Chapter III: Introduction (1)

But O! what terms expressive may relate
The change, the splendour of their new-formed state!
Their texture, nor composed of filmy skin,
Of cumbrous flesh without, or bone within,
But something than corporeal more refined,
And agile as their blithe informing mind.
In every eye ten thousand brilliants blaze,
And living pearls the vast horizon gaze;
Gemmed o’er their heads the mines of India gleam,
And heaven’s own wardrobe has arrayed their frame:
Each spangled back bright sprinkled specks adorn,
Each plume imbibes the rosy tinctured morn,
Spread on each wing the florid seasons glow,
Shaded and verged with the celestial bow.
Where colours blend an ever varying dye,
And wanton in their gay exchanges vie.

BROOKE.

Having already discussed the general history of butterflies at considerable length, in a volume devoted to the illustration of the kinds found in Britain, it is not our intention to resume the subject in this place, further than to make a few remarks on certain peculiarities presented by many foreign species, a selection from which forms the subject of the present volume.

The remarkable superiority in size and beauty of most tropical productions over those of temperate regions, is scarcely more strikingly exemplified in any department of nature than in this. The most richly ornamented of our native species, and we possess many of great beauty, appear insignificant when contrasted with those of Brazil and Eastern Asia. Various as are the modifications of form which they present in this country, we find nothing to prepare us for the peculiar outline and aspect which many kinds assume in the warmer regions of the earth. Here we seldom find any having the hinder wings prolonged into a tail, but among foreign species this is a common appendage, sometimes long and linear, at other times broad and spatulate; and occasionally there are not fewer than three or four on each of the hinder wings. Along with this variety of outline, they exhibit almost every possible shade of colour, from the most brilliant to the most obscure, combined and blended in the most elegant and harmonious designs, rendering this tribe of creatures one of the most ornamental to be found in nature.

Although such endless diversity of colouring is observable in this class as a whole, it is, at the same time, worthy of remark, that most of the principal groups are characterized by the prevalence of particular hues, as well as considerable uniformity in their mode of distribution; that is to say, certain modifications of structure are generally accompanied with a certain pictorial design. Thus, the greater proportion of the genus _Pieris_ are white; _Colias_ and _Callidryas_ various shades of yellow, from the palest sulphur-yellow to deep reddish-ochre. _Argynnis_ is almost invariably fulvous or reddish brown, variegated with numerous undulating black lines or spots; the under side more or less ornamented with silvery streaks and spots. In the species of the European genus _Thais_, the wings are spotted or chequered with black and red. The prevailing colour in the genus _Argus_ is azure-blue. _Danais_, _Idæa_, and _Euplœa_, have this character in common, that the breast and head are always punctured with white. In _Cethosia_, hieroglyphical markings cover the under side of the wings in such a manner as is observable in no other genus.

Many of the caterpillars of exotic butterflies offer peculiarities in their forms and appendages, of which we find no prototype in the kinds occurring in Britain. In the place of spines, some have the body thickly covered with long fleshy prominences, of a corneous consistency at the tip, and probably serving as a means of defence. In others, spines of singular conformation and formidable size are thickly stuck over the whole surface, making it resemble a miniature forest. A few are provided with a long anal horn, resembling that which is so conspicuous in the caterpillars of the Sphinges. If Madam Merian’s delineation of the larva of _Urania Leilus_ be correct (which there is now reason to believe is the case), it bears many slender spines, as long as the whole body, and as stiff as iron wire. Another species (that of _Papilio Protesilaus_), is likewise clothed with plumose spines, two of which at the hinder extremity are much longer than the rest, and terminate in an appendage like a star. Equally remarkable with any of these is the caterpillar of one of the Nymphalidæ (_Adoleas Aconthea_), which has a series of long filiform bodies projecting from each side, thickly clothed laterally with hairs of considerable length diminishing gradually to the extremity, which is armed with a few minute spines.

As might be expected, great diversity likewise prevails in the appearance of the chrysalides; but to these it will be more convenient hereafter to refer, in the preliminary notices to the respective genera. One of the most remarkable, however, may be mentioned, that of _Morpho Menelaus_, which has the nasal prominence of the prothorax produced into a long curved horn, which extends to the middle of the abdomen. In another species of the same group, the head is obtuse, projects considerably, and is curved upwards at the extremity, exactly like the beak of an ancient galley.

Our acquaintance with the geographical distribution of the diurnal lepidoptera was long very imperfect, and it may yet be said to be very far from complete. The older naturalists seem to have been but little alive to the importance of the subject, and even if it had been otherwise, the means they possessed for illustrating it were comparatively limited. Those who had opportunities of collecting specimens in foreign countries, valued them merely as specimens, and, in general, kept no record of their localities, or natural history properly so called. Collections from China and the East Indies were indiscriminately mixed, in their way homewards, with others from the Cape of Good Hope; and American species were in like manner mingled with such as are proper to the West Indian islands. Hence it followed, that Fabricius and others were so often led into error when they indicated the native country of the kinds they described: but, indeed, the author just named did not very frequently attempt this, but merely says, “From the Indies”--an expression which means nothing more explicit, in his acceptation of it, than that the species in question is exotic. Linnæus, also, when he uses the same word, means indiscriminately either the East or West Indies. The indications of localities in modern works are in general copious and accurate, but they have not hitherto been made the basis of any general and satisfactory view of the distribution of the species.

As might be expected in the case of animals endowed with considerable power of flight, certain kinds of diurnal lepidoptera have a much more extensive range than most other insects--than the coleoptera for example. It is now ascertained that _Cynthia cardui_, a species well known throughout Europe, (without confounding it, as may sometimes have been done, with the kindred species _C. Hunteri_), occurs in Senegal, Egypt, Barbary, Cape of Good Hope, in the islands of Bourbon and Madagascar, in Bengal, China, Java, New Holland, Brazil, and North America; so that it may be called a complete cosmopolite. Of the four quarters of the globe, Europe is poorest in these insects; and next to it is Africa. Asia, including the great islands of the Indian Archipelago and America, are both exceedingly rich. Of the former, the islands seem to be much more prolific than the continent; they are the exclusive haunts of the gigantic _Ornithoptera_, several of the largest and most richly coloured of the _Pierides_, as well as several of the most remarkable species of the genus _Morpho_. South America produces a greater number than any other country; and Brazil, always preeminent for its exuberance both in animal and vegetable life, may be said to be the richest portion of the new continent. It has been estimated by an individual who has enjoyed the advantage of personally examining the country, that Brazil alone affords between 600 and 700 species of diurnal lepidoptera, a calculation which seems in no degree overcharged. Among these are many genera peculiar to America, such as _Heliconia_, _Castnia_, _Erycina_, &c. In almost every one of its physical properties, Africa affords a complete contrast to the country just named; and however favourable its arid soil, and far-extending deserts of parched and drifting sand, may be to the existence of certain peculiar races of coleoptera, it is by no means generally adapted to the support of creatures which derive their entire sustenance from vegetable juices. The sea-coast, and umbrageous banks of the larger rivers, however, are pretty abundantly supplied, and afford many species peculiar to the country. This is the metropolitan station of the genus _Acrea_, and it is likewise inhabited by several peculiar groups of the genera _Papilio_, _Pieris_, &c. The neighbouring island of Madagascar is much richer than the continent, and exemplifies what has been observed in relation to many other islands, that their zoological productions by no means correspond to those of the nearest portion of the main land. Little relation exists between the diurnal lepidoptera of Madagascar and the Cape of Good Hope, but a very close one can be traced between the former and those inhabiting distant parts of the continent, such as Senegal and Sierra Leone. Mauritius and Bourbon likewise differ considerably in their lepidopterous productions from Madagascar. In the latter, magnificent _Papilios_, _Acrææ_, _Euplœæ_, _Danaides_, _Uraniæ_, _Cyrestes_, _and Xanthidia_, embellish by their elegant forms and splendid colours, the marshy and pestilential forests of that extensive island, and rival in beauty that majestic and teeming vegetation which has always excited the admiration of botanists[22]. New Holland is not without its peculiar species, although this department of its zoology is not characterised by such marked singularities as are observed among its higher animals and vegetable productions.

A singular circumstance has been recorded by a recent traveller regarding one of the species, _Euplœa humata_ (Mac Leay), found in the country just referred to, namely, that it is employed as an article of food!

He states that there is a certain mountain, called the Bugong Mountain from multitudes of small moths, named Bugong by the natives, which congregate at certain times upon the masses of granite which compose it. The months of November, December, and January are quite a season of festivity among these people, who assemble from every quarter to collect these moths. They are stated also to form the principal summer food of those who inhabit to the south of the Snow Mountains. To collect these moths (improperly so called, for as above indicated, they are true butterflies), the natives make smothered fires under the rocks on which they congregate; and suffocating them with smoke, collect them by bushels, and then bake them by placing them on heated ground. Thus they separate from them the down and the wings; they are then grounded and formed into cakes, resembling lumps of fat, and often smoked, which preserves them for some time. When accustomed to this diet, they thrive and fatten exceedingly upon it[23]. Millions of these butterflies were likewise observed on the coasts of New Holland, both by Captains Cook and King; and thus, says Mr. Kirby, has a kind Providence provided an abundant supply of food for a race that, subsisting entirely on hunting and fishing, must often be reduced to great straits[24].

These insects were, no doubt, the first that attracted the attention of naturalists, in consequence of their imposing appearance and striking metamorphoses. Collections of them began to be made at an early time, and were valued not only by the lover of nature, but by those who had no farther or more worthy design in view than to possess them as objects highly ornamental. Very extensive collections exist in nearly all the principal cities and museums of Europe; and many are to be found throughout Britain, not only belonging to public institutions for promoting natural history, but also in the possession of private individuals. One of the best conditioned collections of exotic lepidoptera in this country, is that in the possession of the East India Company, made in Java by Dr. Horsfield. As the method followed by that gentleman for preserving his specimens was attended with great success, the following account of it will be interesting and useful to those who have opportunities of making collections in foreign countries:--“During the inquiries I made,” says Dr. Horsfield, “in the early part of my residence in Java, to become acquainted with the best methods for securing what I obtained in my excursions, I noticed the plan described by Le Vaillant in his Travels in Africa, for the preservation of entomological collections. It is the following:--Boxes or chests carefully made of light wood, of a convenient portable size, are provided with partitions or moveable shelves, each consisting of a simple board; these are fitted at the distance of two inches one from another, in grooves in the sides of the box, in which they are made to slide with accuracy and facility, and are therefore removable at pleasure. These boards or shelves have necessarily the exact dimensions of the ends of the chest, and are placed in a vertical position; a small vacancy is preserved between this lower extremity and the floor, and any object detached by accident falls to the bottom without causing further injury. Each board or shelf, lined with cork or soft wood, supplies, in some measure, the place of a cabinet drawer. When taken out of the box and placed on a table, it rests securely, and affords a plain surface, upon which insects may be fixed and examined with perfect ease and security: it is returned into the box in an instant, which, if carefully made, when closed secures most effectually the contents. A small quantity of camphor, at the bottom, spreads its influence over the whole. One large box may conveniently contain fourteen boards, answering the purpose of as many drawers; and, being eighteen inches long, they have a manageable size. This plan I resolved to adopt. In the early period of my pursuits, the boxes which I provided were made of light wood, and to their use I must ascribe, in a great measure, the preservation of my collection. I found that they afforded a complete protection against the ants and other destructive insects which abound in the island of Java, perhaps as much as in any other tropical region. They were peculiarly useful in travelling, and possessed the advantage of affording a ready access to the subjects. As the ultimate object of my pursuits was to provide an extensive and well-conditioned collection, which might be useful and instructive in England, I had, soon after receiving the patronage of the Honourable East India Company, directed my attention to the provision necessary for its safety during a voyage. My residence at Surakarta afforded me peculiar advantages in this point of view. Both materials and workmen are here obtained, perhaps more readily than in any other part of Java. Boxes, according to the plan described, were therefore provided, of more substantial materials than those employed in travelling, in proportion to the increase of the collection. The wood of the _Bombax pentandrum_ was employed for lining the boards and securing the pins; and I ascribe to an acquaintance with the peculiar property of this wood--which renders it an effectual substitute for cork--the preservation of the collection during its transportation. After having carefully packed the subjects, every necessary precaution that suggested itself was used in securing the boxes against accidents during the voyage. They were individually painted and covered with oil-cloth. Each box was then placed in an outer case, made of the same substantial materials, and secured in the same manner. By these various precautions, and by the care which the collection received from the commander of the vessel during the voyage, I enjoy the satisfaction of having brought the whole in safety to England[25].”

* * * * *

The systematic arrangement of this tribe of insects has always been considered a task of great difficulty. So convinced of this was Latreille, who had himself studied the subject profoundly, that he says a classification of lepidoptera may be considered the touchstone of entomologists. This difficulty arises chiefly from the uniformity of organization which prevails throughout the order--a uniformity occasioned by all of them being designed to subsist on liquid food, and to imbibe it in the same manner. The oral organs, therefore, which are of the first importance in classifying other tribes--the coleoptera, for example, in which they undergo almost endless variations of form and consistency to fit them for consuming every kind of organic substance, from semi-fluid animal or vegetable matter to the hardest ligneous tissue--are, in this instance, of comparatively little avail. Recourse must be had to secondary and subordinate characters; and even when we are convinced that, owing to a peculiar _facies_, and the concurrence of many minute resemblances, certain groups should be regarded as distinct, it is found difficult to define them in a satisfactory manner. Neither has the difficulty been much lessened by the manner in which the subject has been handled by many modern naturalists. The numerous illustrations of lepidoptera published of late years, have been _partial_, being either selections from the whole class, or forming part of a local fauna. In either case, the subject is regarded in too insulated a light. The illustrator of foreign butterflies selects a species, and by giving prominence to all its minute characters, proposes it with considerable plausibility as a distinct genus. The local faunist divides his groups in reference to his own limited sphere of observation. Neither contemplates the possibility of being ever called upon to elaborate a general system, and he leaves it to those who are to reconcile all existing inconsistences. Hence it follows, that so many of the genera proposed in local and partial works can find no place in a general one; for however specious they may appear when standing alone, it is often found that they will not unite into a consistent whole, and they may therefore be said still further to embroil the very subject they were designed to elucidate.

The Linnean distribution was vague and unsatisfactory, even at the time when it was first produced, and soon became utterly inapplicable when the amount of known species was increased. But it did not fail to exercise, like every other system emanating from that gifted mind, a powerful influence on the progress of the science, and is interesting on account of its ingenuity and poetical elegance. “It is an attempt,” says Dr. Shaw, “to combine, in some degree, natural and civil history, by attaching the memory of some illustrious ancient name to an insect of a particular cast.” The first Linnæan division consists of _Equites_, which are distinguished by the shape of the upper wings; these are longer, measured from their posterior angle to their anterior extremity, than from the same point to the base; the antennæ sometimes filiform. The _equites_ are denominated _Troes_ or Trojans, distinguished by having blood-coloured spots on each side of the breast: or _Achivi_, Greeks, which are without red marks on the breast, of gayer colours, and having an eye-shaped spot on the anal angle of the inferior wings. The second division consists of _Heliconii_, which are distinguished by having the wings narrow and entire, often naked or without scales; the superior oblong, the inferior very short. The third division consists of the _Danai_, so called from the sons and daughters of Danaus. They are divided into _Danai candidi_, or such as have whitish wings, and _Danai festivi_, in which the ground colour is never white, and the surface variegated. The fourth division consists of the _Nymphales_, distinguished by the edges of the wings being scolloped or indented; it is subdivided into _N. gemmati_, in which the wings are marked with ocellated spots, and _N. Phalerati_, without these spots. The fifth division contains the _Plebeii_. These are commonly smaller than the preceding butterflies, and are subdivided into _rurales_ and _urbicolæ_; the former having the wings marked with obscure spots, the latter for the most part with transparent spots.

In his earlier works, _Mantissa_ and _Species_, Fabricius made no important change on the Linnæan method; but the many additional species which had come to his knowledge when he drew up his _Systema glossatarum_, led him to establish many new genera, and remodel the arrangement of the old ones. This method consists of forty-one genera, most of which have been adopted by subsequent authors; but it is less complete than it might otherwise have been rendered, owing to the death of the author before it was finished. Latreille did not deviate materially from the Fabrician method, adopting nearly all the genera; but he did not derive the distinctive characters exclusively from the antennæ and palpi, as the Danish entomologist had done, but had recourse to other parts of structure, and likewise judiciously took into account the peculiarities of the caterpillar and chrysalis. Several arrangements were proposed subsequent to or contemporaneous with that of Latreille, such as those of Lamarck, Dumeril, Dalman, &c. but most of them are of little importance. The last mentioned individual, however, appears to have been the first to apply to actual practice, in his description of the lepidoptera of Sweden, characters derived from the neuration of the wings, the value of which were first pointed out by Mr. Jones, in a paper in the Linnæan Transactions, published in 1794. Godart, without appearing to have been acquainted with what had been done by Dalman, likewise had recourse to the structure of the wings in his arrangement, as published in the Encyclopédie Methodique, and Lepidoptera of France. In the latter work, the diurnal series is classified with reference to the appearance of the discoidal cell in the inferior wings; and by adopting this excellent character, he has, in most instances, greatly improved on Latreille’s method.

In 1776, an arrangement was proposed which attracted little attention at the time, but which has since risen to considerable distinction. It is that exhibited in the Systematic Catalogue of the Lepidoptera found in the neighbourhood of Vienna, by MM. Denis and Schiffermüller. This original and highly valuable system is entirely founded on the appearance of the caterpillars. It is singular that characters almost exclusively drawn from that state, should confirm the classifications founded on characters afforded by the imago or complete insect. But to such a degree does this coincidence obtain, that almost all the families proposed by the Austrian naturalists have been adopted as genera by those who were guided by other principles. This method remained for a long time almost unknown to the naturalists of this country, and even on the continent its excellence seems to have been but inadequately appreciated, except among the Germans. The only authors that have acted upon it are Ochsenheimer, and his continuator Treitschke, in their valuable and extensive work on the Lepidoptera of Europe[26].

But there can be little doubt that those arrangements are the most accurate and philosophical which are founded on characters derived from all the different states in which these insects exist. This conviction seems now to be generally entertained, and most writers of very recent date have seen the propriety of acting upon it. In the works of Curtis, Stephens, Horsfield, &c. it has been adhered to to a greater or less extent, and in a general work on Lepidoptera lately published by Dr. Boisduval of Paris, nearly equal importance is assigned to the peculiarities of the caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly. As this method presents some new features, and is the last that has been laid before the public, we shall give an account of it along with the accompanying remarks in the authors own words:--“It is not till after a most attentive study of the butterflies of Europe in their different states, and after having collected a certain number of materials on the metamorphoses of exotic species, that we have attempted to group the lepidoptera in a manner different from that hitherto followed, not neglecting, at the same time, the study of those authors who have occupied themselves with this order, that we might be enabled to combine the results of their labours with our own. We do not flatter ourselves, however, that the combinations which we have made are altogether free from blame, any more than those of our predecessors. When occupied with the productions of a single country, the classification is much more easy; the greater number of species associate pretty well with each other, and, if we except a few of the most anomalous, a series is obtained free from much irregularity. In this way, the European species form a pretty homogeneous assemblage, and the same thing holds with regard to those of South America, New Holland, or any other country taken by itself; but when we attempt to classify those of the whole globe, we frequently meet with intermediate genera which interrupt this harmony. If we even take a somewhat numerous genus belonging at the same time to several different countries, we find species which form a passage to other races proper to each of these countries. For example, the genus _Pieris_ of Latreille offers species in America (genus _Leptalis_) which bear a perfect resemblance to the _Heliconii_ in their colour, the length of their bodies, and narrowness of the wings. Others of the same country (genus _Euterpe_) insensibly unite with that division of American _Papiliones_ which is of a black colour with red spots; those of Europe, on the contrary, present certain relations to _Parnassius_, _Pieris Cratægi_ appearing to form the passage to _P. Mnemosyne_, while those of India gradually approach _Colias_ through _P. Judith_ and _P. Panda_, and to _Danais_ with green spots through _P. Valeria_. All other genera of some extent, and distributed over several countries, are in the same condition.

“What we have just stated, applies equally to the correlation of species with each other. If we take, for example, the genus _Satyrus_ of Latreille, we perceive that it is composed of an infinite number of secondary groups, scarcely any of which are proper to one country. Thus, in Europe, we have the division to which _Galatea_ belongs, extending along the basin of the Mediterranean, even into Persia; that of _Hermione_, which takes the same direction, and continues to Cachmere; that of _Norna_, proper to the polar regions of the two continents; that of _Nigres_, which inhabits mountainous countries, and is found only at the Cape and at Chili; finally, that of the _Satyres_, properly so called, which are connected with the species of New Holland, some of them with those of Chili, of North America, and Siberia. America and the East Indies, likewise, present groups which in general appearance differ widely from our European species; while there are others which resemble several at the same time. A collection of the _Satyres_ of one country would, therefore, form a sufficiently natural series; but it would appear most irregular when the species of several countries were brought together.

“Our method is partly founded on the caterpillar, and partly on the perfect insect. We attach the greatest importance to the caterpillar state, and the characters which it furnishes have often more value in our estimation, than those afforded by the butterfly; but generally these characters confirm each other, in other words, two caterpillars presenting the same characters produce flies which likewise partake of the same generic characters. It will no doubt be objected to us, that it is illogical to deduce characters except from the animals we are attempting to classify. We reply, that by following any other plan we must despair of attaining to a natural method. Besides, it is not necessary to be acquainted with the caterpillars of every species; it is sufficient to study a caterpillar and chrysalis of _Vanessa_ or _Pieris_ to have an exact idea of those of the two genera. Even though it should be very difficult to verify the characters taken from the larva, this is no reason why we should abstain from employing them. It is not merely from the fruit that botanists obtain their characters, but likewise from the flower, and even from the first developement of the vegetable embryo. The flower is to the plant what the caterpillar is to the lepidopteron, and the different modes of metamorphosis have as much value as those of inflorescence.

“It appears to us that Latreille’s three divisions, taken from Linnæus--_Diurnal_, _Crepuscular_, and _Nocturnal_--are too inaccurate to be retained, especially the crepuscular section. The denomination _Diurnal_ not only applies to all the known kinds of day butterflies, but also to an almost infinite number of others forming a part of the two other divisions, such as _Macroglossa_, _Zygenides_, _Castniariæ, gocerides_, &c. That of _Crepuscular_ is adapted more or less to some sphinges, but by no means to the _Zygenides_, which fly only in the heat of the sun. Finally, the term _Nocturnal_ is not more properly applicable to all the species, since many belonging to this section appear only during the day. In order to avoid these improper denominations, we have substituted for the word _Diurnal_, that of _Rhopaloceres_, proposed by M. Dumeril. Being unable to perceive limits between the _Crepuscular_ and _Nocturnal_ divisions of Latreille, we have united those two great sections under the name of _Heteroceres_. In our method, therefore, the lepidoptera are divided into two grand legions, _Rhopaloceres_ and _Heteroceres_[27].”

Dr. Boisduval then proceeds to explain that the first of these divisions is characterised by antennæ thickening to a club at the extremity; and the second, by having these organs variously shaped; this indeed is implied by the words themselves. The first division is subdivided into three sections, according to the manner in which the caterpillars transform themselves into chrysalides. Such as undergo this change by attaching themselves by the tail and a band round the middle, form the first division, named _Succincti_; such as are suspended by the tail only, the second, _Penduli_; while those which form a cocoon by rolling leaves together, compose the third division, termed _Involuti_.

Each of these three sections is then divided into _tribes_, according to characters derived from the caterpillars and the perfect insect. Among those furnished by the latter, the most important are considered to be the number of ambulatory legs and the form of the palpi. The genera are characterised by the form of the caterpillar and chrysalis, by the dispositions of the nervures of the wings, the form of the antennæ, legs, palpi, thorax, &c. of the perfect insect.

GENUS ORNITHOPTERA.

The present generic group was first separated from _Papilio_ by Dr. Boisduval. None of its characters, taken singly, are very strongly marked, but their aggregate importance is sufficiently considerable to authorise its adoption. As in _Papilio_ the antennæ form an elongate club, having the extremity slightly curved upwards, the palpi are longer than in the genus just named, but they never rise above the forehead. The prothorax is much developed anteriorly, and forms a pretty distinct neck. The abdomen is long and robust, that of the male deeply grooved on the under side, and provided at the anal extremity with two large rounded valves. The wings are large, of a strong texture, and furnished with salient nervures; the anterior pair elongate; the posterior with wide shallow indentations, and never prolonged into a tail.

We are very imperfectly acquainted with the natural history of the insects of this group in their early stages. Their remote localities, and the rarity of most of the species, have, for the most part, prevented them from falling under the notice of competent observers. The caterpillar and metamorphoses of one of them (_O. Heliacon_), however, have been described by Dr. Horsfield. Like the caterpillars of _Papilio_, it is furnished with two retractile tentacula; the body is large and thick, and bears eight rows of rather long fleshy prominences, of a conical shape. The chrysalis into which it is transformed is somewhat curved, having the head obtuse, and a few projecting points above the middle. It is suspended by the tail, and a transverse band, which, however, does not encompass the body, but is inserted on each side. (See Fig.)

This group is but of limited extent, but it comprehends some of the largest and most beautiful lepidoptera yet known to us. With one exception, which extends over a portion of the Indian continent, they are confined to the Mollucca, Philippine, and others of the numerous and extensive islands of the Indian Archipelago. The species figured, which is the most beautiful of the whole, and to which Linnæus applies the epithet of _august_, has been long known and highly prized by collectors. It is named

PLATE 1.

_1 Ornithoptera Priamus_ _2 Ornithoptera Remus_

Natives of the island of Amboina.]

ORNITHOPTERA PRIAMUS.

PLATE 1. Fig. 1.

_Boisd. Species gener. des Lepidop._, 173.--Papilio Priamus, _Linn. Latr. Godart, Cramer_; _Papillons exotiques_, 23, A, B; _Donovan’s Insects of India_, Pl. 3.

Female, Pap. Panthous, _Linn._; _Cramer_, 123, A, and 124, A; _Don. Ins. of India_, Pl. 2.

Such a remarkable discrepancy exists in the appearance of the sexes, that they were always regarded as separate species till lately, when their proper relationship to each other happened to be ascertained. The anterior wings of the male are deep velvety black, with two broad longitudinal stripes of rich silky green, curved, and narrowing at both extremities; between these stripes there is a large brownish spot disposed longitudinally. The hinder wings are silky green, with the posterior margin, and a series of four pretty large circular spots, velvet-black; between the black spots and posterior border are two orange spots, and another of larger size towards the base of the wing. On the under side, the anterior wings have a macular band of gilded green, formed of contiguous wedge-shaped spots, an irregular patch towards the centre, and two streaks near the apex. The under side of the hinder wings corresponds to the surface, but the green is of a more golden hue, and the circular spots larger, and seven in number. The antennæ, head, and thorax, black--the latter with a central line and two posterior spots of golden green; breast spotted with red on the sides; abdomen bright yellow.

The female is considerably larger, frequently measuring nearly eight inches between the tips of the wings. The prevailing colour is dark brown, deepening towards the extremities of the wings; the upper pair traversed by a macular band of impure white, the spots unequal and generally interrupted or notched; the hinder pair having a curved row of six large wedge-shaped spots behind, of a whitish colour powdered with black, the base tinged with yellow, and each with an orbicular black spot in the centre. Head and thorax entirely black, the abdomen whitish yellow above and deep yellow beneath.

Varieties of both sexes have occurred, for there seems little reason to doubt that the insect figured by Guerin (_Voyage de la Coquille, Ins._, pl. 13, fig. 1 and 2) under the name of _P. urvillianus_, is a variety of the male, while a female variety is described by Boisduval[28]. In the former, the green of the superior wings is replaced by violet-blue of a very brilliant tint, and in the hinder part that colour runs in a broad stripe along the nervures, dilating considerably towards the posterior margin. This example was found at Offack.

The Priam butterfly is found in the islands of Amboina, Rawack, and Ceram. It has been observed to hover about the _Mangifera Indica_ in preference to other trees, and it has hence been conjectured that it deposits its eggs on the leaves, and that they constitute the food of the caterpillar. It never occurs in large numbers, and is hence somewhat rare in collections. Specimens of both sexes are preserved in the valuable collection of insects belonging to the Edinburgh University Museum.

ORNITHOPTERA REMUS.

PLATE 1. Fig. 2.

Pap. Remus, _Fabr. Godart_, _Cramer_, 135, A, 136, A, and 386, A, B.--Pap. hypolithus, var. _Cramer_, 10, A, B, 11, A, B.

One of the largest species, the expansion of the wings sometimes measuring nearly eight inches. The superior pair are black, with a slight greenish reflection, and having a broad greyish-white stripe running along each side of the secondary nervures. The inferior wings are dark grey on the surface, and of a shining white on the under side, the latter having a black sinuated border interrupted by seven irregular spots of golden-yellow diminishing in size as they approach the abdominal margin. In the female, which is the sex represented on the adjoining plate, the golden-yellow spots are much larger, somewhat wedge-shaped, and each of them, except the outermost, marked with a large oval black spot. The abdomen is bright yellow above, paler on the under side, and irregularly spotted with black; the head, thorax, breast, and antennæ entirely of the latter colour.

The native country of this elegant species is the island of Amboina.

GENUS PAPILIO.

Passing from the Ornithoptera, which may be esteemed the chiefs and princes of their race, we now come to the Papilios, properly so called, some of which are scarcely inferior in their dimensions and imposing aspect. Such, at least, is the case with _P. Antimachus_ and _P. Antenor_, which besides their large size, partake of some of the other characters of the group just referred to, and thus form the passage from it to Papilio. But the great majority are of very inferior size, and many of them so dissimilar in aspect that they might be thought to afford sufficient distinctions for arranging them in numerous different genera. On a close examination, however, the species are found to be so intimately allied in all essential parts of structure, that the most judicious systematists have not attempted to separate them. Such authors as have followed an opposite course, Hubner for example, have proved by no means successful in establishing sub-divisions; and the only effect of such a proceeding is to encumber the subject with a number of generic names without eliciting a more philosophical arrangement, or one better adapted to aid the student. As at present constituted, the genus is compact and natural; and if it were broken up by attaching undue importance to very subordinate characters, no partial change would suffice; for any principle that might be thought to justify the establishment of one genus, would render it necessary, if consistently acted upon, to create not fewer than thirty or forty. One of the most obvious differences among the species is the presence or absence of a tail; but an arrangement founded on this circumstance, separates, by a wide interval, kinds which are in other respects most closely allied. Nay, the tail itself is often more or less developed in the same species, being sometimes distinct in the one sex while it is inconspicuous or wanting in the other; its value as a diagnosis of genera is thus in a great measure destroyed.

Considerable differences likewise prevail in the appearance of the caterpillars, but these are too imperfectly known to be made the groundwork of an arrangement, even if they were likely to be available for such a purpose by indicating natural groups or affording additional means of characterising them. “Some of them,” says Dr. Boisduval, “such as those of _Machaon_, _Alexanor_, _Asterias_, are cylindrical and smooth; others (_Crassus_, _Philenor_), are protected with rather long fleshy prominences; in a very great number (_Pammon_, _Memnon_, _Chalchas_, &c.) the two first segments are attenuated, and capable of being retracted under the third and fourth, which are dilated and often ornamented with ocular spots analogous to those presented by many of the _Sphingides_; others are short and thick, and furnished with numerous rather short fleshy points; finally, there are some (_Podalirius_, _Ajax_, _Antiphates_) which somewhat resemble snails in shape. The caterpillars of _Papilio_ may be distinguished from those of other genera belonging to the same tribe by the following characters:--They differ from those of _Ornithoptera_ in their retractile tentaculum not being enclosed in two exterior cases; from those of _Thais_, in the projections which they sometimes present being never hispid at the extremity; and from those of _Parnassius_, in the body being always free from pubescence; but it is more particularly from the characters drawn from the chrysalis and perfect insect that this last genus is distinguished from _Papilio_[29].”

The perfect insects are characterised by very short palpi not passing beyond the eyes, all the joints very indistinct, the third quite invisible; antennæ pretty long, the club slightly curved upwards; abdomen pretty large, the anal valves in the male of moderate size; wings rather strong, the inferior pair having the abdominal margin folded upwards and leaving the abdomen free, their exterior border more or less dentated, and often prolonged posteriorly into a tail.

According to the above definition, the genus comprehends rather upwards of 220 species. They are distributed over almost every quarter of the globe, but are by far most abundant in intertropical countries. They are more numerous in the new continent than the old, but the difference is by no means considerable. In the former, Brazil alone produces between forty and fifty species; in the latter, the greatest number occur in the islands of the Indian Archipelago, already referred to as the native country of the magnificent Ornithoptera. The continental parts of India, China, Java, &c. likewise possess many fine species, and a few are found in New Holland. Europe is exceedingly poor in insects belonging to this group, there being only four indigenous kinds. These are _P. Xuthus_, _P. Alexanor_, _P. Machaon_, and _P. Podalirius_; the two latter, which are the most common, are well known to extend to Britain.

The first species selected to exemplify one of the prevailing forms of this important genus, is

PLATE 2.

_1. Papilio Memnon._ _2. Pap. Æneas._ _Lizars sc._

China. Surinam.]

PAPILIO MEMNON.

PLATE II. Fig. 1.

_Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, 91, C.--Papilio Agenor, _Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, 32, A, B.

The upper wings in this species expand about five inches; they are blackish and marked with numerous longitudinal rays of a greyish-ash colour, each of them having a large blood-red or ochrey-yellow triangular patch at the base. The inferior wings are waved on the hinder margin, and narrowly edged with white in the emarginations, the disk almost entirely occupied by a broad white band divided by the dark nervures, the hinder portion dusky with a series of deep-black spots of an ovate or rounded form, that placed on the anal angle smaller than the rest and encircled with fulvous, which colour extends to the extremity of the internal border; on the under side they are spotted with red or ochre-yellow at the base: body black, the prothorax marked with several white points.

The above description applies to one of the female varieties of _P. Memnon_, which was usually regarded as a distinct species and known by the name of _Agenor_. Indeed it is so unlike the male, that authors would probably never have thought of associating them, had they not been reared from the same description of caterpillar. The male is entirely without the basal red spot, and the dark ground colour has a greenish reflection; the upper wings have a red or ochreous spot at the base on the under side, and there are likewise four small red marks on the same part of the inferior wings: the latter are deep black anteriorly and cinereous behind; the cinereous portions containing two rows of deep black rounded spots, that next the anal angle encircled with yellow. _P. Androgeos_ of Cramer (pl. 91, A. B.) is a variety of this sex, while the _P. Anceus_, and _P. Laomedon_, of the same iconographist are varieties of the female.

The caterpillar, which feeds on the different kinds of _Citrus_, is described by Dr. Horsfield as of a green colour, with an ocelliform lateral mark on the third segment, and a transverse white band; a band of pale green between the fourth and fifth segments, and an oblique white stripe on the eighth and ninth; the anal segment likewise of that colour. The anterior part of the body is considerably attenuated, similar to what is observed in the caterpillars of many of the Hawkmoths. Chrysalis green, reddish-yellow on the back.

This insect is found in China, and the islands of the Indian Ocean, and is rather a common species.

PAPILIO ÆNEAS.

PLATE II. Fig. 2.

_Linn., Fabr., Cramer_, Pl. 279, Figs. A, B, C, D.--_Rösel Insect._ vol. iv. Pl. 2, Fig. 2.--_Godart, Encyclop._ No. 24.--_Boisduval, Spec. gener._ 286, No. 112.

We have figured this insect as characteristic of a pretty extensive group of butterflies inhabiting South America, distinguished by a peculiar outline, and a certain similarity of design in the markings. The space between the tips of the anterior wings always exceeds by more than one half the space between the anterior edge of these wings and the hinder margin of the posterior pair; that is to say, the width of the insect, with its wings expanded, is more than double its length. The ground colour of the wings is generally deep black, with one or two insulated patches of some light colour on the disk of the anterior pair, and a large blood-red patch in the middle of the hinder wings; the latter deeply dentated on the margin, but without a tail. In _P. Æneas_ the upper wings expand about three inches and a quarter: they are velvet-black, becoming lighter towards the apex, with a pretty large green spot, of a somewhat quadrangular shape, towards the interior border, surmounted by three smaller ones of an obscure white. Inferior wings likewise velvet-black, with a large discoidal patch, deep red anteriorly and carmine behind intersected by dark nervures; posterior margin with obtuse unequal dentations, the notches margined with red. Under side of the inferior wings with five oval, rose-coloured spots, placed in an irregular transverse line. Body black, the sides of the breast spotted with red.

The insect regarded as the female of this species differs greatly from the above: the wings are more rounded at the apex, and there is only a single spot, of shining green, on the upper pair: the notches of the hinder wings bordered with white.

This butterfly is found in greatest plenty in Surinam, but it likewise occurs in other quarters of South America.

The other species belonging to this group, easily recognised by their peculiar _facies_, are, _P. Opleus_, _Hippason_, _Euristeus_, _Polymetus_, _Jacinthus_, _Eurymas_, _Eurymedes_, _Echelus_, _Ariarathes_, _Marcius_, _Numa_ (Boisd.), _Cœlus_ (Lacordair), _Arbates_, _Anchises_, _Dimas_, _Iphidamas_, _Arcas_, and a few others.

PLATE 3.

_Lizars sc._ _1. Papilio Ascanius._ _2. Pap. Paris._

Brazil. China.]

PAPILIO ASCANIUS.

PLATE III. Fig. 1.

_Fabr. Drury’s Exot. Insects_, iii. Pl. ix. fig. 1; _Cramer_, Pl. xiv. fig. A.

This insect may be regarded as the type of another South American group, somewhat allied to the preceding in general appearance, and in the distribution of colours, but presenting at the same time considerable differences. The length of the hinder wings is proportionally much greater, and each of them has a pretty long spatula-shaped tail. In the species figured, the wings are deep-black above, inclining to brown on the under side; the superior pair with a broad transverse white band, crossed by black nervures, and surmounted by a white arch, or two or three small white spots at the extremity of the discoidal cell. The hinder wings are likewise traversed by a wide band, frequently deeply notched or palmate, white anteriorly, and tinged with carmine behind; beyond which there is a series of narrow, slightly lunate, red spots parallel with the margin; tail of moderate length, black: body black, with red spots on the sides of the breast and abdomen.

This beautiful butterfly is not uncommon in the northern regions of Brazil, but it becomes scarce in the south.

PAPILIO PARIS.

PLATE III. Fig. 2.

_Linn. Fabr. Drury’s Ins._ Pl. xii. fig. 1; _Cramer_, Pl. 103, A, B; _Boisd. Spec. gen._ p. 208.

_P. Ulysses_, _Perianthus_, _Bianor_, _Polyctor_ (Boisd.), _Blumer_ (Boisd.), _Crino_, _Palinurus_, _Paris_, and _Arjuna_, form a very natural group of butterflies, distributed over the eastern parts of the continent of Asia, and the islands of the Indian Archipelago. The great breadth of the wings and tail, combined with the general darkness of their colours, give them a somewhat heavy appearance, but this is often in some degree relieved by great richness of decoration. They are occasionally ornamented with patches of very brilliant azure-blue, and nearly all of them are sprinkled with shining points of golden-green, making the surface appear as if powdered with gold-dust. The species figured as an example is a native of China, and is often received in collections from that country, although it does not appear to be very common. In many cabinets a closely allied species stands for this, which is so similar that the two may easily be confounded. The species alluded to is _Pap. Arjuna_, a native of Java, accurately described by Dr. Horsfield; but although now regarded as distinct, it may ultimately prove to be a mere local variety. Godart confounds three species, conceiving that _P. Bianor_ was the female of _P. Paris_, and _P. Arjuna_ a variety.[30] The extension of the wings in _P. Paris_ is about four inches; the surface dark-brown, powdered with particles of golden-green, which are condensed into two or three spots near the extremity of the inner border of the upper wings: the under wings have, towards the middle, a large patch of very brilliant azure-blue, sinuated posteriorly, where it is on a line with a series of spots formed by the union or condensation of the minute golden atoms; the anal angle with an ocellated spot having a red iris surmounted by a very narrow violet arc: tail black: under side brown, sprinkled with grey particles, which are so condensed towards the apex of the upper wings as to form a broad transverse band, interrupted by dark nervures: under wings with a posterior row of seven ocelliform spots, dark in the centre and having a yellowish-red iris, divided anteriorly by a slender violet arc: body black, powdered with particles, in the same manner as the wings.

The female differs only in the ground colour being a little darker, and in having a transverse ray of condensed particles, which reaches from the internal border nearly to the middle.

The caterpillar is probably very similar to that of _P. Arjuna_, described by Dr. Horsfield.[31]

PAP. PROTESILAUS.

PLATE IV. Fig. 1.

_Linn. Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 202, fig. A, B; _Merian’s Insec. Surin._ Pl. 43.

The two insects delineated on the adjoining plate exemplify a form which prevails among a pretty extensive group of the genus _Papilio_, and which is familiar to European entomologists as represented in a very characteristic manner by the beautiful _P. Podalirius_. The prolongation of the hinder wings into a long narrow tail is the most striking feature, and has caused them to be termed swallow tails. The ground colour is for the most part pale,--light yellow, or green,--and the wings are marked with numerous transverse stripes of dark brown or black. They are not confined to any particular country, but are distributed over most regions of the globe, although the greatest number are found in Brazil and other parts of America. _P. Protesilaus_ is one of the most common inhabiting the country just named. It expands nearly four inches; surface pale white, almost transparent, tinged with green at the base of the superior wings; the latter having seven narrow transverse black bands commencing at the anterior margin, the innermost five very short, the sixth descending to the internal angle, where it unites with the seventh, which runs along the margin: inferior wings black at the hinder extremity, that colour divided by two rows of large lunules of the ground colour, the anal angle with a bright transverse spot of carmine-red; tail very long and narrow, bordered with white, and having before its base two or three greyish-blue spots, composed of minute particles. On the under side the most remarkable differences are, that the two interior bands are prolonged to the anal angle, where they unite, and the outer one is bordered on one of its sides with a stripe of carmine: body whitish, with a broad black stripe along the back, another on the sides, and three along the belly.

PLATE 4.

_1. Papilio Protesilaus._ _2. Pap. Sinon._
Brazil. Jamaica.

_Lizars sc._]

PAPILIO SINON.

PLATE IV. Fig. 2.

_Fabr. Cramer_, Pl. 317, fig. C, D, E, F.--_Herbst. Pap._ Pl. 44, fig. 5, 6.--Pap. Protesilaus, _Drury_, vol. i. Pl. 22, fig. 3, 4.

Considerably less than the preceding, the space between the tips of the wings seldom exceeding three inches; wings black, with pale coloured bands slightly tinged with green; viz. two towards the base, extending across both wings, the third very slender and short, the fourth forming a pretty broad central stripe bifid anteriorly, and terminating in a point near the middle of the hinder wings; beyond this are two transverse spots or rudimentary bands anteriorly, and lastly a macular one of rounded spots parallel with the hinder margin; the latter likewise extends along the hinder wings, the spots assuming a crescent shape; anal angle marked with an oblique vermilion spot; tail long, linear, and black. Under side brown, the design corresponding to that on the surface, but having a narrow stripe of red near the middle, placed in a dark band and edged with white on the anal angle: body black, with two white streaks on the thorax, the abdomen ringed with white above, and greyish-white beneath.

Inhabits Jamaica, Florida, and various parts of South America.

PLATE 5.