Chapter I: Front Matter

TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES

Italic text is denoted by _underscores_.
The oe ligature has been expanded to 'oe'.
Subscripts in chemical formulas are denoted by normal numbers;
for example CaC2.

Obvious typographical and punctuation errors have been corrected
after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text
and consultation of external sources.

More detail can be found at the end of the book.

(From the painting by J. Didier, in the _Musée du Luxembourg_, Paris.)]

EVERY-DAY SCIENCE

BY
HENRY SMITH WILLIAMS, M.D., L.L.D.

ASSISTED BY
EDWARD H. WILLIAMS, M.D.

VOLUME VI

THE CONQUEST OF NATURE

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK AND LONDON
THE GOODHUE COMPANY
PUBLISHERS MDCCCCIX

Copyright, 1910, by THE GOODHUE CO.

_All rights reserved_

CONTENTS

CHAPTER I

MAN AND NATURE

The Conquest of Nature, p. 4--Man's use of Nature's gifts, p.
6--Man the "tool-making animal," p. 7--Science and Civilization,
p. 8--Clothing and artificially heated dwellings of primitive man,
p. 10--Early domestication of animals, p. 11--Early development to
the time of gunpowder, p. 12--The coming of steam and electricity,
p. 15--Mechanical aids to the agriculturist, p. 19--The development
of scientific agriculture, p. 20--Difficulties of the early
manufacturer, p. 21--The development of modern manufacturing, p.
24--The relation of work to human development, p. 25--The decline of
drudgery and the new era of labor-saving devices, p. 27.

CHAPTER II

HOW WORK IS DONE

Primitive man's use of the lever, p. 29--The use of the lever as
conceived by Archimedes, p. 21--Wheels and pulleys, p. 32--Other
means of transmitting power, p. 35--Inclined planes and derricks, p.
37--The steam-scoop, p. 38--Friction, p. 39--Available sources of
energy, p. 41.

CHAPTER III

THE ANIMAL MACHINE

The oldest machine in existence, p. 43--The relation of muscle
to machinery, p. 44--How muscular energy is applied, p. 44--The
two types of muscles, p. 45--How the nerve-telegraph controls the
muscles, p. 47--The nature of muscular action, p. 49--Applications
of muscular energy, p. 52--The development of the knife and saw, p.
53--The wheel and axle, p. 55--Modified levers, p. 57--Domesticated
animals, p. 59--Early application of horse-power, p. 60--The
horse-power as the standard of the world's work, p. 61.

CHAPTER IV

THE WORK OF AIR AND WATER

First use of sails for propelling boats, p. 62--The fire engine of
Ctesibius, p. 63--Suction and pressure as studied by the ancients, p.
64--Studies of air pressure, p. 65--The striking demonstration of Von
Guericke, p. 66--The sailing chariot of Servinus, 1600 A.D.,
p. 68--The development of the windmill, p. 69--The development of the
water-wheel, p. 70--The invention of the turbine, p. 72--Different
types of turbines, p. 73--Hydraulic power and its uses, p. 74--The
hydraulic elevator, p. 76--Recent water motors, p. 77.

CHAPTER V

CAPTIVE MOLECULES: THE STORY OF THE STEAM ENGINE

The development of the steam engine, p. 79--The manner in which
energy is generated by steam, p. 80--Action of cylinder and piston,
p. 81--Early attempts to utilize steam, p. 82--Beginnings of modern
discovery, p. 83--The "engine" of the Marquis of Worcester, p.
84--Thomas Savery's steam pump, p. 85--Denis Papin invents the piston
engine, p. 88--Newcomen's improved engine, p. 89--The use of these
engines in collieries, p. 90--The wastefulness of such engines, p.
92--The coming of James Watt, p. 93--Early experiments of Watt, p.
95--The final success of Watt's experiments, p. 97--Some of his early
engines, p. 98--Rotary motion, p. 99--Watt's engine, "Old Bess,"
p. 101--Final improvements and missed opportunities, p. 102--The
personality of James Watt, p. 107.

CHAPTER VI

THE MASTER WORKER

Improvements on Watt's engines, p. 110--Engines dispensing with the
walking beam, p. 111--The development of high-pressure engines, p.
112--Advantages of the high-pressure engine, p. 114--How steam acts
in the high-pressure engine, p. 116--Compound engines, p. 117--Rotary
engines, p. 119--Turbine engines, p. 124--The _Turbinia_ and other
turbine boats, p. 125--The action of steam in the turbine engine, p.
126--Advantages of the turbine engine, p. 127.

CHAPTER VII

GAS AND OIL ENGINES

Some early gas engines, p. 133--Dr. Stirling's hot-air engine, p.
133--Ericsson's hot-air engines, p. 134--The first practical gas
engine, p. 135--The Otto gas engine, p. 136--Otto's improvement by
means of compressed gas, p. 138--The "Otto cycle," p. 139--Adaptation
of gas engines to automobiles, p. 140--Rapid increase in the use
of gas engines, p. 141--Defects of the older hot-air engines, p.
145--Recent improvements and possibilities in the use of hot-air
engines, p. 146.

CHAPTER VIII

THE SMALLEST WORKERS

The relative size of atoms and electrons, p. 148--What is
electricity? p. 149--Franklin's one-fluid theory, p. 150--Modern
views, p. 153--Cathode rays and the X-ray, p. 156--How electricity
is developed, p. 159--The work of the dynamical current, p.
162--Theories of electrical action, p. 165--Practical uses of
electricity, p. 168.

CHAPTER IX

MAN'S NEWEST CO-LABORER: THE DYNAMO

The mechanism of the dynamo, p. 173--The origin of the dynamo, p.
176--The work of Ampère, Henry, and Faraday, p. 177--Perfecting the
dynamo, p. 178--A mysterious mechanism, p. 180--Curious relation
between magnetism and electricity as exemplified in the dynamo, p.
182.

CHAPTER X

NIAGARA IN HARNESS

The volume of water at the falls, p. 184--The point at which
the falls are "harnessed," p. 185--Within the power-house, p.
186--Penstocks and turbines, p. 188--A miraculous transformation
of energy, p. 189--Subterranean tail-races, p. 191--The effect on
the falls, p. 192--The transmission of power, p. 194--"Step-up" and
"step-down" transformers, p. 198.

CHAPTER XI

THE BANISHMENT OF NIGHT

Primitive torch and open lamp, p. 202--Tallow candle and perfected
lamp, p. 205--Gas lighting, p. 207--The incandescent gas mantle, p.
208--Early gas mantles, p. 209--How the incandescent gas mantle is
made, p. 211--The introduction of acetylene gas, p. 212--Chemistry
of acetylene gas, p. 214--Practical gas-making, p. 215--The triumph
of electricity, p. 218--Davy and the first electric light, p.
220--Helpful discoveries in electricity, p. 222--The Jablochkoff
candle, p. 223--Defects of the Jablochkoff candle, p. 225--The
improved arc light, p. 226--Edison and the incandescent lamp, p.
228--Difficulties encountered in finding the proper material for
a practical filament, p. 230--"Parchmentized thread" filament, p.
233--The tungsten lamp, p. 234--The mercury-vapor light of Peter
Cooper Hewitt, p. 236--Advantages and peculiarities of this light, p.
240.

CHAPTER XII

THE MINERAL DEPTHS

Early mining methods, p. 242--Prospecting and locating mines, p.
243--"Booming," p. 246--Conditions to be considered in mining,
p. 248--Dangerous gases in mines, p. 249--Artificial lights and
lighting, p. 251--Ventilation and drainage, p. 252--Electric
machinery in mining, p. 253--Electric drills, p. 254--Traction in
mining, p. 256--Various types of electric motors, p. 257--"Telphers,"
p. 261--Electric mining pumps, p. 263--Some remarkable demonstrations
of durability of electric pumps, p. 265--Electricity in coal mining,
p. 266--Electric lighting in mines, p. 269.

CHAPTER XIII

THE AGE OF STEEL

Rapid growth of the iron industry in recent years, p. 271--The Lake
Superior mines, p. 272--Methods of mining, p. 273--"Open-pit" mining,
p. 274--Mining with the steam shovel, p. 276--From mine to furnace,
p. 278--Methods of transportation, p. 279--Vessels of special
construction, p. 281--The conversion of iron ore into iron and steel,
p. 283--Blast furnaces, p. 284--Poisonous gases and their effect
upon the workmen, p. 286--From pig iron to steel, p. 287--Modern
methods of producing pig iron, p. 288--The Bessemer converter, p.
289--Sir Henry Bessemer, p. 291--The "Bessemer-Mushet" process, p.
293--Open-hearth method, p. 294--Alloy steels, p. 295.