Chapter II: Part 2

------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Unique Artifacts |16-|20-|24-|28-|32-|36-|40-|44-|48-|52-|56-|60-|
|20 |24 |28 |32 |36 |40 |44 |48 |52 |56 |60 |64 |
------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Knives, leaf-shaped | 1 | | 2 | | 1 | | | 2 | 3 | | 1 | 1 |
triangular | | | 2 | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | 4 |
flake | | | | 1 | | | | 2 | 2 | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Scrapers, end | | | 3 | 5 | 4 | | 9 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 8 | 3 |
side | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 1 |
discoidal | | | | | 1 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 4 |
serrated | | | | | 1 | 4 | | 4 | 1 | 3 | | |
“Uncompahgre” | | | | | | | | 2 | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Spoke-shaves | | | | 1 | | | | | 1 | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Projectile point | | | | | | | | | | | | |
drills | | | | | | | | | | | | |
expanded base | | | | | 2 | | | | | | | 1 |
straight shafted | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Perforators | 1 | | 2 | | | 2 | | 6 | 2 | | 1 | 2 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Prismatic flakes, | | | | | | | | | | | | |
unmodified | | | | | | 1 | | 4 | 8 | 5 | 6 | 3 |
cutting | | | | | | | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 6 | 2 |
engraving | | | | 1 | | 1 | | 2 | 1 | | | 2 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Gravers, others | | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Small ovoid bifaces| | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 7 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 3 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Utilized flakes | 1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 8 | 9 |10 | 9 |11 |10 |14 | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Chopper/hammerstones| | | | 1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 5 | 6 | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Cores | | | | 2 | 1 | | | 2 | | | 1 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Small stone ornaments| | | | | | | | | | | | |
or gaming pieces| | | | | | | | 2 | | | | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Paint stones | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Bone awls, splinter| | | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | | | | 3 | |
with head | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | |
sliver | | 1 | | | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 2 | | | |
undetermined | | | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | 1 | 2 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Rib/scapula knives| | | | | | 1 | | | 1 | | 1 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Used bone splinters| | | | | 1 | | | 1 | | | 1 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Flakers, antler | | | | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | 1 |
bone | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Gaming pieces | | | | | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Beads, tubular | | | 1 | | | | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | | 2 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Ornaments, tooth | | | | | | 1 | | | | | | |
bone | | | | | | | | 1 | | | | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Mica, worked | | | | | | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Leather fragments | | | 2 | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Wood shafts | | | | | | 1 | 1 | | 1 | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
Pottery, cordmarked,| | | | | | | | | | | | |
a | | 2 | | | 2 | 3 | 7 | 8 | 10| 6 | | |
b | | | | 1 | | 2 | 3 | | 2 | | | |
c | | | | 2 | 1 | | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | | |
Plain | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | 3 | 2 | 1 | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+
| | A | B | | C | | D |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+

------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Unique Artifacts |64-|68-|72-|76-|80-|84-|88-|92-| 96-|100-|104-|
|68 |72 |76 |80 |84 |88 |92 |96 |100 |104 |108 |
------------------+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Knives, leaf-shaped | | 1 | | | | | | | | | |
triangular | 2 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | |
flake | | | 1 | 2 | | 1 | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Scrapers, end | 7 | | 2 | | 1 | ? | | ? | ? | | |
side | | 2 | 2 | 1 | | | | | | | |
discoidal | | 2 | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | | | |
serrated | 1 | | 3 | 3 | | | | | 1 | | |
“Uncompahgre” | | | | 3 | | 2 | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Spoke-shaves | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Projectile point | | | | | | | | | | | |
drills | | | | | | | | | 1 | | |
expanded base | | | | | | | | | | | |
straight shafted | | | 1 | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Perforators | 3 | 1 | 1 | | 1 | | 1 | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Prismatic flakes, | | | | | | | | | | | |
unmodified | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | | | |
cutting | 2 | 4 | 7 | 2 | | | | | | | |
engraving | 1 | | 4 | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Gravers, others | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Small ovoid bifaces| 9 | | | | 1 | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Utilized flakes | 9 | 6 | 6 | 5 | | 2 | 1 | 1 | 1 | | 1 |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Chopper/hammerstones| 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | | | 1 | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Cores | 4 | | | | 1 | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Small stone ornaments| | | | | | | | | | | |
or gaming pieces| | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Paint stones | 1 | | 3 | 1 | | 1 | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Bone awls, splinter| | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | 1 | | | 1 |
with head | 2 | | | | | | | | | 1 | |
sliver | | | | | | | | | | | |
undetermined | | 1 | | 1 | | | 1 | | | 1 | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Rib/scapula knives| | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Used bone splinters| | 1 | | | | | 1 | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Flakers, antler | | | | | 1 | | | | | | |
bone | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Gaming pieces | | | | | 1 | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Beads, tubular | 1 | | 1 | 1 | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Ornaments, tooth | | | | | | | 1 | | | | |
bone | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Mica, worked | 1 | 2 | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Leather fragments | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Wood shafts | | | 1 | | 1 | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
Pottery, cordmarked,| | | | | | | | | | | |
a | ?1| | | | | | | | | | |
b | | | | | | | | | | | |
c | ?1| | | | | | | | | | |
Plain | | | | | | | | | | | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+
| | E | F | G | | H | |
+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+---+----+----+----+

LEGEND:
A - Wood awl
B - abrading stone
C - Elk antler tool
D - Atlatl weight?
E - Limestone pendant
F - Quartz crystal
G- -Clay ball
H- -Notched rib

Milling Stones (Figs. 43, 44, 45)

Characteristics of grinding stones at LoDaisKa are largely summarized in Tables III and IV. These are presented in the hope that future studies will make it possible to distinguish cultural associations from such tools, although as Haury (1950) and Jennings (1957) reiterated, metates or grinding stones are often so nondescript as to defy cultural interpretation. Dealing for the most part with complete examples, there seem to be two general types: large worn boulders, and flat slabs often with a slight depression. The former are usually of an igneous material. Either type may be intentionally shaped. Most were more or less rectangular. The largest of the first type weighs about 120 pounds, and is 2 feet 3 inches long × 14 inches wide. The smallest is 11 inches × 12 inches and weighs about 20 pounds. Of the second type the maximum is 1½ feet × 14 inches, the minimum 10 inches × 12 inches. Shaping, when present, is confined to percussion and smoothing around the edges. Pecking probably served to roughen the surface.

A number of specimens in the ½ to ¾ inch thick class were made of hard fine sandstone. On some of the large fragments both faces appear parallel with no concavity. Only one fairly complete example of this type was found. This (Fig. 45) is a roughly triangular section about 5 inches on a side. It was found in Hearth B. It shows no basin and is very smooth. Two sides appear to have been the original edges of the complete specimen. These are roughly shaped. The smoothing extends all the way to these edges. There is ethnological evidence, (see below Lowie, 1924; R. M. Underhill, p.c.) that stones similar to this specimen were used for cooking stones. Since most of the artifacts of this type are small pieces, it would be hard to distinguish definitely between a small section of a cooking stone and a section of a slab metate. Lacking further proof, these have been treated as grinding stones, with this possible reservation.

Handstones (Fig. 46)

One hundred and four specimens are classed as handstones or handstone fragments. Of these 50 could not be classified further except that 40 were of igneous rock and 10 of sandstone. The general data pertaining to handstones is summarized in the chart. The largest of these is 8 × 4 inches, the smallest 4 × 3 inches. All appear to have been used in one hand. Seventy-five percent are made of igneous rock, usually of a metamorphic type such as schist. This choice was probably due to the scarcity of good sandstone in the area. There are two basic types, those used on one and those used on two sides. For both these groups there is a variant which has a center ridge formed by the meeting of two grinding surfaces on each face. Probably the simple motion of pushing forth, rocking, and then pulling back caused this. One of these has the ridges on its two sides at right angles to each other. Some specimens are pecked. These forms seem to lack distributional significance.

TABLE III

Grinding Slabs, Complete Specimens

----------------+-------------------
Igneous | Sandstone
----------------+-------------------
Flat Shaped | Slab Shaped
Boulder |
----------------+-------------------
24
------------------------------------
28
------------------------------------
32
------------------------------------
36
------------------------------------
40
------------------------------------
44
------------------------------------
1 48
------------------------------------
52
------------------------------------
56
------------------------------------
60
------------------------------------
3 1 1 64
------------------------------------
1 1 1 68
------------------------------------
3 1 1 72
------------------------------------
3 1 76
------------------------------------
2 1 80
------------------------------------
84
------------------------------------
88
------------------------------------
1 92
------------------------------------
96
------------------------------------
100
------------------------------------
1 104
------------------------------------
108
------------------------------------
112
------------------------------------

TABLE IV

Grinding Slabs, Fragmentary Specimens

+------------------------------+--------------------------------+
| Igneous | Sandstone |
+----------------+-------------+---------------+----------------+
| Two Sides Used |One Side Used| One Side Used | Two Sides Used|
| Pecked | Pecked | Pecked | Pecked |
+-+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+--+-+----+--+-+--+--+-+--+--+-+-+--+-+-+--+
| Thickness in inches |
|½| ¾|1½|½ |¾ |1½|½|¾|1½|½| ¾ |1½|½|¾ |1½|½|¾ |1½|½|¾|1½|½|¾|1½|
|-| -|- |- |- |- |-|-|- |-| - |- |-|- |- |-|- |- |-|-|- |-|-|- |
|¾|1½|3 |¾ |1½|3 |¾|1|3 |¾| 1½ |3 |¾|1½|3 |¾|1½|3 |¾|1|3 |¾|1|3 |
+-+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+--+-+----+--+-+--+--+-+--+--+-+-+--+-+-+--+---
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 20
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | 24
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 | |2| | | |1 | | | | |1|1| | 28
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 | |1|2 | | | | | |1| |2|4| | 32
| | | | | | | | | | | | |3|4 | | | | | |1| |1|1| | 36
| | | | | | | | | | | 2 |3 |5|1 |2 | |1 |1 | | | |1|1| | 40
| | | | | | | | | | | | |4|4 | |1|1 | |1| | |1|1| | 44
| | | | |1 | | | | |2| 2 |2 |2|2 |1 |1|1 | | | | |1|2| | 48
| | | | | | |1| |1 | | |1 |3|2 | | | | | |2|1 |1|1| | 52
| | | | | | | | | |1| 2 |3 |3|2 |3 | | | | |1| | | | | 56
| | | | | | | | | |2| 3 |3 |3|2 |1 |1| | |1| | |1|3| | 60
| | |1 | | |1 | | | | | 1 |4 |1|3 |1 |1| | | | | | | | | 64
| | | | | | | | | | | 4 |2 |2|5 |2 | | |1 | | | |1|2|2 | 68
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 |2 |2| | | | | | | | | | | | 72
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | |3 |1 | | | | | |1 | |2| | 76
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 |4 |2|2 | | | | | | | | | |2 | 80
| | | | | | | | | |1| |1 |1| |2 |1| | | | | |1| | | 84
| | | | | | | | | | | 2 | | | |1 | | | | | | | | | | 88
| | | | | | | | | | | | |2|3 | | |1 | | | | | | | | 92
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |1 | | | | | | | | | | | 96
| | | | | | | | | | | 1 | | | |1 | | | | | | | | | |100
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |1 | | | | | | | | | |1 |104
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |108
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |112
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |116
+-+--+--+--+--+--+-+-+--+-+----+--+-+--+--+-+--+--+-+-+--+-+-+--+---

TABLE V

Handstones
----------------------------------+---------------------------------
Igneous | Sandstone
-----------------+----------------+-------------------+-------------
Biface | Uniface | Biface | Uniface
-----------------+----------------+------------+------+-------------
Four | Four | Four |
Plane | Plane | Plane |
-----------------+----------------+-------------------+-------------
Pecked Pecked| Pecked | Pecked Pecked | Pecked
-----------------+----------------+-------------------+-------------
28
--------------------------------------------------------------------
32
--------------------------------------------------------------------
36
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1 40
--------------------------------------------------------------------
2 44
--------------------------------------------------------------------
48
--------------------------------------------------------------------
6 1 3 52
--------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2 56
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 2 1 1 2 60
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 64
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 4 68
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 1 72
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 1 2 76
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 80
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 84
--------------------------------------------------------------------
2 2 88
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 92
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 96
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 100
--------------------------------------------------------------------
104
--------------------------------------------------------------------
108
--------------------------------------------------------------------
1 112
--------------------------------------------------------------------

Shaft-smoother

One shaft-smoother was found, with lengthwise grooves on both faces. The lower is very shallow; the upper is clearly formed, and measures ³/₁₆-⁴/₁₆ inches wide and ⅛ inch deep (see Fig. 47).

Pigment Stones (Fig. 48)

Eleven objects are classified as pigment stones. Four are lumps of red ochre. There is no proof that they were used for paint, but as Coon (1950) has noted, the use of some sort of paint is practically universal among primitive people. The largest weighs about three ounces, the smallest about two. Three pieces of yellow ochre were found. One is a great lump weighing about two pounds. The other two are flat ground palettes, slightly irregular, one about 1 × 2, the other 3 × 4 inches and both about ¼ inch thick.

BONE ARTIFACTS

Beads (Fig. 49)

There are numerous tubular beads of bird and small mammal bones. These range in length from 1⅜ inches to ½ inch; most are of the shorter variety. Apparently the bone was polished and prepared, then a groove or series of grooves was cut, the sections broken out, and the ends smoothed.

Two lower canine teeth, (one of badger, _taxidea_, the other unidentified), were evidently used as ornaments. Both show a lustrous polish. At the end of the root a small groove, or series of parallel incisions, was cut out for suspension. One is ¼ inch, the other 1 inch in length. A small (1 inch × ½ inch) piece of bone (Fig. 51, top left) with a groove cut at the top may have been used as a pendant.

Used Bone Fragments

There are ten other fragments of bone which show use. The largest of these measures 4¼ × ¾ inches, the smallest, 3¼ × ⅝ inches. One or more edges are worn, suggesting use as a scraper or cutting edge. Bones of large animals, probably long bones, appear to be represented. On most, the working edge is concave, although on a few it is flat.

Notched Bone

One bone is similar to those described above but has a series of notches along one edge. It is 4 inches long and ⅝ inches wide.

Rib-scapula Cutting Tools (Fig. 50)

There are nine rib and one scapula fragment that show wear along a sharp edge. These appear to have been used as cutting implements. Some are polished along the flat face, perhaps from use in some kind of smoothing. Many Southwestern tribes, e.g. the Papago, use similar tools to remove hair from fresh hides. It is difficult to know whether these represent complete tools or fragments. The largest is 7 inches long, the smallest 2½ inches long. The identifiable specimens are of bison or mule deer (_Odocoileus hemionus_).

Gaming Pieces (Figs. 51, 52)

Seven specimens of worked bone are thought to have been used as gaming pieces. For three of these, this designation is relatively certain. These are small flat oblong objects with a series of parallel striations on the edges of one face. In addition, two have a line of indentations running up the center. These depressions were probably drilled (see Fig. 52).

A fourth piece appears to be an unfinished example, and provides some data on the method of manufacture. Apparently, the length of bone (rib?) to be utilized was cut to the desired width and partially smoothed; the ends were rounded and also partially finished; then several sections of the length of the proposed gaming piece were cut off by grooving and fracturing. The piece was then smoothed to the proper shape, the striations cut, and the indentations drilled.

The other three specimens included here are somewhat problematical. One approximates the shape of the unfinished gaming piece. The second is a piece of skull cap, (species unidentified) of the same general shape as the above; two of the sides are formed by suture lines, the ends by polishing. The third fragment is in the same size range and has serrated edges. The dimensions of the gaming pieces can be seen in Fig. 51.

Awls (Figs. 49, 53 and 54)

Forty-one specimens, fragmentary and complete, were classified as awls. These were segregated into four principal types, classified on the basis of form, type of bone utilized, size, and extent of polish. The most numerous type are those which retained the head or epiphesis of the bone (see Kidder, 1932). It is probable that two subtypes of this category may be recognized on the basis of size and extent of polish. The first comprises one complete and seven broken specimens (see Fig. 53). The former is a long slender implement of deer metatarsal, tapering to a fine point with a circular-section. It is 8⅜ inches in length and ¾ inches in its greatest diameter. Polish extends the full length and circumference, and the “head” has been altered by four intersecting V-shaped grooves, forming a cross. The remaining seven include two with the head intact, and five points and midsections classified with the above because of the overall workmanship. The most complete measures 6¼ inches in length without the head. Technologically this group is marked by primary abrasion parallel to the long axis and secondary work at right angles to it. There are numerous instances of the transverse cutting across the longitudinal striae, suggesting that the former was the finishing process. Though positive identification is in several instances impossible, most appear to have been made from deer metatarsals. All except one were located below 84 inches. The exception is of interest. It is a specimen about three inches long, subjected to calcination and subsequent patination all over, except for a section midway along its length that retains its natural color. It seems possible that this area had been bound with leather or some foreign substance which affected the weathering of the specimen.

The second subdivision of the type retaining the head is characterized by a greater width relative to length, and the more restricted extent of polish. The three complete specimens range from 3⅞ to 5¼ inches in length, and up to 1⅛ inches in greatest diameter. Polish extends only a short distance beyond the point, which has an oval flattened cross-section. All abrasion scratches are parallel to the short axis. These were manufactured respectively from a bison rib, a metapodial and metatarsal of mule deer (_Odocoileus hemionus_).

The second major type is that of “splinter awls”; it also may be subdivided. The first subdivision consists of 5 splinters of large mammal bone, sharpened at one end. Complete pieces range from 3½ to 4⅜ inches in length and from ⅜ to ¾ inches in greatest width. The second group of six pieces is similar, but the working end is rounded and flattened rather than sharp. They range from 2⅞ inches to 3½ inches long and from ⅜ to 1 inch in width. Abrasion in both groups was at a high angle to the long axis, and in some cases produced a faceted appearance.

The third type comprises three awls made of small mammal bones, two retaining the heads, the third without. These exhibit sharpened points. The longest is 4 inches, the smallest, one inch long.

The final type comprises five very small splinters of bone from ⅝ to one inch in length. One is of bird bone, the others of small mammal bones. Each is sharpened on one end, blunted or rounded on the other. It is possible that these were hafted. Their size and shape makes it unlikely that they could have been employed in the hand alone.

There was undoubtedly some difference in the use of these different types of tools. Perhaps the longer finer ones were employed in the manufacture of basketry, while the sharpened splinters served best as hide perforators.

Cut Bone

There is one fragmentary bone about 7 inches long, that was evidently left over from the production of a splinter awl. It illustrates the technique of bone cutting that was probably employed for producing tools. A groove about ¹/₁₆ of an inch deep was cut encircling the bone, and it was shaped into two pieces. Apparently some preliminary smoothing had already been done, as suggested by additional scoring marks. The authors tested various tools to determine which might be most efficient in cutting such a groove. Flat sharp flakes or knives could be used, but usually not enough pressure could be brought to bear without breaking the tool. However, certain implements, called “gravers” in this paper, were rather well adapted for such work. The tool could be used as a plane for cutting. The two techniques mentioned, in fact, could be compared to the cutting of wood with a knife and with a saw whose teeth act as a multiple plane.

Tools of Antler and Bone

A problematical artifact is the base of an elk (_Cervus canadensis_) antler shown in Fig. 55. The working end of this is a tapering blade which ends in a flat chisel-like tool about ¾ inch broad.

Flakers (Fig. 55)

There are four fragments of horn that appear to have been flakers. Two are pointed implements 1¼ inches long, two are fragments that lack tips. These are about 3½ inches long. All are of deer antler (_Odocoileus hemionus_), and show various gouges and worn places.

One bone 7¼ inches long also appears to have been used as a flaker. The blunt point has been shaped, but other modification seems to have been unintentional and consists of irregular worn and scored areas. Distribution of this scoring suggests that the tool was used in the left hand.

MISCELLANEOUS ARTIFACTS

Problematical Objects (Fig. 51)

There are four stones of problematical use. Three of these have the form of an isosceles triangle. The two smallest measure about ½ inch on a side. Perhaps these were gaming counters or ornaments. The larger piece is about 1¾ inch on a side with one broken corner, and has 2 small notches on either side of the apex. This was very probably a pendant. The fourth specimen in this class is more or less oval, very thin, with ground edges. It is about 1½ inches long and may have been an ornament or gaming counter. The first two pieces are of sandstone, the third of limestone, and the last of feldspar.

An ovoid piece of granite measures 2⅛ × 1¼ inches, and appears to have been ground into its present shape. It has a smoothed flattened area on one side, and may well have been an atlatl weight. This cannot be proven since there are no further indications, such as a groove. However, there are similar ungrooved stones in place on atlatl throwers from the Southwest, in the Peabody Museum collections, which the authors have examined.

Mica Fragments (Fig. 51)

There are six fragments of mica that apparently were shaped for some reason. Four of these were cut into figures more or less like arrow points. The largest is 2 × 1 inch, the smallest complete piece, ¾ × ¾ inch. They may have had ceremonial significance. A fifth specimen is square, ¾ × ½ inch in width and length; and the sixth more or less round, about ½ inch in diameter. There were other pieces of mica found at the site, but these were unshaped.

Crystal (Fig. 56)

A well formed quartz crystal was found; it is topaz in color and about an inch square in cross-section. Such crystals have an extensive history in some Archaic sites, such as those in California. They probably had some ceremonial purpose perhaps as a part of a shaman’s paraphernalia.

Clay Ball (Fig. 57)

A small round ball of clay about 1¼ inches in diameter was recovered. Around the circumference is a raised ridge such as would have been produced if the clay had filled a skin sack with the seams on the outside. If such were the case it might have served as a bolas weight.

Wood Fragments (Fig. 58)

There are several fragments of wood that appear to have been modified by the inhabitants. Two of these could easily have been pieces of arrow shafts. One is ³/₁₆ inch in diameter, 2½ inches long; the other ¼ inch in diameter, and 1¾ inches long. Both show no remnants of bark and appear to have been scraped smooth. There are two similar specimens, 1 and 2 inches long, and ⁵/₁₆ and ⁷/₁₆ inch in diameter respectively. Observations of ethnological materials suggest that these were too large and heavy to shoot with an ordinary bow and arrow. Perhaps these are fragments of atlatl foreshafts. The fifth specimen is also ⁷/₁₆ inch in diameter, 2¼ inches long, and is pointed. It was probably the butt end of a foreshaft. Ethnologic parallels indicate that it was too sharp to be the point of a firedrill (see Fig. 58).

A sixth wood specimen is a flat piece 3½ × ³/₁₆ inches in maximum dimensions. Its use is unknown.

A seventh specimen is a short piece 2 inches long, shaped all around, and tapering to a point at one end. It was cut from a tree gnarl, and probably served as an awl.

Leather

There are two small pieces of leather. One is probably part of a thong or cord; the use of the other is unknown.

Cordage

A piece of twisted fiber was found. It appears to have been one strand of a multi-strand cord. The fiber is made from yucca leaves.

POTTERY

Plain Pottery (Figs. 59 and 60)

Plain pottery includes one restorable bowl and eight additional sherds. Construction is hard to determine from so small a number of sherds, but indications suggest coiling and scraping. Coils were fairly wide (see Fig. 60). Core color is usually grey to black though one sherd is oxidized to a brick red. Firing was done in a “reducing atmosphere”, with some scattered spots oxidized. The temper is angular with occasional mica fragments visible; it is probably crushed granite. Some sherds may contain a small amount of quartz sand. The size of the temper is variable, usually fine with a few large granules mixed in. Vessel walls are usually fairly strong. The pottery is friable, not flaky. Both surfaces are unslipped, and smoothed on all specimens. The exterior is a brownish black, the interior is black. One sherd, however, is dull grey. Thickness is from ¼-⁵/₁₆ inch, one sherd ³/₁₆ inch. The only partially complete form observed is a bowl. However, another large sherd (about 8 inches square) suggests part of the wall of a pot, perhaps with an incurving shoulder. The bowl has a mouth diameter of 5½ inches, and in vertical cross-section resembles a parabolic curve 3¼ inches high. Rims in general are gradually tapered.

Surface Roughened Pottery (Figs. 61-65)

Pottery in this category is divided into three classes. Pottery of Class I includes 7 sherds. These were manufactured by the paddle and anvil technique. Temper is sand, and is not too abundant. The clay is micaceous and the texture somewhat granular, tending to shatter along fairly regular lines. Hardness is 3.5-4.5; color grey to brownish continuous all the way through. Exterior surfaces all show parallel lines of cord-marks, about five to the inch. Impressions of individual strands can be seen in the clay, somewhat flattened and slightly smoothed. Interior surfaces were smoothed and scraped. One rim sherd has diagonal impressions that extend to ¼ inch of the flattened lip. There is no decoration. Vessel size cannot be determined. Thickness is from ⁵/₁₆-⁶/₁₆ inch. One sherd from near the base suggests a conoidal bottom.

Two sherds of this class have different exterior treatment. One of these appears to have been impressed by basketry, apparently coiled with a simple rod foundation. The other has been impressed with an unknown fabric.

Class II includes 15 sherds. These resemble those of I in many respects: The manufacture was by paddle and anvil; the temper is of sand or possibly crushed rock, generally fine and not too abundant, and the clay is micaceous. The texture, however, is flaky with a tendency to fracture along irregular lines. Hardness is about 3.5, color grey to brown generally continuous through the sherd. A few have blacker cores. Exterior surfaces were treated with parallel lines of cord impressions 10-15 to the inch with very little smoothing. Interiors were smoothed, but do not show the evidences of scraping as with I. There is one rim sherd; vertical impressions on this extend over the lip which has been flattened. No decoration occurs. The thickness ranges from ³/₁₆-⁴/₁₆ inch. One large sherd about 4 × 3 inches suggests vessels of considerable size.

Pottery of Class III in most aspects resembles that of Class II: paddle and anvil technique in manufacture, temper of sand or crushed rock, fine, not abundant, micaceous clay. The texture is very flaky tending to fracture along irregular lines. Color grey to brown, usually the latter, generally continuous through the sherd; some, however, have blacker cores. Exterior surfaces were treated with two sets of parallel cord marks one extending vertically from the rim, the other at an angle of about 45 degrees. This gives a sort of criss-cross effect, different, however, from the random application of Upper Republican sherds (see Wedel 1934, Strong 1935). Interior surfaces were smoothed. On one large rimsherd cord marks extend over the flattened lip. No shoulder is in evidence, and indications suggest fairly large pots with mouth diameter of about 10 inches, height 12 inches. The camber of the sherds indicates forms with pointed bottoms. Thickness is from ³/₁₆-⁴/₁₆ inches. There is no decoration. Hardness is about 3.5.

Geology of the LoDaisKa Site[2]

By CHAS. B. HUNT

The LoDaisKa (Sanger) Site, about a mile and half south of Morrison, Colorado, is a rockshelter under a projecting ledge of Paleozoic (Pennsylvanian) sandstone that dips steeply east. The pre-ceramic occupation layers at this site are believed to correlate with the Piney Creek alluvium (Hunt, 1954, p. 114). The accompanying map (Fig. 66) illustrates the general geologic setting of the site; it shows the general distribution of one upper Pleistocene and two Recent units.

[2] Publication authorized by the Director, U. S. Geological Survey.

The upper Pleistocene unit (Qg on the map) is a bouldery gravel with which is included some variegated, silty and clayey alluvium. This bouldery gravel is exposed in Strain Gulch upstream from the site, and it covers much of the upland northwest of that part of the Gulch. Downstream from the site this bouldery gravel is southeast of the Gulch and forms the high terrace extending from the site to the highway. Because the deposit is bouldery, and because the boulders are little weathered the deposit is assumed to be Wisconsin in age.

The alluvium with variegated colors mapped with this bouldery gravel is exposed in Strain Gulch about 700 feet northeast of the site, and in the tributary from the west that joins Strain Gulch about 200 feet upstream from the highway. In this latter tributary the alluvium rests on strata of Paleozoic age. At both localities the variegated alluvium is overlain by dark-colored, sandy and silty alluvium.

The variegated alluvium has a distinct, lime-enriched zone, probably representing the alluviated layer of an old soil from which the upper layers have been eroded. The lime-zone is comparable in thickness to that found in soils in Wisconsin age in the Denver area. Moreover, at the outcrop in Strain Gulch, the lower part of the alluvium is stained with iron oxide about the way deposits of Wisconsin age are stained in the Denver area. However, the dating of the deposits is uncertain because it has not been established whether the layers enriched in lime and iron are the result of surficial weathering or ground-water action.

Probably, though, these deposits are late Pleistocene in age, and fossils in them probably will include the Pleistocene forms.

Overlying the bouldery gravel and the variegated alluvium is a dark-colored, sandy and silty alluvium (Qp on the map), 1 to 6 feet thick, that looks quite like the Piney Creek alluvium in the Denver area. Both the Piney Creek and this alluvium are of Recent age. Fossil bones were found in the alluvium at two places near the site (A and B on the map). At A, 1 foot below the surface, articulated bones were found; at B, a single bone was found and it was not in place, but from a plowed surface on the upland. At this locality a chert flake was found also. The bones were examined by Edward Lewis of the U. S. Geological Survey and C. B. Schultz and L. G. Tanner of the University of Nebraska State Museum and Geology Department. Their identifications are as follows:

Locality A, fragments of a vertebra, femur, epiphysis,
and ribs of _Bison bison_ (Linnaeus) of Recent age,
and

Locality B, the badly weathered astragalus of a large
bovid, either _Bos Taurus_ or _Bison bison_ (Linnaeus)
of Recent age.

The unconformity at the base of the dark-colored alluvium is well exposed at the localities indicated on the map.

Fragments of charcoal were found in the alluvium 200 feet upstream from the site. This alluvium probably correlates with the pre-ceramic layers of the occupation levels at the site, which, as reported by Lewis in an accompanying paper, also contains vertebrate remains of Recent age.

The youngest deposit, a bouldery gravel confined to the present washes, is a lag concentrate of the boulders and cobbles that are left by washing out finer grained sediments from the Pleistocene deposits. This deposit, and the arroyo-cutting with which it is associated, probably developed throughout the period of the ceramic levels.

REFERENCE CITED

Hunt, Chas. B., 1954 Pleistocene and Recent deposits in the
Denver area, Colorado: U. S. Geol. Survey Bull. 996-C, p. 91-140.

Mechanical and Chemical Analyses of the Deposits of the LoDaisKa Site

By ROBERT J. RODDEN

Introduction

Mechanical and chemical analyses of the deposits of the LoDaisKa Site were made in an attempt to establish whether or not any paleosols or ancient weathered zones were present. No clear profile development could be observed in the field and it was hoped that laboratory analysis might confirm this impression. The occurrence of such features might serve for correlation between sites in the area and aid in interpreting the paleoclimatic and geomorphic history of the deposits (Miller and Leopold, 1953).

Sampling

Samples for laboratory analysis were collected from two different parts of the site. Those upon which most of the present conclusions are based were taken in continuous two-inch intervals down a vertical face in Square M11 (see Figs. 7 and 10), very near the back wall of the rockshelter. They were not collected until after much of the site had been excavated and it was only near the rear wall that a relatively complete section could be obtained. Rodents had disturbed the upper levels and only the profile from 38-102 inches below baseline was studied. Because the location of this sample might very well reflect the influence of the overhang on the particle size distribution of the deposits, another sample section was taken in front of the shelter. Stratigraphic relations and similarities in the archaeological materials suggested that the deposits extended essentially horizontally from the front to the back of the site, and that correlations for six-inch horizontal levels were generally warranted. The samples from Square J8 were collected in continuous six-inch intervals from a point 38 inches below baseline. The expected horizontal variation with respect to particle size distribution was, in fact, not borne out by the results of this second sampling. A comparison of the median diameter and sorting coefficients of the samples suggests that both samples are generally representative of the deposits and of variations within them (see Figs. 67, 68):

Median diameter of 7 samples from
the back of the shelter (M11) 0.61-0.75mm.

Median diameter of 4 samples from
the front of the site (J8) 0.60-0.70mm.

Average sorting coefficients of
7 samples from M11 2.20 (relatively well-sorted)

Average sorting coefficients of
4 samples from J8 2.18

One would not expect that the results of the chemical analyses would be appreciably affected by the location of the sample.

Table VIa

Particle-size fractions, in millimeters; expressed in percent of total weight of sample.

|2.00 |1.00 |0.71 |0.50 |0.351| 0.25|0.177|0.125|0.088|
| - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
2.00 |1.00 |0.71 |0.50 |0.351|0.25 |0.177|0.125|0.088|0.062|0.062
------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----
38-40 12.46 20.50 11.79 10.28 8.97 10.17 5.65 5.45 4.46 3.19 5.78
40-42 9.67 18.18 11.67 11.63 9.17 11.67 6.59 6.03 4.99 3.26 6.18
42-44 9.61 19.22 12.69 11.49 9.43 10.75 5.99 5.68 4.57 3.18 5.99
44-46 5.22 16.99 12.08 11.78 9.81 12.14 6.86 6.82 5.52 4.04 7.18
46-48 11.59 19.56 12.12 11.34 9.11 10.72 5.64 5.15 4.18 2.84 5.79
48-50 11.60 20.28 12.37 11.93 9.76 10.89 5.63 5.15 3.89 2.62 5.15
50-52 8.28 19.70 11.84 11.48 10.16 11.91 6.45 6.13 4.75 3.26 4.84
52-54 11.42 20.22 11.91 10.96 9.14 11.08 6.09 5.58 4.67 3.15 5.12
54-56 14.33 20.44 11.84 11.23 8.65 10.45 5.61 5.23 4.14 2.77 4.19
56-58 10.30 21.69 11.77 11.35 9.20 10.81 5.86 5.57 4.57 3.02 5.24
58-60 16.89 24.64 11.88 10.54 8.62 9.50 4.35 3.68 2.88 2.23 4.02
60-62 8.24 20.08 11.99 11.61 9.74 11.86 6.32 5.87 4.67 3.68 4.48
62-64 5.49 22.90 12.42 11.05 8.51 10.08 5.16 4.90 3.81 2.78 3.96
64-66 10.51 22.60 12.93 10.57 9.46 11.17 6.00 5.78 4.33 2.76 3.60
66-68 9.43 19.53 12.27 11.57 10.00 12.74 6.79 6.23 4.38 2.66 3.46
68-70 14.23 23.83 13.13 11.22 8.63 9.38 4.84 4.26 3.25 2.33 4.35
70-72 8.14 18.47 11.80 11.25 8.55 10.64 6.15 6.11 5.06 3.94 9.09
72-74 7.38 18.95 11.33 11.13 8.00 10.96 6.21 6.15 5.19 4.23 9.72
74-76 10.42 22.84 12.38 10.90 8.04 9.28 5.13 4.67 3.90 3.20 7.62
76-78 10.87 19.63 11.92 11.63 8.78 9.60 5.29 4.93 4.04 2.97 9.86
78-80 11.42 21.31 12.33 11.10 8.84 9.45 5.15 4.71 3.83 2.80 8.42
80-82 10.77 17.36 11.40 10.96 9.01 10.33 5.84 5.52 4.59 3.38 10.05
82-84 7.49 21.36 12.75 11.80 9.50 10.88 5.70 5.02 3.82 6.57 8.26
84-86 6.73 15.60 12.35 13.82 12.79 16.23 7.83 5.78 3.40 1.69 3.18
86-88 9.80 20.03 12.32 12.32 10.86 13.50 6.59 5.12 3.06 1.55 2.50
88-90 20.57 26.22 12.92 10.31 7.38 7.68 3.51 2.73 1.84 1.21 4.41
90-92 9.22 25.22 13.73 11.55 8.48 9.36 4.66 4.19 3.09 2.18 7.40
92-94 16.17 26.24 13.94 10.33 7.63 7.68 3.85 3.35 2.47 1.79 6.48
94-96 13.87 19.98 12.52 12.28 10.62 12.19 5.50 4.10 2.45 1.29 2.36
96-98 14.62 19.87 11.85 12.02 10.58 12.16 5.84 4.60 2.81 1.55 3.19
98-100 9.98 21.28 12.61 12.60 11.25 13.05 6.29 4.95 2.94 1.57 3.00
100-102 13.75 23.24 9.20 13.73 11.31 12.00 4.93 3.77 1.82 0.77 1.20

Distribution (weight percent) of particle-size fractions for samples from Square M11, LoDaisKa site. Samples taken in continuous two-inch intervals from 38 inches below baseline.

Table VIb

Particle-size fractions, in millimeters;
expressed in percent of total weight of sample

2.00 1.00 0.71 0.50 0.351
- - - - -
2.00 1.00 0.71 0.50 0.351 0.25

W1 9.21 19.71 11.54 10.53 8.88 11.12
W2 16.32 20.19 11.99 10.93 8.43 9.70
W3 28.25 25.09 11.02 8.32 6.00 6.56
W4 17.98 23.49 12.39 10.83 8.98 9.94
W5 7.16 18.90 11.67 11.49 9.97 12.39
W6
W7 14.00 19.37 11.38 11.45 9.53 8.75
W8 13.48 18.44 11.66 12.29 11.55 13.51
W9 12.32 16.36 10.68 11.08 10.98 14.18
W10 10.11 16.27 10.72 12.54 12.11 15.34
--------------------------------------------------------
0.25 0.177 0.125 0.088
- - - -
0.177 0.125 0.088 0.062 0.062

W1 6.19 6.19 5.06 3.31 5.25
W2 4.85 4.46 3.53 2.28 3.32
W3 3.20 2.99 2.25 1.07 1.98
W4 4.41 3.54 2.17 1.28 0.89
W5 6.27 5.67 4.21 2.66 3.91
W6
W7 9.12 4.62 2.46 0.85 0.56
W8 6.44 5.53 3.45 1.77 2.00
W9 7.56 5.76 3.34 1.72 3.01
W10 7.02 5.06 2.86 1.68 2.46

Distribution (weight percent) of particle-size
fractions for samples from Square J8, LoDaisKa
site. Samples taken in continuous six-inch
intervals from 38 inches below baseline.

Results and Discussion

The two levels represented in the section from M11 extend over the whole area of excavation and make up most of the deposits of the site. A late Pleistocene bouldery gravel, with which is included some variegated silty and clayey alluvium, is separated from the overlying dark-colored sandy and silty “alluvium” by a definite erosional break representing an unknown interval of time (Hunt, this report). There is a higher red sand layer and a younger bed of dusty brown fill which is found just below the surface; both of these are relatively quite thin and extend only over part of the area of the site. As the dark-colored homogeneous sands and silts made up most of the deposits of the site, and contained most of the cultural remains, they will be our particular concern.

The results of sieve analyses made on the samples from the front and back of the site have been summarized in Tables VIa and VIb; the breakdown into the various particle size fractions is by weight. This was done to 1) describe the physical nature of the deposits and 2) to determine the nature of textural variation of the samples.

Below: Size-distribution Curves for typical samples of the deposits of the LoDaisKa Site, Square J8.]

Local differences and variations in the parent rock and relief have a profound effect on soil characteristics (Thorp, 1941). In the present instance, there is no evidence of any appreciable change in the relief of the area immediately surrounding the site since the beginning of human occupation. The site is located towards one end of the relatively steep slope of outwash debris from the Fountain Formation which forms the overhang and extends upslope above the site. The deposits which make up the site are also the product of slope wash and of weathering of the overhang; they are some six feet above the level of the stream in Strain Gulch. The height of the deposits above modern stream level makes it seem most unlikely that the site was ever flooded in Recent times (Hunt, personal communication—Irwin and Irwin). Accordingly, the deposits would be a colluvium rather than alluvial in nature and would be derived from the overhang. Mechanical analyses of several samples of the Fountain Sandstone from the overhang suggest that the sandstone as it is found above the site is quite homogeneous, although it varies in color from white to maroon (see pg. 99 of this report):

Diameter in mm. Percent by weight
2.00 19.33%
2.00-1.00 16.51%
1.00-0.71 8.64%
0.71-0.50 8.33%
0.50-0.351 8.61%
0.351-0.25 8.89%
0.25-0.177 5.51%
0.177-0.125 5.68%
0.125-0.088 4.69%
0.088-0.062 3.37%
0.062 10.40%
------
99.96%

These results compare closely with the analyses of the deposits making up the site, and suggest that weathering of the parent material was primarily dissolution, probably accompanied by some mechanical disintegration.

Center: Changes in concentration of total calcium carbonate with depth below 38 inches below baseline, LoDaisKa site.

Below: Changes in concentration of total soluble iron with depth below 38 inches below baseline, LoDaisKa site.]

Representative particle size distributions of the deposits are shown in the cumulative curves in Fig. 67. The median diameters and sorting coefficients, as we have already noted, suggest a uniform distribution of particle sizes, with the exception of the sample (W3) from depth 52-58 inches below baseline in front of the site. The median diameter of this sample is 1.32 mm., considerably larger than that (0.60-0.70 mm.) for the rest of the deposits. A line of much larger rocks at this level gives evidence of a period of rock fall, although this does not seem to extend to the very back of the shelter, and is not represented in the sample collected there. The human occupation of the site is uninterrupted, and there is no suggestion that this fall reflects any change in the mode of deposition or any change in climate. Increased aridity may have brought about an important increase in aeolian deposition in the area during some period of occupation, but the location of the site in a sheltered valley makes it unlikely that this would be indicated by the deposits. Any significant change in the relative importance of the coarse and fine fractions—suggesting perhaps such a change in deposition—would be reflected in the median diameters of the samples (Jenny, 1941). The similarity in the median diameters of the particles from the deposit gives evidence of a relatively uniform mode of deposition.

The amount of uncombined carbonate and “free” or acid-soluble iron oxide in the clay and silt fraction (finer than 0.062 mm.) of the samples from the back of the shelter (M11) was determined by chemical analysis. The results of these analyses have been summarized in Fig. 68, where the percentage of the fines by weight has also been plotted. The uncombined oxides and carbonates (iron oxide and calcium carbonate) are present in the fine fractions especially in the form of an adsorbed coating on the surfaces of the particles, and also as precipitates acting as cementing materials to bind them together (Carroll, 1958; Deb, 1958; Barshad, 1958). The free iron oxides were obtained by dissolving the sample in 10% HC₁ (by volume) and digestion over a steam bath. It is assumed that any dissolution of the clay minerals is insignificant and that the amount of soluble iron determined is truly representative of the uncombined iron oxide in the sample (Barshad, 1958). The amount of carbonate was determined in the form of CO₂, by digesting the sample in 0.1N HCl; it is assumed that all of the carbonate occurred in the form of calcium carbonate.

A carbonate and iron oxide analysis was run on several samples of the Fountain sandstone which made up the roof of the rockshelter, in order to determine the amount of variation in the parent material:

Sample Percent Carbonate Percent Iron
(by weight) (by weight)
sol. insol. total
Light
No. 1 0.34% 0.43% 0.14% 0.57%
No. 2 0.31% 0.38% 0.13% 0.51%
Red
No. 1 0.08% 4.95% 0.62% 5.57%

The amount of soluble iron is quite variable in the parent material; it forms a coating on the primary minerals and gives the rock its red or maroon color. It is interesting to note that the soluble iron in the deposits, presumably derived from the Fountain sandstone, maintains a rather regular increase to a maximum at 102 inches below base-level. The amount of carbonate in the parent rock, by contrast, is certainly not enough to account for the variation which was found in the deposits and for the concentration of CaCO₃ at the particular levels. In the present instance there seems to be a definite independence in the movement and location of concentration of the soluble iron and of the fine silt and clay, which seem to be associated with concentrations of carbonate. The calcium carbonate occurs in the form of a coating on the fine particles and, more important, as a cement binding the particles together. This was particularly noticed on the artifactual and bone materials from the deposits from 70 to 94 inches below baseline.