Chapter III: General Remarks on the Method of Study

I have endeavoured in the foregoing pages to formulate and illustrate some of the principles underlying the evolution of decorative art. The subject is so vast that it would be impossible to deal with it adequately unless a series of memoirs could be devoted to it. Here, however, I have been more concerned with the method of study; I have not attempted to seriously investigate even a single department, and various branches of the subject have either been merely hinted at or entirely passed over.

In all studies a right method is of fundamental importance, and in an attempt to understand the meaning of decorative art, as in other matters, a slight deviation from the right method of procedure may lead one far from the truth. Nothing is easier than to be led astray by superficial resemblances, and it is impossible to be too much on one’s guard in this matter. Of this I have given some examples, but I have refrained from giving as many as I might have done, as it is not pleasant to show up the mistakes of pioneers, even if it be only for the purpose of warning others. As Professor Max Müller has said,[210] “Identity of form does as little prove identity of origin in archæology as identity of sound proves identity of origin in etymology. Comparative studies are very useful, so long as they do not neglect the old rule, _Divide et impera_—Distinguish, and you will be master of your subject!”

[210] From an essay in Schliemann’s _Ilios_, p. 348.

There are practically but two methods of work—(1) Inquiry from the people who employ the designs, or the testimony of written evidence when the people no longer know the significance of the designs; or (2) an investigation of induction and interpretation where oral or written tradition fail.

Beyond all question the most valuable results are obtained from oral information. I need only refer the reader to the investigations of Professors Ehrenreich and Karl von den Steinen (p. 174), and of Mr. H. Vaughan Stevens (p. 236), to demonstrate that by no other method could we ever gain any idea as to what was the meaning of these particular patterns and designs. In fact, the observations of these travellers make one very sceptical of any interpretations by outsiders.

This is undoubtedly the most important and pressing work in this subject. Only those who have visited backward peoples of certain grades of culture who have come into contact with the white man, can realise how rapidly the old lore is passing away. This may or may not be advantageous, but no one will deny that it is a thousand pities that scarcely any one thinks it his duty to inquire about and to put on record all that can be gathered about those peoples which our civilisation is either modifying or destroying. Every one who can will collect “curios,” especially those which are decorated; but out of the hundreds of collectors, how many units have ever thought of asking the natives what was the significance of the ornamentation? I have already drawn attention to this need for Australia, but it is equally pressing in many other parts of the world. Even museum curators have in the past regarded ethnographical specimens more as “trophies” than as materials for the study of a history of mankind.

There are still some “collectors” (that is, purchasers of “curios”) who think that when they know where an object comes from, and, may be, what is its native name, they know pretty well all that is worth knowing about it. Others have realised that there is a history in every form and pattern.

What is wanted is an interpretation of the form, of the meaning of odd little details of contour, of indentation, or of projection. No apparently insignificant superfluity is meaningless, they are silently eloquent witnesses of a past signification like the mute letters in so many of our words. Almost every line or dot of every ornament has a meaning, but we are without understanding, and have eyes and see not.

But again, we must not stop short when we have determined what a form means, or what is the original of a device. We have to discover why it was so. The reasons for a motive, the meaning of its present form, have also to be sought. So we come to higher and finer analysis, and at last find ourselves studying psychology.

With so much to learn, it is evident that we must be sure of our premises, and hence the necessity for going to the original sources. But there is always considerable difficulty in getting at the truth, and a statement made by a native must never be accepted as evidence until it has been independently confirmed from other sources. Nothing is easier than to get unreliable information. This is not the place to enter into the various possible sources of error, but I would like to warn those who have the opportunity of getting information first hand, that it is impossible to take too much care, and all suggestive interrogation or leading questions should be totally avoided.

When we are dealing with written evidence the method is one of historical procedure. The means of information of the writer, his credibility, and other factors have to be taken into account; often, too, there is a sparsity, or even an absence of corroborative evidence, which tends to make the testimony uncertain.

Failing these direct methods of obtaining information, there remains the deductive and comparative method. The best example of this mentioned in the preceding pages is Count Goblet d’Alviella’s investigation of the fylfot; indeed his book is a model for method. In another field Dr. Stolpe’s study of the decorative art of the Hervey Islands is a memorable and instructive piece of work.

With the examples of method which are here brought together the student should be in a position to prosecute researches in the innumerable fields which lay open to him.

I would, however, like to take this opportunity to say a word or two to those who wish to commence a study of decorative art from the biological standpoint.

No amount of trouble must be grudged in collecting the data, whether it be in the form of photographs, sketches, tracings, or rubbings; right conclusions largely depend upon a wealth of suitable material.

Rubbings of carved ornament can be made with great facility on tough, thin Japanese paper by means of heel-ball (Ullathorne’s is the best, and it can be obtained from almost any working shoemaker; the paper is more difficult to obtain). The paper is firmly held on to the object, and then rubbed hard with the heel-ball; it is best to always rub the latter in one direction. Whenever possible it is desirable to make a rubbing of the whole of an object, but if only a portion is decorated the outline of the remaining portions need alone be rubbed. Next to photographs, rubbings are the most satisfactory method of obtaining copies of carved objects, as every detail and vagary is accurately reproduced, and they lend themselves very readily to reproduction in the form of “process-blocks,” but it will be found that details will often have to be supplemented by sketches. There are, of course, many carved objects of which it is impossible to make rubbings. A very little experience will soon teach the beginner as to the best methods of procedure in any special case.

Professor A. Grünwedel[211] calls attention to the necessity there is for absolute accuracy when copying the ornamentation of savages. “Still more dangerous [than mistaken interpretation] is the attempted ‘correct’ reproduction of aboriginal ornament according to the European, so-called, feeling for beauty, whereby somewhat crooked lines are replaced by straight ones, and unequal halves, which are deemed corresponding, are made alike. This method causes fundamental error, since through its corrections, it renders impossible a critical examination of the visual ability of wild races. The Orang-hûtan draws a curve and sees it as a straight line, he makes too many legs, too few fingers, but has, in spite of these faults, according to our conceptions, the power of seizing abbreviations of parts of the body in a picturesque manner, of skilfully interpreting contours and of preparing intelligent ground-plans. The diagrammatic copying of primitive ornamental forms can therefore have no scientific value.”

[211] _Zeitschr. für Ethnologie_, xxvi., 1894, p. 142.

Two most important points to note are the locality whence an object comes, and the date of its manufacture and collection.

The former is essential, and it is not sufficient to obtain a vague locality like “New Guinea” or the “Solomon Islands,” but it is necessary to know the district or the particular island, and, if possible, the exact spot. Information must also be obtained whether the object was made there or merely procured there. The native name of every object must be obtained, also the name of the several parts of it as well as of the details of its ornamentation. Of course the meaning should, if possible, be ascertained, but on no account should only one explanation be accepted as correct; it is necessary to check all such information by inquiry from independent sources, as there are numerous ways in which error can creep in, even when there is no question of intentional deceit.

It is rarely possible to ascertain the date of manufacture when dealing with ordinary ethnographical specimens in museums; as most of these are quite recent no sequence in time can be made out. Even when objects are collected in the field it is rarely possible to obtain a succession of objects from a historical point of view. In all inquiries relating to historical or pre-historical objects, the time-element is as important as the place-element, and great care must be taken in order to ascertain dates and the relation of periods.

A great deal of light can often be thrown upon the meaning of ornament by a study of the manners and customs of a people; this is especially the case for their religion, using that term in its widest sense.

As long ago as 1857 Mr. Kemble[212] urged that ornamentation should be taken “seriously into consideration, because it forms one of the most important and characteristic criterions by which to judge of the tendency of a race. There is some reason in every ornament why it recommended itself to some particular people. We do not know what the reason was, but the difference itself is of the deepest moment.” He points out that the spirit or feeling of art may be made the measure of culture when the workman is at liberty to impose what form and lines he will upon his material. Quite recently Professor Flinders Petrie said,[213] “Art is one of the most important records of a race. Each group of mankind has its own style and favourite manner, more particularly in the decorative arts. A stray fragment of carving without date or locality can be surely fixed in its place if there is any sufficient knowledge of the art from which it springs. This study of the art of a people is one of the highest branches of anthropology, and one of the most important, owing to its persistent connection with each race. No physical characteristics have been more persistent than the style of decoration. When we see on the Celtic work of the period of La Téne, or on Irish carvings, the same forms as on mediæval ironwork, and on the flamboyant architecture of France, we realise how innate is the love of style, and how similar expressions will blossom out again from the same people. Even later we see the hideous =C=-curves, which are neither foliage nor geometry, to be identical on late Celtic bronze, on Louis XV. carvings, and even descending by imitation into modern furniture. Such long descent of one style through great changes of history is not only characteristic of Celtic art, but is seen equally in Italy. Further east, the long-persistent styles of Egypt, of Babylonia, of India, of China, which outlived all changes of government and history, show the same vitality of art. We must recognise, therefore, a principle of ‘racial taste,’ which belongs to each people as much as their language, which may be borrowed, like language, from one race by another, but which survives changes and long eclipses even more than language. Such a means of research deserves more systematic study than it has yet received.”

[212] John M. Kemble, _Horæ Ferales, or Studies in the
Archæology of the Northern Nations_, 1863, p. 80.

[213] Address to the Anthropological Section, British
Association, Ipswich Meeting, 1895.

It may be asked why I have so largely confined my attention to the decorative art of savage peoples. The answer to this not unnatural question will be found in my introductory remarks.

The decorative art of civilised peoples is very complex, and the motives which prompt it are obscure; it appeared to me that our best chance of finding out the underlying principles was to study less complex conditions. I must confess that I have been mainly concerned to provide an efficient tool for the use of other workers, and I have not been anxious to elucidate the multitudinous designs and forms which beset us on every hand. This task I leave to my readers, and they need not confine themselves to decorative designs or patterns, for the forms and the adjuncts of objects are susceptible of the same treatment, and will yield analogous results.

Almost any manufactured object that may first meet the reader’s eyes has a history that is bound up with the history of man. The eyes alike of the head and of the mind require to be opened. Too often we envy the traveller who has voyaged afar: If we had had his opportunities, if we had seen what he has seen—we too might have been able to make discoveries! We pine for the unattainable and neglect our opportunities. The world is before us, and that too at our very doors.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES.

PLATE I.—SKEUOMORPHS OF BINDING.

FIGS.
1. Part of the stone axe of Montezuma II., Ambras Museum, Vienna
(J. Evans, _The Ancient Bronze Implements of Great Britain
and Ireland_, 1881, Fig. 180, p. 148).
2. Socket of a bronze spear-head, Co. Galway, Ireland (Evans,
_loc. cit._, Fig. 393, p. 320).
3. Socket of a bronze spear-head, Ireland (Evans, _loc. cit._,
Fig. 402, p. 326).
4. Bronze palstave (socketed celt), Co. Meath, Ireland (Evans,
_loc. cit._, Fig. 172, p. 140).
5. Bronze vessel, Lake of Bourget (F. Keller, _The Lake
Dwellings of Switzerland_, 2nd ed., 1878, Plate CLIX., Fig. 1).
6. Pattern on an ebony comb, Assyria (G. Perrot and C. Chipiez,
_History of Art in Chaldæa and Assyria_, ii., 1884, Fig. 227,
p. 350).
7. Pattern on a sculptured stone cornice (Perrot and Chipiez,
_History of Ancient Egyptian Art_, ii., 1883, Fig. 288,
p. 361, from Prisse d’Avennes).
8. Pattern on a perforated bone needle, Tumulus, Holyhead (W.
Owen Stanley, _Arch, Journ._, xxxiii., 1876, pp. 94, 133).
9. Back of a bronze knife, Estavayer (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate
XCVI., Fig. 12).
10. Bronze palstave, near Kingston-on-Thames (Evans, _loc. cit._,
Fig. 141, p. 125).
11. Bronze palstave, Fornham, near Bury St. Edmunds (Evans, _loc.
cit._, Fig. 133, p. 122).
_a._ “Angular Meander,” Wolvesey Castle, Winchester, _temp._
Stephen (_Archæologia_, xvi., 1812, p. 361, Plate LXII., Fig.
3).
_b._ Norman capital, “sections of branches” or billet ends,
Peterborough Cathedral (_Archæologia_, xii., 1796, Plate
XXXI., Fig. 4, p. 168).
_c._ Hut-urn, Etruscan, Monte Albano (_Museo Kircheriano, Rome_),
_d-f._ Skeuomorphs of the gable (_Household Furniture_).

PLATE II.—SKEUOMORPHS OF WATTLE-WORK.

FIGS.
1. Impression of wattle-work on clay, Ebersberg (Keller, _loc.
cit._, Plate CXLIV., Fig. 16).
2. Bast twisted among willow rods, Robenhausen (Keller, _loc.
cit._, Plate CXXXIV., Fig. 5).
3. Mat of bast, Robenhausen (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate CXXXIV.,
Fig. 2).
4. Fabric of flax, Robenhausen (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate
CXXXVI., Fig. 4).
5. Fabric of bast, Robenhausen (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate
CXXXV., Fig. 3).
6. Corbula, Italy (W. Smith, _Dict. Roman Antiq._, p. 285).
7. Basket on ivory plaque, Boulak (Perrot and Chipiez, _Egypt_,
ii., Fig. 321, p. 388).
8. Earthenware food-vessel, Stone Age, Denmark (Worsaae, _Danish
Arts_, p. 36).
9. Bottom of a basket, Terramara Beds, Northern Italy (Keller,
_loc. cit._, Plate CXVI., Fig. 11).
10. Fragment of Pottery, Terramara Beds, Northern Italy (Keller,
_loc. cit._, Plate CXIII., Fig. 13).

PLATE III.—SKEUOMORPHS OF BASKETRY.

FIGS.
A. Hypothetical origin of a scroll from basket-work.
B. Hypothetical origin of a curvilinear fret from basket-work.
1. Marginal pattern of a bronze buckler from Amathus, Cyprus (G.
Perrot and C. Chipiez, _History of Art on Phœnicia and its
Dependencies_, ii., 1885, Fig. 363, p. 420).
2. Pattern on a bronze buckler from Dali, Cyprus (Perrot and
Chipiez, _loc. cit._, Fig. 360, p. 418).
3. Greek guilloche (Wornum, _Analysis of Ornament_, 7th ed.,
p. 58).
4. Assyrian guilloche (Glazier, _Notes on Ornament_, p. 8).
5. Pattern on an enamelled Roman vase, Bartlow Hills (_Arch.
Journ._, xii., 1855, p. 418).
6. Bowl of Ancient Pueblos, Tusayan (W. H. Holmes, _Fourth Ann.
Rep. Bureau Eth._, Fig. 308, p. 331).
7. Handled vase of Ancient Pueblos, Tusayan (_loc. cit._, Fig.
336, p. 346).
8. Terra-cotta vase, Third Sepulchre of Mycenæ (Schliemann,
_Mycenæ_, 1878, No. 324, p. 209).

PLATE IV.—SKEUOMORPHS OF THE WITHY-BAND.

1. “The Tarsus Seal” of hæmatite, Hittite (_Nature_, April 26,
1888, p. 610). The right-hand design strongly resembles a
course of the twisted fibre of basketry when removed from the
upright osier-sticks.
2. Detail on incised stone, Kirk Maughold, Isle of Man (_Runic
Remains_, Fig. 24).
3. Detail on incised stone, Church of Mont Majour, Nimes, tenth
century (Wright, _Hist. of Caricature_, p. 48).
4. Detail on incised stone, Malew, Isle of Man; “Leather or
strap-work” (_Runic Remains_, Fig. 15).

FILIGREE.

5. Gold ornament, Lake Möringen (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate
LVII., Fig. 9).
6. Gold ornament, Denmark (Worsaae, _Danish Arts_, p. 62).
7. Bronze pin, Nidau—Steinberg (Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate
XXXIV., Fig. 14).

SKEUOMORPHS OF FASCINING.

8. Floor of lake-dwelling, Niederwyl, 1864 (Keller, _loc. cit._,
Plate XVI., Fig. 8).
9. Bottom of inside of an earthen vessel, Ueberlingen See
(Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate XXX., Fig. 6).
10. Part of a crescent of red sandstone, Ebersberg (Keller, _loc.
cit._, Plate CXLIII., Fig. 7).
11. Incised stone from Hadrian’s Wall.

SKEUOMORPHS OF WEAVING.

12. Greek fret (Birch, _Ancient Pottery_, Fig. 4, p. 305).
13. Greek fret (Glazier, _Notes on Ornament_, p. 8).
14. Japanese fret (Glazier, _loc. cit._, p. 8).
15. Anglo-Saxon fret, Lambeth Aldhelm (J. O. Westwood, “Early
British Anglo-Saxon and Irish Ornamentation,” _Arch. Journ._,
x. p. 290, 1853).

PLATE V.—SKEUOMORPHS OF TIMBERING.

FIGS.
1. Rock tomb, Antiphellus, Lycia (C. Fellows, _A Journal written
during an Excursion in Asia Minor_, 1839, p. 220).
2. Rock tomb, Xanthus (Fellows, _loc. cit._, p. 226).
3. Rock tomb, Antiphellus (Fellows, _loc. cit._, p. 219).
4. Painting of a house, Pompeii (Gell, Plate 60).
5. Greek egg-and-dart, or Echinus pattern, from entablature,
Erechtheium.
6. Similar pattern on Samian vase (Wornum, _loc. cit._, p. 58).
7. Greek anthemion, Apollo Epicurius (Wornum, _loc. cit._,
p. 58).

PLATE VI.—ZOOMORPHS.

FIGS.
1. Detail on a vase from Roman villa, Chesterford, Essex (R. C.
Neville, “Roman Remains at Ickleton and Chesterford,” _Arch.
Journ._, vi., 1849, p. 19).
2. Part of iron sword of Gaulish workmanship, Marin Lake
(Keller, _loc. cit._, Plate CXXVIII., Fig. 6).
3. Detail of mural decoration, Pompeii (_Art Journal_, 1877,
p. 233).
4. Decoration of an ancient pot of New Mexico (J. Stevenson,
“Illust. Cat. of Collections obtained from Indians of New
Mexico and Arizona,” _Second Ann. Rep. Bureau Ethnol._, 1883,
Fig. 363, p. 344).
5. Lombardic gold ornament, Chiusi, Tuscany (S. T. Baxter,
_Arch. Journ._, xxxiii., 1876, Plate I., p. 105).
6. Decoration in Greek terra-cotta (Wornum, _loc. cit._, p. 28).
7. Top of bench-end, Ormskirk Church (_Manchester Guardian_,
10th November 1888).
8. Engraved silver plate, Tumulus, Norrie’s Law, Scotland (R.
Dundas, “Silver Ornaments in Tumulus at Largo, Fifeshire,”
_Arch. Journ._, vi., 1849, p. 253).
9. Incised stone, Dunnichen, Scotland (Boyd Dawkins, _Early Man
in Britain_, p. 435).
10-12. Carving on New Zealand clubs, in the collection of Mr.
Charles Heape.
13. Part of carved handle of Hervey Island paddle, in the
collection of Mr. Charles Heape.

PLATE VII.—ZOOMORPHS.

FIGS.
1. Detail on incised-stone, Isle of Man (_Runic Remains_,
Fig. 15).
2. Figure from King Gorm’s stone, Jellinge, Jutland (J.
Ferguson, _Rude Stone Monuments_, 1872, Fig. 105, p. 296).
3. Detail on carved cross, Gosforth, W. Cumberland (W. S.
Calverley, _Arch. Journ._, xl., 1883, p. 146).
4. Panel in illumination, Gospels of Mac Regol, at Oxford
(_Arch. Journal_, x., 1853, p. 291, Fig. 6).
5. Detail on incised stone, Kirk Michael, Isle of Man (_Runic
Remains_, Fig. 17).
6, 7. Figures on rock sculpture, Crichie, Scotland (_Arch.
Journ._ xiv., 1857. p, 193, Figs. 13, 14).
8. Saxon silver ear-ring, Thetford (_Arch. Journ._ ii., 1846,
p. 402).
9. Saxon gold ring, Bormer, Sussex (_Arch. Journ._ xi., 1854,
p. 28).
10. Detail on Saxon tomb, Bedale, Yorks (_Arch. Journ._ iii.,
1846, p. 258).

WITHY BAND.

11. Detail on lid of a stone coffin, Cambridge Castle (T.
Kerrich, _Arch._ xvii., 1814, Plate XVI., p. 228).
12. Scandinavian triskele.
13. Reefing knot on Britanno-Roman altar, _Cohors quarta Gallorum
equitata_, Risingham, Northumberland (_Arch. Journ._ xii.,
1855, p. 219).

PLATE VIII.—PHYLLOMORPHS.

FIGS.
A, B. Diagrams of Mats.
1. Fringe on King Sargon’s tunic, in alabaster, Khorsabad
(Perrot and Chipiez, _Chaldæa and Assyria_, i., Fig. 22,
p. 97).
2. Tabernacle, bronze Gates of Balawat (Perrot and Chipiez,
_Chaldæa, etc._, i., Fig. 68, p. 194).
3. Painting of a tree in a garden from a Theban tomb (Perrot and
Chipiez, _Egypt_, ii., Fig. 1, p. 3, after Champollion, Plate
174).
4. Ornament painted on plaster, Assyria (Perrot and Chipiez,
_Chaldæa, etc._, i., Fig. 118, p. 276, after Layard).
5. Tassel on a king’s tunic, on enamelled brick from Nimroud
(Perrot and Chipiez, _Chaldæa, etc._, ii., Plate XIV.,
p. 294, after Layard).
6. Tasselled canopy over the king, on enamelled brick from
Nimroud (_loc. cit._ ii., Plate XIV., after Layard).
7. Pavilion carved in stone, Nimroud (_loc. cit._ i., Fig. 67,
p. 193).
8. Border pattern of incised stone door sill, Khorsabad (_loc.
cit._ i., Fig. 96, p. 240).
9. Enamelled brick, Nimroud (_loc. cit._ ii., Plate XIII.,
p. 294, after Layard).
10. Pattern on ivory panel, Assyrian anthemion (_loc. cit._ ii.,
Fig. 201, p. 321).
11. Anthemion on Sindh pottery (G. Birdwood, _Indust. Arts of
India_, ii. 424).
12. Egyptian anthemion, Necropolis, Thebes (xviii-xx. Dyn.)
(Perrot and Chipiez, _Chaldæa, etc._, i., Fig. 134, p. 306,
after Prisse d’Avennes).

INDEX.

Accadian Magic, 249
Adze-god Tane, 82, 274
Adzes of Hervey Islands, 80
Ægean spirals, 142
Ægina, tortoise-money, 230, 232, 233
Æsthetics, definition of, 200
African, axes as money, 226;
baskets, 91;
fylfot, 287
Alaskan carving, 210, 211;
pictograph, 207, 208
Algerian designs, 156
Alligator, 167;
drawings of, in America, 168-173
(see Crocodile)
Alphabet, evolution of, 216
Ament, W. S., 227
American cross, 174, 279;
fylfot, 287;
pictographs, 204-213
Ancestor worship, 264-267;
Polynesia, 81, 265, 270-274
Animal forms in art, 164-183;
Samian, Gaul, Pompeii, Tuscany, New Mexico, 179;
Torres Straits, 15;
Eskimo, 181;
in Melanesia, Polynesia, Africa, Eskimo, French caves, 166
Animals, human souls in, 129, 130;
as sun symbols, 136
Annam, barter, 226
Ansault, Abbé, 281
Anthemion, 143
Anthropomorphs, 183-187, 199;
in Greece, 183;
New Guinea, 16-19, 29-41, 184;
New Zealand, 185; Melanesia, 185;
Hawaii, 186;
Mangaia (Hervey Islands), 185, 270-274;
Polynesia, 185
Antiphellus, rock tombs, 114, 115
Arabesque patterns, 193
Arabian art, 152
Ardmore Round Tower, 90
Argus pheasant in magic, 241, 243
Arizona, basketry, 104;
rain symbol, 119
Arrow, crocodile, 20
Arrows, Torres Straits, 19-25
Art, definition of, 200;
ethnological value of, 9, 323-325, 336, 337
Asia Minor, rock tombs of, 114-116;
triskele in, 289
Assyrian Anthemion, 144;
magic, 249;
patterns, 143;
writing, 218-221
Atkinson, J. J., on pottery, 99
Australian art, 324;
baskets, 91;
designs, 258-263;
totemism, 255-263;
weapons, 258
Axe, double-headed, as money, 232;
New Guinea, 222;
as money, 226;
stone as money, 225

Balfour, H., 311;
on frigate-bird, 266;
on maces, 222;
on mandrake, 5
Barter, evolution of, 223-225
Basketry, 90-93;
of Arizona, 104
Baskets, making of, 91
Bat patterns, Brazil, 175, 178
Beading, origin of, 86
Beal, 280
Bechuana, sympathetic magic, 236
Belts, wooden, Papuan Gulf, 31-41
Biological method of studying art, 308
Biomorphs, life-history of, 126-191
Biomorphic pottery, 188-191
Bird and crocodile design, 56
Bird’s-head designs, New Guinea, 49-58
Bird design, Pompeian, 194;
patterns, Brazil, 178
Birdwood, Sir G., 214, 292;
on Indian art, 151, 153
Blanket-money, 228, 230
Blind, Karl, 279, 285
Blowpipe, magic patterns on, 237, 239
Boar, Sun-, 195
Bœotian shield money, 230, 233
Bonavia, Dr. E., Assyrian art, 156-157
Boulak ivory plaque, 91
Bowl, prayer-meal, 121
Brazil, art of, 259;
Central, art of tribes, 174-179;
patterns, 97;
phyllomorphs of Central, 130, 131
Brinton, Dr., on colour symbols, 124
British Columbia, totem-posts, 257, 265
British magic, 249
British New Guinea (see New Guinea)
Bronze celt, 85, 86
Bruce, R., 29
Brugsch, Dr., on lotus, 135
Buddhist sculptures, 151;
symbols, 281
Bull-roarer, Brazil, 176, 178;
New Guinea, 62
Bulmer, Mr., 260, 261

Canoe carving, New Guinea, 29, 48, 54, 57
Canoe charm, Solomons, 266, 267
Canoes, trade in, 48
Cash, 227
Cassowary clan, 251, 257
Cattle-money, 228, 229
Celtic art, 337;
fylfot, 283;
spirals, 142;
wicker house, 90
Centipede in magic, 242, 243
Chaldean art, 329;
commerce, 151
Chalmers, Rev. J., 31, 184
Chantre, E., 297
Chauncy, P., 259
Chinese art, 337;
knife-money, 226, 227;
lotus, 153;
money, 226;
svastika, 287, 294;
writing, 217-221
Christian art, pagan survivals in, 195-197;
fylfot, 283
Circles, concentric, 93
Clarke, Dr. J. T., 158
Cloudy Bay, 42
Clubs, wooden, in New Guinea, 48-56, 62
Codrington, Dr. R. H., 97, 265-267
Coffey, G., on Irish art, 142, 328
Coins, degeneration in, 313
Collier, J., 1, 2
Collins, Mr., Australian art, 260
Colours, symbolic, 123, 124
Combs, magic, 237-241;
Torres Straits, 14
Comrie, Dr., 63, 64
Concentric circles, 93;
ovals, 55
Consciousness in designing patterns, 315, 316
Cook, A. B., 265
Cook, Captain, 83
Copying of patterns, 311
Corbula, the Roman, 91
Crete spirals, 142
Crocodile in art, New Guinea, Torres Straits, 16-25;
Massim, 56, 181;
Papuan Gulf, 30;
cult of, in New Guinea, 167;
Malay Archipelago, 167;
Madagascar, 168
(see Alligator)
Cross, from alligator, 172;
gibbet, 277, 279;
in America, 174, 279;
St. Anthony, 277
Crux ansata, 278, 298
Cushing, F. H., 107, 248;
on pottery, 98, 99, 102-104;
on life-exit trail, 128;
on symbolism, 119-123
Cyprus bronze shield, 92;
pottery, 137, 158;
lotus designs, 158
Cyrene plant money, 230, 233
Cyzicus, fish money, 230-232

Dakota Winter Counts, 206
D’Albertis, 27, 63
D’Alviella, Goblet, 275-300
Danish food-vessel, 91
Darfour, hoes as money, 226
Daudai and Torres Straits, art of, 13-25
Daula (frigate-bird), 265-267
Daumori, wooden slabs, 26
Designs, geographical distribution of, 319
D’Entrecasteaux, 47, 50, 52, 54, 56, 71
Distribution, geographical, of designs, 319
Divine pedigree in art, 274
Dragon, Scandinavian, 195
Drum decoration, in New Guinea, 17, 18, 131
Dumoutier, G., 287
Dutch New Guinea (see Netherlands)

Earth symbol, 280
East Indian Archipelago, 28
Ebersberg, clay walls, 89, 95
Egg-and-dart moulding, origin of, 160-163
Egyptian art, 133-164, 187, 325, 329, 337;
totemism, 265;
writing, 217-221
Ehrenreich, Dr. P., 173, 259, 262, 332
Elema (see Toaripi)
Elephant symbol, 195
Ellis, Rev. W., 274
Emblems, 212
Engineer Group, 48, 57
English, A. C., 45
Environment, effect of, 9
Eskimo, animal drawings, 181
Ethnological aspect of art, 9;
value of art, 323-325, 336, 337
Ethnology of British New Guinea, 59-66, 328;
of Polynesia, 69
Evans, Sir John, 313
Evans, Arthur J., on spirals, 142, 328
Expectancy, definition of, 6
Eye-amulets of Egypt, 187

Fascining, 94
Fellows, Sir C., on rock-tombs, 114
Fergusson, on Indian architecture, 151, 153
Ferrero, G., 278, 300, 301
Fewkes, Dr. J. W., rain symbols, 120;
on colour symbols, 123
Fiji club, 88;
pottery, 108, 191;
scroll designs, 71;
tapa, 96
Finn magic, 249
Finsch, Dr. O., 47, 63, 98
Fishing formula, 247
Fish, as money, 230-232;
patterns in Brazil, 174, 176-179;
totem, 212;
Christian, 213
Fish-hook money, 227;
ornaments derived from, 76
Fison and Howitt, 256
Fleur-de-lys, 156
Flower, Sir W., 64
Flowers, in art, 131, 132 (see Lotus);
in magic, 237-241
Fly River, 26-28;
a culture-route, 70;
mouth of, 26, 19;
phyllomorphs, 131
Forbes, Dr. H. O., 98;
on pottery making, 48
Frazer, J. G., 235, 236, 250-252
French, G. J., on pottery, 109
Freshwater Bay, 29
Fret, 326;
from alligator, 111, 112, 123, 141, 172
Friend, H., on colour symbols, 124
Frigate-bird, in Melanesia, 265-267;
New Guinea, 49, 66, 325, 326;
Solomon Islands, 66, 325
Fringe patterns, 144-148
Frogs’ legs as zigzags, 244, 248
Frogs, magic patterns of, 244, 248
Fylfot, meaning and distribution of, 282-301

Gable, 116
Gammadion (see Fylfot)
Gardner, Prof. P., 290
Gauls, erections of, 90
Gaulish imitation coin, 198
Geelvink Bay, 131, 325
Geographical distribution of design, 319
Geometrical designs, 258, 259
Gill, Dr. W. W., 255, 270, 274;
on New Guinea axes, 79;
on Hervey Island adze, 80
Globe, winged, 298
Goodyear, Professor W. H., 134, 162, 163, 248, 290, 292-294;
on Malay art, 67;
on New Zealand art, 68;
on rosettes, 149, 151, 152
Gourd pottery, 188, 189
Greece, evolution of anthropomorphs in, 183
fylfot in, 282, 283;
totemism in ancient, 265
Greek alphabet, 220;
art, origin of, 155
Greg, R. P., 288, 292
Grosse, Dr. E., 258-263
Grotesque patterns, 193
Grünwedel, Professor, 114, 237, 252, 334
Guilloche, 49-51, 92, 93, 162, 163
Guttæ, 115

Haida totemism, 257
Hall Sound, 42, 46
Hammer of Thor, 278
Hamy, Professor E. T., 47, 325
Harvest formula, 247
Hawaii, gods of, 186
Heraldic designs, 262, 263
Hervey Islands, symbolic adzes, 80-84;
decoration on symbolic adzes and paddles, 270-274;
totemism, 255;
anthropomorphic patterns, 185, 186, 265, 270-274
Heteromorphs, 192
Hickson, Prof. S. J., 69
Hieratic writing, 220
Hill tribes, New Guinea, 46
Hissarlik, 282, 284
(see Troy)
Hjaltalin, A., 285
Hoes as money, 226
Hoffman, Dr. W. J., pictographs, 206, 207
Holmes, W. H., 107, 110, 114, 168-173;
on pottery, 98, 101, 102;
on symbolism, 122;
shell pottery, 91, 190
Homomorph, 215
Honeysuckle pattern, 162
Hornbill design, 58
Horses, drawings of, 166, 167;
zoomorph from, 180
House-building formula, 246, 247
Hügel, Baron A. von, 71
Hulme, F. E., egg-and-dart moulding, 163, 164
Human, face on wooden belts, 32;
figures in plait-work, 198, 199
(see Anthropomorphs)
Hunter, J. D., on pottery, 100
Hunting pictograph, 206-208
Hut urn, 115, 283

Iceland, fylfot in, 285
Ideograms, 216-218
Ilios, 284
Indian art, 151-153, 337;
sun symbols, 290;
svastika, 286, 294
Information, definition of, 4, 203
Initiation into manhood, 30, 31, 61
Invention of patterns, 309
Ionic capital, evolution of, 157-160
Irish carvings, 337;
round towers, 90;
fylfot in, 283;
spirals in art, 142
Iroquois bark vessel, 102, 103
Italy, North, fylfot in, 283

Japanese writing, 218, 219;
svastika, 287, 294
Java drum, 83

Kay, C. de, 90
Keane, A. H., 68
Keller, Dr., 89, 91
Kemble, J. M., 336
Kerepunu tapa, 96
Kern, M., 286
Kerrama belt, 35
Kiwai, drums of, 26
Klemm, Dr. G., on Tonga [Fiji] pottery, 108
Knife-money, 226
Knots, 94;
magic, 248-250
Kobong, Australian totem, 262
Koiari, 44, 61
Koitapu tattooing, 61
Kupele pipe, 44, 45

Landscapes, native, 124-126;
reversed, 126
Lang, Andrew, on savage art, 263
Lasso pictograph, 206
Layard, A. H., on lotus, 143, 144
Leaf designs, 28;
totems, 250, 253, 254
(see Phyllomorphs and Plant)
Lean-Wolf’s map, 208-210
Leather money, 228
Leitner, Dr., on Buddhist art, 151
Letronne, 278
Letters, origin of, 217
Lianas, magic patterns of, 244
Life-exit trail in a vessel, 128
Life-history in designs, table of, 6, 8
Lightning symbol, 118-120, 276
Lime spatula, 48, 49, 52-54, 57
Lindt, 42
Lizard, on arrow, 25;
on belt, 37;
designs, Australia, 260;
patterns, Brazil, 175
Locust pattern, Brazil, 179
Lotus, 133-164, 325
Louisiade Group, 47, 52;
stone axes, 71, 79
Lycia, triskele, 214;
rock tombs, 114-116

Maces, evolution of, 222
Macfarlane, Rev. S., 63
Macgillivray, 224
Macgregor, Sir W., 28, 58, 225
Magic knots, 248-250;
patterns, 237-248;
sympathetic, 5, 6, 235-250
Maiva belt, 39
Malacca, magic patterns, 237-248;
phyllomorphs of, 132;
totemism and tattooing in, 252-254
Malay Archipelago, decorative art, 67-70, 326;
plant designs, 131, 132
Malay culture derived from India, 67, 69
Malay Peninsula, magic patterns, 236-248
Malaysia, scroll designs, 67
Mallery, Col. Garrick, 275;
colour symbolism, 124;
pictographs, 204-213, 215;
sign language, 212
Man, E. H., on pottery, 100
Mandrake, 6
Mangaia adzes, 80-84;
decoration on adzes and paddles of, 270-274;
anthropomorphs, 185, 186, 265, 270-274;
totemism, 255
Manhood, initiation into, 30, 31, 61
Manx, three-legged, 214
Maori scroll designs, 72
Map, Lean-Wolf’s, 208-210
March, Dr. H. Colley, 6, 44, 65, 66, 75, 82, 84, 91, 93, 115, 130,
147, 163, 179, 194, 197, 198, 248, 250, 271-274, 276, 285, 288
Marks, trade and owner’s, 203
Masks, New Guinea, 62;
Papuan Gulf, 30;
Torres Straits, 18, 30
Maspero, Prof., 296;
on Ra, 137;
on Egyptian art, 148, 248
Massim, district groups of, 47-58
Mathews on symbolic colours, 24
Mats, making of, 90
Meander (see Fret)
Melanesian, use of term, 60;
ethnology and handicraft, 60-66;
frigate-bird, 265-267;
pottery, 158, 159
Melos lotus designs, 158;
spirals, 142;
vase decoration, 139
Men, drawings of, 16-19
Mereschu fish pattern, 176-179
Mesembria, 290
Mesopotamian art, 143
Method of studying art, 306-336
Mexico, New, bird patterns, 179
Miava, 44
Millies, H. C., Oriental money, 227
Milloué, M. de, 287
Milne Gulf, 47
Mohammedan art, 151, 152
Money, evolution of, 223-234
Montelius, Dr., on spirals, 93
Montezuma’s stone axe, 85
Moon symbol, 292
Moresby Group, 47
Moseley, Professor, Hawaian gods, 186
Motu Motu, 29
Motu tribes, 46, 61;
ethnography, 64-66;
girl tattooed, 43;
trading voyages, 330
Müller, Max, 280, 292, 331;
on colour symbols, 124
Murray Island (Mer), 18;
native drawing of, 125;
ornaments derived from fish-hook, 76
Murray, Prof. A. S., 292
Mycenæ art, 142;
totemism, 265;
vessel, 92

Naukratis lotus, 161
Neandria capital, 158
Net, fishing, designs, 176, 177
Netherlands New Guinea, 28, 325
New Caledonia pottery, 97, 98
New Guinea, 11;
animal representations, 164, 165;
anthropomorphs, 184;
art, 324-328;
barter in, 46-48, 223-225;
bird’s-head designs, 49-58;
bird and crocodile design, 56;
bull-roarer, 62;
Central district of, 42-46;
ethnology of British, 59-66;
ethnology of, 328;
hill tribes, 46;
metamorphosis of stone axe, 78;
phyllomorphs, 131;
“Polynesians” in, 63;
pottery, 46-48, 62, 98;
scroll patterns, 67-73, 314;
tapa belts, 96;
tattooing, 43-45
New Hebrides, 66
New Ireland carvings, 265
Newton, J., 214
New Zealand anthropomorphs, 185;
ethnology of, 71;
scroll designs, 67, 68, 71, 72;
tongue thrusting, 186, 187
North American totems, 257

Oceania pottery, 97
Olbia, fish money, 230, 231, 233
Orang-hûtan, 242, 334
Ornaments as money, 224, 228, 229
Osiris, lotus offering to, 136

Paddle with fish designs, 176, 177
Pagan and Christian overlap in art, 195-197
Painting on body, 253, 254
Palstave, 85
Pannaet axe-money, 225;
canoes, 48
Papuan, use of term, 60;
ethnology and handicraft, 60-66
Papuan Gulf, 29-41;
classification of wooden belts, 32
Patterns, copying of, 311;
invention of, 309;
in New Guinea, 314;
magic, 237-248
Perrot and Chipiez, 75;
on lotus, 143;
Phoenician art, 153, 154
Persian fylfot, 286, 298
Petrie, Flinders, Prof., 89, 221;
on spiral symbols, 141;
on rosettes, 148, 149;
on the study of art, 336
Petroglyphs, 215
Phœnician art, 153, 154;
commerce, 154;
writing, 220
Phonograms, 216-218
Phyllomorphs, 130-164
(see Plant)
Physicomorphs, 118-126
Pictographs, 204-218
Pictorial signs, 212
Picture-writing, 178
Pipe, Torres Straits, 13;
Fly River, 19;
Papuan Gulf, 40;
burning of, in Central District, 42
Pitt-Rivers, General, 311
Plant Designs, Fly River, 28;
Central District New Guinea, 45;
totems, 253, 254;
magic climbing, 244;
money, 233, 234
(see Phyllomorphs)
Polynesia, ethnology of, 69
“Polynesians” in New Guinea, 63
Pompeian designs, 193
Port Moresby pottery, 46
Posts, totem, 257, 265
Pottery, 97;
biomorphic, 188-191;
Cyprus, 137;
New Guinea, 46-48, 62, 98;
Nicobar, 100;
Oceania, 97;
Port Moresby, 46;
Pueblo, 93, 100-102;
Terramara, 91;
Teste Island, 47, 48;
West Pacific, 97-99;
Zuñi, 103, 104, 105-107;
trade, 47, 48
Powell, Major, his totem badge, 119
Prince of Wales’ feather, 156, 157
Prisse d’Avennes, 136, 138-141, 159
Psychology, 300-305, 333
Pueblo Pottery, 93, 100, 102-111
Pyung fruit pattern, 246

Quatrefages and Hamy, 63, 64

Rain-charm, Malacca, 246
Rain symbols, 119-122, 279
Rattan pattern, 248
Rau, C., on pottery, 109
Ray, S. H., 60, 71;
on New Guinea languages, 64
Read, C. H., 271;
on Polynesian art, 185
Rebus, 217, 218
Religion, definition of, 5, 267;
evolution of, 268
Religion in art, 81-84, 118-123, 133, 235, 270-305
Réville, Albert, 279
Rhodes, lotus designs, 158, 161
Ridgeway, Prof. W., origin of money, 226-234
Rigo, district tattooing, 45
Robenhausen, baskets, 91
Rock tombs in Asia Minor, 114-116
Roman vase, 92
Rome, fylfot in, 283
Romilly, H. H., 79
Rosettes, 140, 148-150, 162, 163
Round Towers, Ireland, 90

Sabagorar, 76
Samian pottery, 160, 179
Sauvastika, 292
Scandinavian fylfot, 285;
inroads, 90;
magic, 249;
mythology, 196;
sun-snake, 194;
worm-knot, 94
Scarification, 61;
of totems, 252, 256
Schliemann, 142, 278, 280, 282, 287, 292
Scorpion in magic, 242, 243
Scroll designs, 49-56, 93, 163;
guilloches, 49-51, 163;
Cornwall, 179;
from lotus, 139-142;
New Guinea, 67-73, 326;
New Zealand, 67, 68, 71, 72, 326;
Fiji, 71;
Malaysia, 67;
from alligator, 171, 172;
symbolism of, 122, 123 (see Spiral)
Semang magic patterns, 237-248
Semitic writing, 220
Semper, Prof. G., 75, 158
Sergi, Prof., 60, 64
Shell-money, 224, 228
Shell pottery, 189, 191
Shield-money, 233
Shields, Papuan Gulf, 30
Sicily, Triskele of, 214
Sickness, magic patterns against, 237-245
Signature-lore, 235
Silphium plant-money, 233, 234
Silvestre, J., 227
Sinaugolo tattooing, 45
Sinnet in Oceania, 85
Sinnet, skeuomorphs of, 87, 88
Skeuomorphs, forms of, 75-117, 194-199
Skin disease, magic against, 244, 245
Smyth, Brough, 259, 261
Snake arrow, 25;
designs, Australia, 260;
patterns in Brazil, 174-178;
Scandinavian Sun-, 194;
totems, 251-253
Solomon Islands, 66;
frigate bird, 66, 265, 267, 325;
canoe charm, 266, 267
Soul, emblems of, 129, 141
South Cape axes, 79;
ethnography of, 65, 66
Southesk, Earl of, 180, 195, 278
Spatula, lime, 48, 49, 52-54, 57
Spirals, 28, 49, 93, 94, 141, 163;
early European art, 73;
bird, 49-57;
lotus, 139-142;
on pottery, 111 (see Scroll)
Squier and Davis on pottery, 100;
gourd pottery, 188
Stag, Sun-, 194
Star-symbols, 288, 289, 291, 292
Stater, 198
Steinen, Prof. K. von den, 97, 130, 131, 173-179, 332
Stevens, Prof. G., 196
Stevens, H. V., 332;
on magic patterns, 236;
on totemism, 252, 254
Stokes, Dr. W., on colour symbols, 123
Stolpe, Dr. H., 9, 81, 185, 186, 270, 271, 334
Stone-axe, fastenings of, 85;
metamorphosis of, 78
Suggestion, definition of, 5
Sun, animal symbols of, 136;
boar, 195;
stag, 194;
snake, 194;
symbols, 289-291;
Triskele, 213
Svoronas, M. J., 291
Swiss lake-dwelling bronze vessel, 87
Swiss lake-dwelling huts, 89
Symbolism, 264; of colour, 123, 124;
religious, 275-305;
psychology of, 300-305;
definition of, 212;
Buddhist, 281;
of earth, 280; of lightning, 276;
of moon, 292;
of rain, 279;
of sun, 289-291;
of water, 122;
of wind, 122, 123, 279
Symmorph, 215
Sympathetic magic, 5, 6, 235-250

Tane, the adze-god, 82, 274
Tapa, 95, 96;
printing on, 95, 96
Tau, 277-279
Tassel patterns, 144-148
Tattooing in Malacca, 253, 254;
Maori, 72;
Melanesian, 61;
in New Guinea, 43-45;
in Rigo, 45;
and totemism, 252-256
Taylor, Dr. Isaac, 166, 167, 283;
alphabet, 216, 218, 219
Taylor, 286
Tenedos axe money, 230, 232
Terramara pottery, 91
Teste Island canoe carving, 57;
pottery of, 47, 48
Tetraskele (see Fylfot)
Textiles, 89
Thebes Necropolis, tomb decorations, 136-141
Thibet svastika, 287, 294
Thomas, E. B., 280
Thompson, W. D’Arcy, 291;
on animal symbols on Greek coins, 234
Thongs, absence of, in Oceania, 85
Thor’s hammer, 278;
in modern Germany, 279
Tiki-tiki pattern, 271, 274
Toaripi, 29;
belt, 38
Tonga clubs, 86-88, 192;
drum, 83;
frigate-bird on club, 88;
pottery, 108
Tongue-thrusting in New Zealand, 186, 187
Torres Straits and Daudai, art of, 13-15;
barter, 224, 225;
totemism, 251, 252
Tortoise eggs, magic pattern, 246
Tortoise money, 232, 233
Totem animals, 17, 30, 212
Totemism, 41, 250;
in ancient Greece, 265;
in Malacca, 252-254;
and tattooing, 252-256
Totem-posts, 257, 265;
British Columbia, 265
Trade marks on pottery, 48
Triskele or Triquetra, 213, 214
Trobiand Group, art of, 58;
houses, 61;
trade of, 47;
crocodile pattern, 181;
spatulas of, 54
Troy (see Hissarlik), 289
Tsuboi, S., on tongue-thrusting, 187;
on eye-amulets, 187
Tunny-fish as money, 230-232
Tusayan pottery, 111-114
Tylor, Prof. E. B., 109, 129, 223

Ueberlingen See, 95
Uhle, Dr. M., 28, 167;
on plant motives, 131
Uluris dress pattern, 174

Vaux, Baron de, 99
Veth, R. J., on mandrake, 6
Volute, 157, 158, 160
Votive offerings, degeneration of, 222, 223

Wallace, A. R., 319
Walrus symbol, 194
Water symbol, 122
Wattle-work, 92;
huts, 89
Wealth, definition of, 4;
in art, 222
Whirlwind symbolism, 122, 123
Wife, value of a, 224, 225, 229
Wilkinson, Sir J. G., lotus, 134
Williams, Monier, 282
Wilson, Dr. D., on British urns, 108
Wind symbol, 123, 279
Winged globe, 298
Wire spirals, 94
Withy patterns, 94, 194-199
Wolf in art, 195
Women’s dress pattern, 97, 174, 178
Wood, J. G., on tongue-thrusting, 187
Wooden slabs, carved, Daumori, 26;
Papuan Gulf, 31
Woodlark, Group, art of, 58;
trade of, 47;
spatulas of, 54
Worm-knot, Scandinavian, 94
Writing, evolution of, 216-221;
reversed, 125

Yule Island, 42

Zigzag, 14, 54, 276, 309;
from alligator, 171;
Australian, 258, 259;
origin of, 88, 89;
in Ancient Egypt, 89;
Brazil, 174-178;
frogs’ legs as, 244, 248
Zoomorphs, 164-183;
in mythology 182;
horse, 180;
wolf, 195
Zuñi medicine bowl, 121;
pottery, 103, 104, 128

Transcriber’s note

Text in italics has been surrounded with _underscores_, bold with =signs=, and underlined with ~signs~. Small capitals have been replaced with all capitals. The table on page 8 has been rotated for better readability. The table on page 299 was entirely in italics in the original, this has been removed. An extra title has been removed. The footnotes were renumbered and placed after the paragraph they referred to.

Errors in punctuation and spacing have been corrected silently. Also the following corrections were made, on page

58 “tha” changed to “that” (to differ in many respects from that
which is characteristic)
63 “Havn” changed to “Haven” (from Angriffs Haven, near Humboldt
Bay)
179 “XI” changed to “VI” (the Dunnichen Stone (Plate VI., Fig. 9);
but the head)
and in footnote 160 “_tindados_” changed to “_tindalos_” (and the
birds are vehicles of _tindalos_.)

Otherwise the original has been preserved, including unusual spelling and inconsistent hyphenation. Additional: some footnotes have more than one anchor. The index has not been checked for errors in alphabetization or page numbers.