallness of the expence of feeding the poor
at Munich.
Specific proposals respecting the feeding of the poor in Great
Britain, with calculations of the expense, at the present
prices of provisions.

All those who have been conversant in military affairs must have had frequent opportunities of observing the striking difference there is, even in the appearance of the men, between regiments in which messes are established, and Food is regularly provided under the care and inspection of the Officers; and others, in which the soldiers are left individually to shift for themselves. And the difference which may be observed between soldiers who live in messes, and are regularly fed, and others who are not, is not confined merely to their external appearance: the influence of these causes extends much farther, and even the MORAL CHARACTER of the man is affected by them.

Peace of mind, which is as essential to contentment and happiness as it is to virtue, depends much upon order and regularity in the common affairs of life; and in no case are order and method more necessary to happiness, (and consequently to virtue,) than in that, where the preservation of health is connected with the satisfying of hunger; an appetite whose cravings are sometimes as inordinate as they are insatiable.

Peace of mind depends likewise much upon economy, or the means used for preventing pecuniary embarrassments; and the savings to soldiers in providing Food, which arise from housekeeping in messes of ten or twelve persons who live together, is very great indeed.

But great as these savings now are, I think they might be made still more considerable; and I shall give my reasons for this opinion.

Though the Bavarian soldiers live at a very small expense, little more than TWO-PENCE sterling a-day, yet when I compare this sum, small as it is, with the expense of feeding the Poor in the House of Industry at Munich, which does not amount to more than TWO FARTHINGS a-day, even including the cost of the piece of dry rye-bread, weighing seven ounces Avoirdupois[11], which is given them in their hands, at dinner, but which they seldom eat at dinner, but commonly carry home in their pockets for their suppers;--when I compare, I say, this small sum, with the daily expence of the soldiers for their subsistence, I find reason to conclude, either that the soldiers might be fed cheaper, or that the Poor must be absolutely starved upon their allowance. That the latter is not the case, the healthy countenances of the Poor, and the air of placid contentment which always accompanies them, as well in the dining-hall as in their working-rooms, affords at the same time the most interesting and most satisfactory proof possible.

Were they to go home in the course of the day, it might be suspected that they got something at home to eat, in addition to what they receive from the public kitchen of the Establishment;-- but this they seldom or ever do; and they come to the house so early in the morning, and leave it so late at night, that it does not seem probable that they could find time to cook any thing at their own lodgings.

Some of them, I known, make a constant practice of giving themselves a treat of a pint of beer at night, after they have finished their work; but I do not believe they have any thing else for their suppers, except it be the bread which they carry home from the House of Industry.

I must confess, however, very fairly, that it always appeared to me quite surprising, and that it is still a mystery which I do not clearly understand, how it is possible for these poor people to be so comfortably fed upon the small allowances which they receive.--The facts, however, are not only certain, but they are notorious. Many persons of the most respectable characters in this country, (Great Britain,) as well as upon the Continent, who have visited the House of Industry at Munich, can bear witness to their authenticity; and they are surely not the less interesting for being extraordinary.

It must however be remembered, that what formerly cost TWO FARTHINGS in Bavaria, at the mean price of provisions in that country, costs THREE farthings at this present moment; and would probably cost SIX in London, and in most other parts of Great Britain: but still, it will doubtless appear almost incredible, that a comfortable and nourishing meal, sufficient for satisfying the hunger of a strong man, may be furnished in London, and at this very moment, when provisions of all kinds are so remarkably dear, at LESS THAN THREE FARTHINGS. The fact, however, is most certain, and may easily be demonstrated by making the experiment.

Supposing that it should be necessary, in feeding the Poor in this country, to furnish them with three meals a-day, even that might be done at a very small expence, were the system of feeding them adopted which is here proposed. The amount of that expence would be as follows:

Pence. Farths.
For breakfast, 20 ounces of the Soup No, II.
composed of pearl barley, peas, potatoes,
and fine wheaten bread (See page 210.) 0 2 1/2
For dinner, 20 ounces of the same Soup, and
7 ounces of rye-bread ... ... ... ... 1 2
For supper, 20 ounces of the same Soup ... 0 2 1/2
------------
In all 4 lb. 3 oz. of Food[12], which would cost 2 3

Should it be thought necessary to give a little meat at dinner, this may best be done by mixing it, cut fine, or minced, in bread dumplins; or when bacon, or any kind of salted or smoked meat is given, to cut it fine and mix it with the bread which is eaten in the soup. If the bread be fried, the Food will be much improved; but this will be attended with some additional expence. --Rye-bread is as good, if not better, for frying, than bread made of wheat flour; and it is commonly not half so dear.-- Perhaps rye-bread fried might be furnished almost as cheap as wheaten bread not fried; and if this could be done, it would certainly be a very great improvement.

There is another way by which these cheap soups may be made exceedingly palatable and savoury;--which is by mixing with them a very small quantity of red herrings, minced very fine or pounded in a mortar.--There is no kind of cheap Food, I believe, that has so much taste as red herrings, or that communicates its flavour with so much liberality to other eatables; and to most palates it is remarkably agreeable.

Cheese may likewise be made use of for giving an agreeable relish to these soups; and a very small quantity of it will be sufficient for that purpose, provided it has a strong taste, and is properly applied.--It should be grated to a powder with a grater, and a small quantity of this powder thrown over the soup, AFTER IT IS DISHED OUT.--This is frequently done at the sumptuous tables of the rich, and is thought a great delicacy; while the Poor, who have so few enjoyments, have not been taught to avail themselves of this, which is so much within their reach.

Those whole avocations call them to visit distant countries, and those whose fortune enables them to travel for their amusement or improvement, have many opportunities of acquiring useful information; and in consequence of this intercourse with strangers, many improvements, and more REFINEMENTS, have been introduced into this country; but the most important advantages that MIGHT be derived from an intimate knowledge of the manners and customs of differing nations,--the introduction of improvements tending to facilitate the means of subsistence, and to increase the comforts and conveniences of the most necessitous and most numerous classes of society,--have been, alas! little attended to. Our extensive commerce enables us to procure, and we do actually import most of the valuable commodities which are the produce either of the foil of the ocean, or of the industry of man in all the various regions of the habitable globe;--but the result of the EXPERIENCE OF AGES respecting the use that can be made of those commodities has seldom been thought worth importing! I never see maccaroni in England, or polenta in Germany, upon the tables of the rich, without lamenting that cheap and wholesome luxuries should be monopolized by those who stand least in need of them; while the Poor, who, one would think, ought to be considered as having almost an EXCLUSIVE right to them, (as they were both invented by the Poor of a neighbouring nation,) are kept in perfect ignorance of them.

But these two kinds of Food are so palatable, wholesome, and nourishing, and may be provided so easily, and at so very cheap a rate in all countries, and particularly in Great Britain, that I think I cannot do better than to devote a few pages to the examination of them;--and I shall begin with Polenta, or Indian corn, as it is called in this country.

CHAPTER. VI.

Of INDIAN CORN. It affords the cheapest and most nourishing food known. Proofs that it is more nourishing than rice. Different ways of preparing or cooking it. Computation of the expense of feeding a person with it, founded on experiment. Approved Receipt for making an INDIAN PUDDING.

I cannot help increasing the length of this Essay much beyond the bounds I originally assigned to it, in order to have an opportunity of recommending a kind of Food which I believe to be beyond comparison the most nourishing, cheapest, and most wholesome that can be procured for feeding the Poor.--This is Indian Corn, a most valuable production; and which grows in almost all climates; and though it does not succeed remarkably well in Great Britain, and in some parts of Germany, yet it may easily be had in great abundance, from other countries; and commonly at a very low rate.

The common people in the northern parts of Italy live almost entirely upon it; and throughout the whole Continent of America it makes a principal article of Food.--In Italy it is called Polenta, where it is prepared or cooked in a variety of ways, and forms the basis of a number of very nourishing dishes.-- The most common way however of using it in that country is to grind it into meal, and with water to make it into a thick kind of pudding, like what in this country is called a hasty-pudding, which is eaten with various kinds of sauce, and sometimes without any sauce.

In the northern parts of North America, the common household bread throughout the country is composed of one part of Indian meal and one part of rye meal; and I much doubt whether a more wholesome, or more nourishing kind of bread can be made.

Rice is universally allowed to be very nourishing,--much more so even than wheat; but there is a circumstance well known to all those who are acquainted with the details of feeding the negro slaves in the southern states of North America, and in the West Indies, that would seem to prove, in a very decisive and satisfactory manner, that INDIAN CORN IS EVEN MORE NOURISHING THAN RICE.--In those countries, where rice and Indian Corn are both produced in the greatest abundance, the negroes have frequently had their option between these two kinds of Food; and have invariably preferred the latter.--The reasons they give for this preference they express in strong, though not in very delicate terms.--They say that "Rice turns to water in their bellies, and runs off;"--but "Indian Corn stays with them, and makes strong to work."

This account of the preference which negroes give to Indian Corn for Food, and of their reasons for this preference, was communicated to me by two gentlemen of most respectable character, well known in England, and now resident in London, who were formerly planters; one in Georgia, and the other in Jamaica.

The nutritive quantity which Indian Corn possessed, in a most eminent degree, when employed for fattening hogs and poultry, and for giving strength to working oxen, has long been universally known and acknowledged in every part of North America; and nobody in that country thinks of employing any other grain for those purposes.

All these facts prove to a demonstration that India Corn possesses very extraordinary nutritive powers; and it is well known that there is no species of grain that can be had so cheap, or in so great abundance;--it is therefore well worthy the attention of those who are engaged in providing cheap and wholesome Food for the Poor,--or in taking measures for warding off the evils which commonly attend a general scarcity of provisions, to consider in time, how this useful article of Food may be procured in large quantities, and how the introduction of it into common use can be most easily be effected.

In regard to the manner of using Indian Corn, there are a vast variety of different ways in which it may be prepared, or cooked, in order to its being used as Food.--One simple and obvious way of using it, is to mix it with wheat, rye, or barley meal, in making bread; but when it is used for making bread, and particularly when it is mixed with wheat flour, it will greatly improve the quality of the bread if the Indian meal, (the coarser part of the bran being first separated from it by sifting,) be previously mixed with water, and boiled for a considerable length of time,--two or three hours for instance, over a slow fire, before the other meal or flour is added to it.--This boiling, which, if the proper quantity of water is employed, will bring the mass to the consistency of a thin pudding, will effectually remove a certain disagreeable RAW TASTE in the Indian Corn, which simple baking will not entirely take away; and the wheat flour being mixed with this pudding after it has been taken from the fire and cooked, and the whole well kneaded together, may be made to rise, and be formed into loaves, and baked into bread, with the same facility that bread is made of wheat flour alone, or of any mixtures of different kinds of meal.

When the Indian meal is previously prepared by boiling, in the manner here described, a most excellent, and very palatable kind of bread, not inferior to wheaten bread, may be made of equal parts of this meal and of common wheat flour.

But the most simple, and I believe the best, and most economical way of employing Indian Corn as Food, is to make it into puddings.--There is, as I have already observed, a certain rawness in the taste of it, which nothing but long boiling can remove; but when that disagreeable taste is removed, it becomes extremely palatable; and that it is remarkably wholesome, has been proved by so much experience that no doubts can possibly be entertained of that fact.

The culture of it required more labour than most other kinds of grain; but, on the other hand, the produce is very abundant, and it is always much cheaper than either wheat or rye.-- The price of it in the Carolinas, and in Georgia, has often been as low as eighteen pence, and sometimes as one shilling sterling per bushel;--but the Indian Corn which is grown in those southern states is much inferior, both in weight and in its qualities, to that which is the produce of colder climates.--Indian Corn of the growth of Canada, and the New England states, which is generally thought to be worth twenty per cent. more per bushel than that which is grown in the southern states, may commonly be bought for two and sixpence, or three shillings a bushel.

It is now three shillings and sixpence a bushel at Boston; but the prices of provisions of all kinds have been much raised of late in all parts of America, owing to the uncommonly high prices which are paid for them in the European markets since the commencement of the present war.

Indian Corn and rye are very nearly of the same weight, but the former gives rather more flour, when ground and sifted, than the latter.--I find by a report of the Board of Agriculture, of the 10th of November 1795, that three bushels of Indian Corn weighed 1 cwt. 1 qr. 18 lb. (or 53 lb. each bushel), and gave 1 cwt. 20 lb. of flour and 26 lb. of bran; while three bushels of rye, weighing 1 cwt. 1 qr. 22 lb. (or 54 lb. the bushel), gave only 1 cwt. 17 lb. of flour and 28 lb. of bran.-- But I much suspect that the Indian Corn used in these experiments was not of the best quality[13].

I saw some of it, and it appeared to me to be of that kind which is commonly grown in the southern states of North America.-- Indian Corn of the growth of colder climates is, probably, at least as heavy as wheat, which weights at a medium about 58 lb. per bushel, and I imagine it will give nearly as much flour[14].

In regard to the most advantageous method of using Indian Corn as Food, I would strongly recommend, particularly when it is employed for feeding the Poor, a dish made of it that is in the highest estimation throughout America, and which is really very good, and very nourishing. This is called hasty-pudding; and it is made in the following manner: A quantity of water, proportioned to the quantity of hasty-pudding intended to be made, is put over the fire in an open iron pot, or kettle, and a proper quantity of salt for seasoning the pudding being previously dissolved in the water, Indian meal is stirred into it, by little and little, with a wooded spoon with a long handle, while the water goes on to be heated and made to boil;-- great care being taken to put in the meal by very small quantities, and by sifting it slowly through the fingers of the left hand, and stirring the water about very briskly at the same time with the wooden spoon, with the right hand, to mix the meal with the water in such a manner as to prevent lumps being formed.-- The meal should be added so slowly, that, when the water is brought to boil, the mass should not be thicker than water-gruel, and half an hour more, at least, should be employed to add the additional quantity of meal necessary for bringing the pudding to be of the proper consistency; during which time it should be stirred about continually, and kept constantly boiling.-- The method of determining when the pudding has acquired the proper consistency is this;--the wooden spoon used for stirring it being placed upright in the middle of the kettle, if it falls down, more meal must be added; but if the pudding is sufficiently thick and adhesive to support it in a vertical position, it is declared to be PROOF; and no more meal is added.--If the boiling, instead of being continued only half an hour, be prolonged to three quarters of an hour, or an hour, the pudding will be considerably improved by this prolongation.

This hasty-pudding, when done, may be eaten in various ways.-- It may be put, while hot, by spoonfuls into a bowl of milk, and eaten with the milk with a spoon, in lieu of bread; and used in this way it is remarkably palatable.--It may likewise be eaten, while hot, with a sauce composed of butter and brown sugar, or butter and molasses, with or without a few drops of vinegar; and however people who have not been accustomed to this American cookery may be prejudiced against it, they will find upon trial that it makes a most excellent dish, and one which never fails to be much liked by those who are accustomed to it. --The universal fondness of Americans for it proves that it must have some merit;--for in a country which produces all the delicacies of the table in the greatest abundance, it is not to be supposed that a whole nation should have a taste so depraved as to give a decided preference to any particular species of Food which has not something to recommend it.

The manner in which hasty-pudding is eaten with butter and sugar, or butter and molasses, in America, is as follows: The hasty-pudding being spread out equally upon a plate, while hot, an excavation is made in the middle of it, with a spoon, into which excavation a piece of butter, as large as a nutmeg, is put; and upon it, a spoonful of brown sugar, or more commonly of molasses.-- The butter being soon melted by the heat of the pudding, mixes with the sugar, or molasses, and forms a sauce, which, being confined in the excavation made for it, occupies the middle of the plate.--The pudding is then eaten with a spoon, each spoonful of it being dipt into the sauce before it is carried to the mouth; care being had in taking it up, to begin on the outside, or near the brim of the plate, and to approach the center by regular advances, in order not to demolish too soon the excavation which forms the reservoir for the sauce.

If I am prolix in these descriptions, my reader must excuse me; for persuaded as I am that the action of Food upon the palate, and consequently the pleasure of eating, depends very much indeed upon the MANNER in which the Food is applied to the organs of taste, I have thought it necessary to mention, and even to illustrate in the clearest manner, every circumstance which appeared to me to have influence in producing those important effects.

In the case in question, as it is the sauce alone which gives taste and palatableness to the Food, and consequently is the cause of the pleasure enjoyed in eating it, the importance of applying, or using it, in such a manner as to produce the greatest and most durable effect possible on the organs of taste, is quite evident; and in the manner of eating this Food which has here been described and recommended, the small quantity of sauce used, (and the quantity must be small, as it is the expensive article,) is certainly applied to the palate more immediately;-- by a greater surface;--and in a state of greater condensation;-- and consequently acts upon it more powerfully;--and continues to act upon it for a greater length of time, than it could well be made to do when used in any other way.--Were it more intimately mixed with the pudding, for instance, instead of being merely applied to its external surface, its action would certainly be much less powerful; and were it poured over the pudding, or was proper care not taken to keep it confined in the little excavation or reservoir made in the midst of the pudding to contain it, much of it would attach itself and adhere to the surface of the plate, and be lost.

Hasty-pudding has this in particular to recommend it;--and which renders it singularly useful as Food for poor families,--that when more of it is made at once than is immediately wanted, what remains may be preserved good for several days, and a number of very palatable dishes may be made of it.--It may be cut in thin slice, and toasted before the fire, or on a gridiron, and eaten instead of bread, either in milk, or in any kind of soup or pottage; or with any other kind of Food with which bread is commonly eaten; or it may be eaten cold, without any preparation, with a warm sauce made of butter, molasses, or sugar, and a little vinegar.--In this last-mentioned way of eating it, it is quite as palatable, and I believe more wholesome, than when eaten warm; that is to say, when it is first made.--It may likewise be put cold, without any preparation, into hot milk; and this mixture is by no means unpalatable, particularly if it be suffered to remain in the milk till it is warmed throughout, or if it be boiled in the milk for a few moments.

A favourite dish in America, and a very good one, is made of cold boiled cabbage chopped fine, with a small quantity of cold boiled beef, and slices of cold hasty-pudding, all fried together in butter or hog's lard.

Though hasty-puddings are commonly made of Indian meal, yet it is by no means uncommon to make them of equal parts of Indian, and of rye meal;--and they are sometimes made of rye meal alone; or of rye meal and wheat flour mixed.

To give a satisfactory idea of the expence of preparing hasty-puddings in this country, (England,) and of feeding the Poor with them, I made the following experiment:--About 2 pints of water, which weighed just 2 lb. Avoirdupois, were put over the fire in a saucepan of a proper size, and 58 grains in weight or 1/120 of a pound of salt being added, the water was made to boil.--During the time that is was heating, small quantities of Indian meal were stirred into it, and care was taken, by moving the water briskly about, with a wooden spoon, to prevent the meal from being formed into lumps; and as often as any lumps were observed, they were carefully broken with the spoon;--the boiling was then continued half an hour, and during this time the pudding was continually stirred about with the wooden spoon, and so much more meal was added as was found necessary to bring the pudding to be of the proper consistency.