Chapter V: THE BIOLOGICAL TYPE. In some ways the most important scientific (22)

This is usually regarded as _Pluvianus_ or _Hyas ægyptius_--one of the “plovers” in the wide sense. Professor Newton observes, however, in a note to the article “Plover” in his _Dictionary of Birds_ that there is not perfect unanimity on the matter, as some have supposed that the “crocodile bird” was a lapwing--_Hoplopterus spinosus_. But the elder Geoffroy St. Hilaire and Brehm, who both saw the bird enter the reptile’s mouth, regarded it as _Pluvianus ægyptius_.

Dr. Leith Adams notes (1870) that the crocodile is now rarely seen below Beni Hassan, and is evidently receding everywhere below the second cataract. Both Herodotus and Strabo speak of its domestication, and it is tamed at the present day by certain religious sects in India. On the lower Nile it is shy and difficult even to shoot.

“A sail, or the smoke and noise of a steamboat, suffice to warn the crocodiles basking on the sand-banks, or their common companions, the black-headed and spur-winged plovers (_Pluvianus ægyptius_ and _Hoplopterus spinosus_), which are frequently seen perched on their backs, and always prepared to give timely warning of approaching danger, just as the Father of History noticed them 2300 years ago, and, strange to say, his well-known story is current among the modern Egyptians, who, as usual, have put a tail to the narrative. They say, that in addition to its office of leech-catcher to the crocodile, it occasionally does happen that the zic-zac--so called from its note of alarm--in searching for the leeches, finds its way into the reptile’s mouth when the latter is basking on a sand-bank, where it lies generally with the jaws wide apart. Now this is possible and likely enough, but the captain of our boat added, that occasionally the crocodile falls asleep, when the jaws suddenly fall, and the zic-zac is shut up in the mouth, when it immediately prods the crocodile with its horny spurs, as if refreshing the memory of his reptilian majesty, who opens his jaws and sets his favourite leech-catcher at liberty” (Leith Adams).

MIGRATIONS OF MAMMALS.

Note 56: p. 237.--_Rats._

The brown rat (_Mus decumanus_) is much stronger than the black rat (_Mus rattus_), and gains an easy victory. The rivalry between the two species is one of the examples Darwin gives of his generalization that the struggle for existence is most severe between allied forms, and there seems no doubt that the brown rat has often ousted and will even devour the black rat. The latter is now rare in Britain. It should be noted, however, (1) that the two species are said sometimes to live together on board ship, (2) that cases have been recorded where the black rat returned and defeated its conquerors, and (3) that the black rat keeps more about houses, stables, and barns, is therefore more readily exterminated by man, whose efforts were doubtless increased when a second species appeared on the scene. The case is of some importance in connection with the generalization referred to above.

Note 57: p. 240.--_Migrations of Reindeer._

Of the reindeer in Spitzbergen, Nordenskiöld writes:--“During the summer it betakes itself to the grassy plains in the ice-free valleys of the island; in the late autumn it withdraws--according to the walrus-hunter’s statements--to the sea-coast, in order to eat the seaweed that is thrown up on the beach. In winter it goes back to the lichen-clad mountain heights in the interior of the country, where it appears to thrive exceedingly well, though the cold during winter must be excessively severe; for when the reindeer in spring return to the coast they are still very fat, but some weeks afterwards, when the snow has frozen on the surface, and a crust of ice makes it difficult for them to get at the mountain sides, they become so poor as to be scarcely eatable. In summer, however, they speedily eat themselves back into condition, and in autumn they are so fat that they would certainly take prizes at an exhibition of fat cattle.”

Wrangel describes migrations of thousands of reindeer in Eastern Siberia moving from the mountains to the forests, where they winter. He mentions his guide’s assertion that each body is led by a female of large size.

Perhaps we may take the liberty of quoting, with a tribute of admiration, Mr. F. Marion Crawford’s eloquent description of a wild rush of reindeer from the inland country to the shore. We confess to incredulity in regard to the reindeer’s longing to drink of the Polar Sea, but the splendid vividness of the description may excuse some slight inaccuracy.

“In the distant northern plains, a hundred miles from the sea, in the midst of the Laplander’s village, a young reindeer raises his broad muzzle to the north wind, and stares at the limitless distance while a man may count a hundred. He grows restless from that moment, but he is yet alone. The next day a dozen of the herd look up from the cropping of the moss, sniffing the breeze. Then the Laps nod to one another and the camp grows daily more unquiet. At times the whole herd of young deer stand at gaze, as it were, breathing hard through wide nostrils, then jostling each other and stamping the soft ground. They grow unruly, and it is hard to harness them in the light sledge. As the days pass, the Laps watch them more and more closely, well knowing what will happen sooner or later, and then at last, in the northern twilight, the great herd begins to move. The impulse is simultaneous, irresistible, their heads are all turned in one direction. They move slowly at first, biting still, here and there, at the rich moss. Presently the slow step becomes a trot, they crowd closely together, while the Laps hasten to gather up their last unpacked possessions--their cooking utensils and their wooden gods. The great herd break together from a trot to a gallop, from a gallop to a breakneck race, the distant thunder of their united tread reaches the camp during a few minutes, and they are gone to drink of the Polar Sea. The Laps follow after them, dragging painfully their laden sledges in the broad track left by the thousands of galloping beasts--a day’s journey, and they are yet far from the sea, and the trail is yet broad. On the second day it grows narrower, and there are stains of blood to be seen; far on the distant plain before them their sharp eyes distinguish in the direct line a dark motionless object, another, and another. The race has grown more desperate and more wild as the stampede neared the sea. The weaker reindeer have been thrown down and trampled to death by their stronger fellows. A thousand sharp hoofs have crushed and cut through hide and flesh and bone. Ever swifter and more terrible in their motion, the ruthless herd has raced onward, careless of the slain, careless of food, careless of any drink but the sharp salt water ahead of them. And when at last the Laplanders reach the shore their deer are once more quietly grazing, once more tame and docile, once more ready to drag the sledge whithersoever they are guided. Once in his life the reindeer must taste of the sea in one long, satisfying draught, and if he is hindered he perishes. Neither man nor beast dare stand before him in the hundred miles of his arrow-like path.”--_A Cigarette-Maker’s Romance_, vol. ii. pp. 23-25.

Note 58: p. 241.--_Migrations of Bisons._

In regard to the migration of the bison or buffalo, Mr. G. B. Grinnell writes:--“It was once thought that the buffalo performed annually extensive migrations, and it was even said that those which spent the summer on the banks of the Saskatchewan wintered in Texas. There is no reason for believing this to have been true. Undoubtedly there were slight general movements north and south, and east and west, at certain seasons of the year; but many of the accounts of these movements are entirely misleading, because grossly exaggerated. In one portion of the northern country I know that there was a decided east-and-west seasonal migration, the herds tending in spring away from the mountains, while in the autumn they worked back again, seeking shelter in the rough, broken country of the foot-hills from the cold west winds of the winter.”--_American Big-Game Hunting_ (Boone and Crockett Club), edited by Theodore Roosevelt and George Bird Grinnell, Edin., 1893.

Note 59: p. 250.--_Migrations of Seals._

Much interesting information as to the migrations and habits of seals will be found in J. A. Allen’s _History of North American Pinnipedia_. The eared fur-seals (_Otaria_) and others travel periodically to the breeding-places or “rookeries”, where they spend a considerable time, but it should be noted that our common seal (_Phoca vitulina_) does not make seasonal migrations.

Note 60: p. 256.--_Instinct of the Lemming._

A discussion of the strange instinct of the lemming, remarkable in its apparent fatality, will be found in Romanes’s _Mental Evolution in Animals_.

Note 61: p. 258.--_Numbers of Springbok._

“I beheld the plains and even the hillsides which stretched on every side of me thickly covered, not with herds, but with one vast mass of springboks; as far as the eye could strain the landscape was alive with them, until they softened down into a dim red mass of living creatures. To endeavour to form any idea of the number of antelopes which I had that day beheld were vain, but I have no hesitation in saying that some hundreds of thousands were within the compass of my vision.”--_Gordon Cumming._ With this should be compared what other sportsmen and travellers have in recent years told us of rapidly diminishing numbers.

Note 62: p. 260.--_The Monkey Question._

The position of evolutionists in regard to the relations of man and monkeys is conveniently stated in Huxley’s _Man’s Place in Nature_. A criticism of the thorough-going evolutionist position, from the philosopher’s point of view, will be found in Professor Calderwood’s _Evolution and Man’s Place in Nature_. A midway position is indicated in Wallace’s _Darwinism_.

While most naturalists are now thoroughly evolutionist in regard to the descent or ascent of man, as in regard to other problems, most would probably agree with Lloyd Morgan’s cautious conclusion:--

“In denying to animals the perception of relations and the faculty of reason, I do so in no dogmatic spirit, and not in support of any preconceived theory or opinion, but because the evidence now before us is not, in my opinion, sufficient to justify the hypothesis that any animals have reached that stage of mental evolution at which they are even incipiently rational.”

Probably all naturalists allow that animals who profit by experience and adapt their actions to varying circumstances are _intelligent_. But cases which force us to credit animals with general ideas, with “thinking the therefore”, in short, with reason, are admitted by few.

LOVE AND COURTSHIP AMONG BIRDS.

While admiring the vigorous protest which Brehm makes in this chapter against the interpretation which regards animals as automata, I feel that he has hardly done justice to it. In general terms, the interpretation is that animals act as they do in virtue of an inherited organic mechanism which responds in a uniform manner to certain stimuli. That this is true of many animal and even human actions, especially in early youth, seems highly probable. That it only covers a small fraction of animal behaviour is certain. But even those who go furthest in extending the scope of animal automatism, do not say that an automatic act may not be accompanied by consciousness, they only say that it is not _controlled_ by consciousness. See Huxley, _Are Animals automata?_ in his collected Essays: and Lloyd Morgan, _Introduction to Comparative Psychology_.

Note 63: p. 272.--_Sexual Selection._

For a statement of the doctrine of sexual selection, the original document--Darwin’s _Descent of Man_--should be consulted. But the theory has met with strong criticism, _e.g._ on the part of Alfred Russel Wallace, see his _Darwinism_. See also _The Evolution of Sex_, by Geddes and Thomson, and Lloyd Morgan’s _Animal Life and Intelligence_.

Note 64: p. 279.--_Polygamous Birds._

Darwin has discussed the question of polygamous birds in his _Descent of Man_.

Note 65: p. 281.--_The Widowed Bird._

For one of the finest expressions in literature of the possible emotions of the widowed bird, we may be allowed to refer to Walt Whitman’s “Out of the cradle endlessly rocking” (_Leaves of Grass_).

APES AND MONKEYS.

Note 66: p. 285.--_Descent from Monkeys._

Hanumân, the sacred Hindoo long-tailed monkey, plays an important part in Hindoo mythology. He was the friend of Vishnu during his incarnation as Rama Chandra, and he aided the god greatly in the search for his wife Sita, who had been carried off by Ravān. A female slave, who had tended Sita kindly during her captivity, was married to Hanumân as a reward, and this pair some Indian noble families proudly claim as ancestors.

Note 67: p. 286.--_Monkeys on the Rock of Gibraltar._

A letter written in 1880 by an officer in Gibraltar to the _Field_ newspaper and quoted in vol. i. of the _Royal Natural History_ gives the number living on the Rock at that time as twenty-five, among whom were only two adult males. There had been several gangs of them at one time, but they had done so much damage in the town gardens that they had been nearly exterminated by means of traps and poison. But in 1856, when their numbers had been reduced to four or five, a garrison order was issued forbidding further destruction of them, and since that time they have been strictly preserved and regularly counted. In 1863, four were imported from Africa, and after a time were admitted as members of the band. Another attempt was made in 1872 to reinforce their numbers, but it was unsuccessful.

Note 68: p. 290.--_Habits of Monkeys._

See Mr. Garner’s observations on monkeys (_Speech of Monkeys_, 1893); Hartmann’s _Apes and Monkeys_ (Internat. Science Series), Romanes’s _Animal Intelligence_ and _Mental Evolution in Animals_. H. A. Forbes, _A Handbook to the Primates_ (Allen’s Naturalist’s Library; Lond. 1894). Mr. Havelock Ellis in his _Man and Woman_ (Lond. 1894) has some interesting notes on the relation of young monkeys and young children to the adult forms.

Note 69: p. 291.--_Death from Grief._

Instances of death from grief are given in Romanes’s _Animal Intelligence_. See also a paper by Mr. Garner in _Harper’s Monthly_, 1894.

Note 70: p. 298.--_Speech of Monkeys._

See Mr. Garner’s _Speech of Monkeys_ (Lond. 1893), which tends to support Brehm’s view. But in reference to Garner’s work, Lloyd Morgan says, “Of the nine sounds made by capuchins, not one is, so far as the observations go, indubitably indicative of a particular object of desire. All of them may be, and would seem to be, in the emotional stage, and expressive of satisfaction, discontent, alarm, apprehension, and so forth. Still they may be indicative of particular objects of appetence or aversion; and experiments with the phonograph, conducted with due care and under test-conditions, may do much to throw light upon an interesting and important problem.” After careful consideration, Prof. Lloyd Morgan says, “At present, however, there is not, so far as I am aware, any evidence that animals possess powers of descriptive intercommunication involving perception of relations”.

Note 71: p. 298.--_Right and Wrong in Monkeys._

What is said here should be compared with the discussion of the subject in Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, Romanes’s _Mental Evolution in Animals_, or perhaps most conveniently in Lloyd Morgan’s _Introduction to Comparative Psychology_ (Lond. 1894). According to the last-named authority the moral sense “involves a thinking of the _ought_; it involves a more or less definite perception of the relation of a given act to an ideal standard”. “In none of these cases (cited), is there sufficient evidence to justify a belief that a standard of conduct takes form in the animal mind.”

Note 72: p. 303.--_Mutual Aid among Monkeys._

Mr. Darwin quotes this case in his _Descent of Man_, and calls the monkey “a true hero”. Similar examples of mutual aid will be found in the same work, as also in a couple of articles by Prince Kropotkine, “Mutual Aid among Animals”, _Nineteenth Century_, 1889.

Note 73: p. 316.--_Effect of age._

There are some who hold that observation favours the opposite view, that the young ape is relatively more human and less simian than the adult. With these, rather than with Brehm, we agree. There is, however, need of more precise physiological and psychological observation.

Note 74: p. 318.--_Man’s Place in Nature._

It should be noted that the zoologist’s usual statement of his position is that he believes that men and the higher apes have arisen from a common stock. See Huxley’s _Man’s Place in Nature_. As the anthropoid apes are believed to have diverged as distinct types in Miocene times, the common stock is plainly in the almost inconceivably distant past. A belief in descent from a common stock does not in the least affect the demonstrable distinctiveness of man, nor does it explain how the evolution, whose results we are, took place. See Darwin’s _Descent of Man_, and Drummond’s _Ascent of Man_.

DESERT JOURNEYS.

Note 75: p. 330.--_Nodules in the Desert._

These seem to be the now well-known manganese nodules. The puzzling question of their origin is discussed by Dr. John Murray in that part of the _Challenger_ Reports which deals with marine deposits. Solymos thus describes them, “Belted by higher hills, I have mounted one, apparently consisting entirely of a lofty pile of hardened equal sandstone balls, the size of peaches. They were as nearly globular as anything in nature--a bubble, a drop, a planet.”

NUBIA AND THE NILE RAPIDS.

For some interesting geological and zoological observations see A. Leith Adams, _Notes of a Naturalist in the Nile Valley and Malta_ (1870). J. H. Speke, _Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile_ (1864).

Note 76: p. 358,--_On the Nile and its Cataracts._

See Sir Samuel Baker’s _The Nile and its Tributaries_ (1867), and Walter Budge, _The Nile: Notes for Travellers in Egypt_ (1890).

Note 77: p. 359.--_Syenite._

Syenite, a hard crystalline rock, resembling granite, and well adapted for monuments. It is not known in Britain, but occurs in many parts of Europe and America, as well as at the place to which it owes its name.

Note 78: p. 362.--_Philæ._

Philæ has recently been a centre of attention in connection with the Egyptian waterworks. See Sir Benjamin Baker, “Nile Reservoirs and Philæ”, _Nineteenth Century_, xxxv. (1894), pp. 863-72; J. P. Mahaffy, “The Devastation of Nubia”, pp. 1013-18; Frank Dillon, “The Submergence of Philæ”, pp. 1019-25; H. D. Pearsall, “The Nile Reservoirs”, _Scottish Geographical Magazine_ (1895, August), pp. 393-402.

Note 79: p. 370.--_Government of Egypt._

The reader must bear in mind that Egypt has had a somewhat complex political history since Brehm wrote.

A JOURNEY IN SIBERIA.

Note 80: p. 397.--_Archar Sheep._

Archar or arkal is the Kirghiz name for the Mongolian argali (_Ovis ammon_). The animal is almost as large as a donkey, has enormous horns and short coarse hair. It is said to be now restricted to Northern Mongolia, and some districts of Southern Siberia. The Tibetan argali (_Ovis hodgsoni_) is closely allied. See Sir V. Brooke, _Proc. Zoological Society_, 1875.

Note 81: p. 412.--_Splenic Fever._

Anthrax or splenic fever is a rapidly fatal disease due to a microbe, _Bacillus anthracis_. This was demonstrated by Koch, and corroborated by Pasteur. The latter discovered how to attenuate the virus, and secure immunity by inoculation. Cattle, sheep, and reindeer are among the commonest victims; but, as the narrative shows, man himself is not exempt.

THE HEATHEN OSTIAKS.

Note 82: p. 426.--_Present state of Ostiaks._

The Ostiak population was estimated in 1891 at about 27,000, and is believed to be still decreasing. There is some interesting information regarding them in Erman’s _Travels in Siberia_.

Note 83: p. 433--_Larvæ out of nostrils._

The reindeer is excessively troubled by the attacks of several insects, related to the bot-flies (Œstridæ), which attack sheep, cattle, and horses in this country. One lays its eggs in the skin, another in the nostrils, whence the larvæ emerge. The reindeer have a great horror of these insects, and are said to become weak and emaciated in their efforts to avoid them. The disease due to the parasitic insects is sometimes referred to as “germ”, and may destroy most of a herd.

Note 84: p. 438.--_Brick Tea._

See Note 36.

Note 85: p. 444.--_Shamans._

Some interesting details as to these in Hofgaard’s _Nordenskïold’s Voyage_. He speaks of the preparatory asceticism: “solitude, watching, fasting, exciting and narcotic remedies work upon his imagination; he soon sees the spirits and the apparitions he heard about in his youth, and believes firmly in them”.... “He is no cool, calculating deceiver, no common conjuror.” “Sometimes they have been thrashed in order that they might change a particular prophecy, but Wrangel relates a case in 1814, when their orders to kill a beloved chief, in order to stay a plague, were at length obeyed. Though Christianity has been introduced for more than a century, the Shamans have still (1882) much power.”

A scholarly account of the Shamans, which includes much interesting material in regard to the customs which Brehm describes in this chapter, will be found in the _Journal of the Anthropological Institute_, xxiv., August and September, 1894. “Shamanism in Siberia and European Russia”, being the second part of “Shamantsvo,” by Professor V. M. Mikhailovskii, translated by O. Wardrop.

NOMAD HERDSMEN AND HERDS OF THE STEPPES.

See F. Burnaby’s _Ride to Khiva_ (1876); H. Lansdell’s _Through Siberia_ (1882), and _Russian Central Asia_ (1885); A. de Levchine, _Description des Hordes et des Steppes des Kirghiz-Kazaks_ (Paris, 1840); Zaleskie, _La vie des Steppes Kirghizes_ (Paris, 1865).

COLONISTS AND EXILES IN SIBERIA.

Note 86: p. 514.--_Geology of the Altai._

“In the Altai the mountains are built up of granites, syenites, and diorites covered with metamorphic slates belonging to the Laurentian, Silurian, Devonian, and Carboniferous periods. The Jurassic strata on the outskirts are all fresh-water deposits, and contain coal.”

“The Altai Mines (12,000 men) yielded in 1881, 16,670 lbs. of silver, 13,140 cwts. lead, 6708 cwts. copper, 3200 cwts. iron, 240,000 cwts. coal, and 320,000 cwts. salt.”

Note 87: p. 539.--_The Exile System._

The reader should consult Dr. Lansdell’s _Through Siberia_ (London, 1882); H. de Windt’s _Siberia As It Is_ (London, 1892); Seebohm’s _Siberia in Asia_ (1882). While some, _e.g._ de Windt, give an account of the exile system which agrees with Brehm’s, it should be noted that others think very differently; see Kennan’s _Siberia and the Exile System_ (1891).

AN ORNITHOLOGIST ON THE DANUBE.

Note 88: p. 563.--_The Penduline Titmouse._

A very small species of titmouse occurring in Southern Europe and Africa. Its remarkable nest (see figure) is formed of a felt woven of hemp or wool often mixed with goat’s hair. It usually hangs on the extreme end of a branch just over water. Both birds share in the work of building, as also in that of hatching and rearing the young, of which there are usually seven.

INDEX.

Aard-vark or ant-eater, 194.

Abiad, Bahr-el-, White Nile, 368.

Abu tok, a small hornbill, 216.

Adony, heronry on island of, 544.

Altai, crown-estate of the, 513, 585.

Altrices and præcoces, 59, 566.

Antelope, migrations of the, 245.

Anthropoid apes, 308.

Apes and Monkeys, 282;
an Arabic legend about baboons, 282;
ancient beliefs of Egypt and India, 284;
the “monkey question” discussed, 285, 580;
their distribution and habits, 286, 582;
talents and abilities, 291;
New-World monkeys, 293;
a concert of red howlers, 295;
Old-World monkeys, 296;
two types, the Dog-like and Man-like, 296;
endowments and characteristics of the Dog-like monkey, 296, 582;
examples of their bravery, intelligence, and self-esteem, 299, 582;
Man-like or anthropoid apes, 308;
their structure, habits, and voice-power, 308;
highest specimens of this type, 311;
the chimpanzee, 311;
differences between man and the ape, 317, 583.

Archar, a giant wild sheep, 110, 397, 584.

Arctic fox, 73, 155, 567.

Asiatic steppes, the, 86.

Aspis, a venomous snake, 184, 575.

Assuan, on the Nile, 359.

Auk, life and habits of the, 57, 566.

Aul of the Kirghiz, 464, 478, 497.

Azrek, Bahr-el-, Blue Nile, 203, 368.

Baboons in Central Africa, 238.

Baobab-tree, 209.

Bards among the Kirghiz, 493.

Barnaul, town of, 518.

Bat, migration of the, 251.

Bateleur, or short-tailed African eagle, 188;
poetic legend regarding, 189;
its remarkable flight during pairing-time, 265.

Bear, habits of the, 163;
value of its skin, 165;
its teeth and claws considered potent charms, 165;
methods of its capture, 166;
stories of encounters with bears, 166.

Beaver, extermination of the, 135, 573.

Bedouins of the desert, 352.

Bee-eater, courting of the, 266.

Bird-bergs of Scandinavia, 40, 51.

Birds, love and courtship among, 259;
methods of their wooing, 262;
combats of rival lovers, 272;
unfaithfulness among, 278.

Bird voices of the primitive forest, 215.

Bison, migrations of the, 241, 579.

Brehm, Alfred E., sketch of, xxvii.

Brick tea, 573, 585.

Brooding islands of Scandinavia described, 48, 53;
visits to, 49, 53.

Buffalo, the, 97, 569.

Bulban for decoying black grouse, 142.

Buran or snow-hurricane, 94.

Camel of the Kirghiz, 466, 571.

Capuchin monkeys, 239, 296.

Cat, ancestors of the, 116, 571.

Cataracts of the Nile, 358, 583;
navigation of the, 379.

Cattle of the Kirghiz, 466.

Cembra or stone-pine of Siberia, 128.

Cerastes or horned viper, 178, 575.

Chabir or leader of a caravan, 322.

Chimpanzee, character of the, 311;
story of one, 315.

Chinese breakfast, a, 400.

Climbing plants in primitive forests, 210.

Colonists and Exiles in Siberia, 510, 586;
their conditions of life, 511;
abolition of serfdom, 512;
the crown-estate of Altai, 513;
condition of its inhabitants, 515;
their character, 518;
a peasant’s views, 519;
over-abundant harvests, 521;
early marriages, 522;
marriage customs, 523;
the criminal classes, 524;
their transport and government allowances, 524;
their considerate treatment, 530;
a prison school, 532;
orphan asylum, 533;
among the criminals, 533;
their reformation sought, 534;
convict work in the mines, 534;
attempted escapes, 536.

Convicts in Siberia, 524.

Crested crane, notes of the, 216.

Crocodile, the, 225, 227, 577.

Crocodile-bird, the, 227, 577.

Cuckoo, courting of the, 264;
its polygamy, 279.

Danube, an Ornithologist on the, 540.

Darwin, Charles, xxiv;
his Doctrine of Descent, 317, 438.

Dauw, flight of the, 256.

Desert Journeys, 318;
bargaining with a sheikh, 318;
preparations for a start, 321;
camel-riding, 325;
the Sahara or Great Desert described, 326;
its animal life, 331;
discomforts of the desert journey, 336;
the camel-driver sketched, 338;
a night in the desert, 340;
the oasis, 341;
life at a well in the desert, 345;
a festival of nomads and travellers, 347;
coming of the Simoom, 348;
the mirage, 351;
an interview with Bedouins, 352;
the Nile reached, 355.

Diving-birds in the tundra, 78.

Dog-like monkeys, 296.

Dogs, of the Ostiaks, 429;
of the Kirghiz, 467.

Domesticated animals, ancestors of our, 115, 571.

Dove, courting of the, 266.

Dromedary, the, 466.

Duleb-palm, the, 210.

Dwarf-birch of the tundra, 68.

Eagle, hunting with the, 486.

Eider-duck, the, 40;
its appearance and habits, 41;
her search for a brooding-place, 42;
the nest robbed by the Norseman, 43;
she builds a second nest, 43;
value of the down on her breast, 43, 48, 565;
her remarkable tameness, 45;
the birds steal each other’s eggs, 45;
the ducklings protected and placed in the sea by the natives, 46.

Eider-holms, 40.

Elephant, the, 233.

Elephantine, on the Nile, 359.

Elk, hunting of the, 147; 573.

Exiles. See _Colonists_.

Faber’s description of a brooding-place, 60.

Fall-trap, used in Siberia, 136.

Family and Social Life among the Kirghiz, 482;
alleged origin of the people, 482;
their true character, 483;
their expert horsemanship, 484;
wrestling, 485;
hunting, 486;
their love of talking, 492;
language, 493;
bards, 493;
education and religious feeling, 494;
good qualities of the people, 494;
family pride and vanity, 495;
social customs and hospitality, 496;
wedding ceremonies, 497;
a lover’s song, 502;
treatment of children, 506;
funeral ceremonies, 507.

Fata Morgana or “devil’s sea”, 351.

Fighting-ruffs, combats of, 102; 570.

Forests of Siberia, 121;
of Africa and America, 571, 572;
forest-fires, 123.

Fox, hunted for its valuable fur, 155; 487.

Fruskagora, hunting and exploring in, 557.

Funeral ceremonies among the Kirghiz, 507.

Gazelle of the desert, 332.

Gecko lizard, the, 186, 575.

Goat of the Kirghiz, 464, 571.

Goat-sucker or night-jar, 193, 266.

Gobi steppe, migrations from the, 242.

Golden plover of the tundra, 78.

Gulls, breeding-places of, 53, 60.

Hare and Hounds, game of, in Nubia, 377.

Hare of Western Siberia, 150.

Hassanie, a Soudanese tribe, 204;
their appearance and singular customs, 204;
their huts, 205;
life of a Hassanie matron, 206.

Hazel-grouse, hunting of the, 142.

Heat in the desert, 170, 574.

Hippopotamus, the, 225, 230.

Hochtiere, an order including man and the monkey, 317.

Hornbill, the, 219, 576.

Horse, among the Kirghiz, 458, 484;
horse-racing, 485.

Hulman and Bunder, monkeys worshipped, 238.

Humboldt, Alexander von, xx.

Hungary, bird-fauna of, 540.

Hyæna-dog of African steppes, 195.

Instinct _versus_ Love, 259.

Isegrim, name for the wolf, 152, 154, 564.

Jerboa of the Asiatic steppes, 108, 570.

Journey, in the Desert, 318;
in Siberia, 390.

Kaisak, Kasak, or Cossack. See _Kirghiz_.

Kalüm, price of a Kirghiz bride, 499.

Kazan, town of, 393.

Kirghiz, the, 397;
a sample of their poetry, 398.
See _Nomad Herdsmen_, and _Family and Social Life_.

Kittiwake, brooding-places of the, 60.

Korti, the Nubians defeated at, 370.

Koumiss, 469, 498.

Kulan, ancestor of the domestic horse, 115, 404, 571;
migrations of the, 245.

Lark of the Asiatic steppes, 105, 115.

Lemming of the tundra, 74;
migrations of, 254, 568, 580.

Lizards in Africa, 185.

Locusts, 230.

Lofodens and their bird-life, 48.

Love and Courtship among Birds, 259;
intelligence and emotional life in animals, 260;
all birds seek to pair, 261;
various methods of bird-wooing, 262;
their songs are love-songs, 263;
their love-flights, 265;
love-dances, 266;
coyness of the female birds, 271, 581;
combats among the rival males, 272;
devotion of birds to their chosen mates, 275;
occasional unfaithfulness, 277;
polygamous birds, 279, 581;
bird widows and widowers, 280, 581.

Love _versus_ Instinct, 259.

Love-dances of birds, 266.

Love-flights of kites, harriers, &c., 265.

Love-song of birds, 263.

Lynx in Siberia, 155.

Mammals, migrations of, 234.

Man-like apes, 308.

Maral stag, hunting of the, 144;
value of his antlers for preparing a Chinese quack specific, 144, 573.

Marmoset, lowest of the monkey order, 291.

Marriage ceremonies among the Kirghiz, 498.

Marsh-harrier, a bird of prey, 102.

Melik el Nimmr, the “panther king”, 371.

Metallic starling, the, 214, 215.

Migrations of Mammals, 234;
causes of periodic migrations, 234;
wanderings of the brown rat, souslik, and mice, 235;
expeditions to obtain better food, 238;
fundamental cause of all true migration, 239;
scarcity of water a cause of migrations, 242;
migration of sea animals, 248;
mad flight of zebras and other animals in South Africa, 256.

Mines of Siberia, convicts in, 534.

Mohammed Aali subjugates the Nubians, 370.

Monkeys. See _Apes and Monkeys_.

Monkeys, long-tailed, 222, 581.

Mosquito, a terrible pest in the tundra, 81, 568.

Mud-fish of Africa, 183, 575.

Naturalist-travellers, list of works by, xxix.

Nests of birds, 217;
of the bee-eaters, 217;
of the golden weaver-birds, 218;
of the cow weaver-birds, 219;
of finches, 219;
of the hornbills, 219;
of the umber-bird, 220;
of the dwarf peregrine falcon and guinea-dove, 221;
of the African swift, 221;
of the crocodile-bird, 229.

New-World or broad-nosed monkeys, 293.

Nomad Herdsmen and Herds of the Steppes, 451;
domain and tribes of the Kirghiz, 452;
their racial affinities, 452;
physical features, 453;
dress, 453;
dwellings, 454;
wealth reckoned by their herds, 458;
importance of the horse, 458;
their sheep and goats, 464;
cattle, 465;
camels, 466;
dog, 467;
food of the people, 468;
their constant roamings, 470;
the winter camping-ground, 473;
manner of travelling, 474;
milking the animals, 477;
a charming picture of pastoral life, 480.

Northern Lights, the, 38, 86, 443.

Norway, harvest of the sea, 38.

Nubia and the Nile Rapids, 356;
the region of the rapids, 357;
its prehistoric ruins, 359;
vegetation and fauna, 363;
fertility of middle Nubia, 366;
the Nubian and Egyptian contrasted, 368;
Nubia subjugated by the Egyptians, 370;
sketch of the Nubian people, 373;
navigation of the rapids, 379;
a night on one of the rocks, 382;
the voyage down-stream, 383, 388;
a warning unheeded, 388.

Nyke, visit to the, 53;
its immense number of birds, 55.

Oases of the desert, 341.

Obdorsk, annual fair at, 440.

Ohrt, the Ostiak god, 421, 443, 448.

Old-World monkeys, 296.

Omsk, town of, 396.

Ornithologist (an) on the Danube, 540;
a tempting invitation, 541;
scenery on the Danube, 541;
a famous heronry, 544;
bird-life in the marshes, 546;
sea-eagle hunting, 548;
fighting and pairing of the birds, 549;
care for their young, 552;
protection of animal life in Hungary, 554;
a grand river picture, 556;
a wonderful district, 557;
vulture-shooting, 561;
a sail through a forest-wilderness, 563.

Ostiaks, the Heathen, 416;
condition of the people, 416;
probable number of the tribe, 417, 584;
contrasted with Ostiaks of the Greek Church, 418;
their physical features, 421;
language and dress, 422;
dwellings, 423;
employments, 425;
their reindeer and dogs, 426;
constant migrations, 431;
a “bloody meal”, 434;
at night in a tshum, 436;
at a fishing-station, 437;
hunting for game, 439;
the fair of Obdorsk, 440;
evils of brandy-drinking, 440;
marriage customs, 441;
domestic life, 445;
performances and prophecies of a shaman, 445;
religion of the people, 448;
their burial customs, 450.

Ostrich, legend regarding the, 190;
habits and omnivorous appetite of, 191, 576;
breeding of, 192.

Ox of the Kirghiz, 465.

Oyster-catcher, the, 49.

Pairing-cry of birds, 273.

Pallas’s sand-grouse or steppe-grouse, 115, 404.

Palm-tree of the desert, 342.

Pangolin of North Africa, 194.

Phalarope in the tundra, 80, 568.

Philæ, island of, 361, 584.

Pichta fir of Siberia, 128, 394.

Pine-marten, 158;
hunting of the, 161.

Polygamy of some birds, 279.

Primeval Forests of Central Africa, 201;
their magnificence in spring-time, 203;
sailing up the Blue Nile, 204;
a remarkable tribe, 204;
the forest reached, 207;
difficulty of penetrating it, 208;
the baobab-tree and duleb-palm, 209;
bird-fauna of the forest, 213;
varieties of nests, 217;
mammals of the forest, 222;
animal life on the river-banks and islands, 225;
rain-lakes and water-pools of the forest, 229;
visits of the locust, 230;
night in the primeval forest, 231.

Ptarmigan of the tundra, 77

Quagga, flight of the, 256; 569.

Ramwood of the Asiatic steppes, 112.

Rat, invasion of the, 235; 578.

Razor-bill or auk, 57, 61.

Reindeer, 76, 150, 240, 578;
ravages of disease among, 412, 426, 584.

Roe-deer, hunting of the, 146.

Rouble and kopek, 573.

Sable, rarity of the, 157;
hunting the, 161.

Sahara, the, 326.

Salt-steppes, 90, 98.

Salt’s antelope, 223.

Samoyedes, 417, 440.

Sand-grouse of the desert, 334, 570.

Scandinavia, ancient legend concerning, 33;
general aspect of the land, 34;
its fjords, 35;
islands and skerries, 37;
fisheries, 38;
bird-bergs, 40, 51.

Schlangenberg or Snakemount, 107, 129, 157, 408.

Schohazen or Catholic Servians, 555.

Sea-birds, habits of, 39;
value of their eggs and flesh as food, 48.

Sea-eagle hunting in Hungary, 548.

Seal, migrations of the, 250, 580.

Secretary-bird, 184, 187.

Serfdom, abolition of, 512.

Shaman or Ostiak priest, 445, 585.

Sheep of the Kirghiz, 464.

Shendy, massacre at, 371;
Nubians defeated at, 373.

Shrikes, different notes of male and female, 216.

Siberia, false ideas concerning, 120;
its vast forests, 121;
forest-fires, 123;
limited variety of trees, 127;
difficulty of traversing the primeval forests, 130;
their desolateness, 131;
uncertainty of finding game, 132;
Siberian methods of hunting, 135;
the trade in furs and birds’ skins, 135, 573;
game animals of the forests, 136;
hunting of game birds, 140, and of big and smaller game, 144.

Siberia, Journey in, 390;
travelling in winter, 391;
from Europe into Asia, 394;
Western Siberia reached, 395;
Russian hospitality, 395;
a great hunting expedition, 397;
entertained by a Chinese mandarin, 399;
a horrible massacre, 401;
at the Irtish river, 404;
in the Altai Mountains, 404;
camp-life with a Russian general, 405;
summer scene in the Altai, 406;
a voyage on the great river Obi, 408;
an unfortunate exploring expedition, 411;
ravages of disease, 412, 414;
the return home, 415.

Simoom, the, 171, 348.

Skua in the tundra, 79.

Sky-goat, 103, 570.

Souslik, the, 108, 237, 407.

Spiders and scorpions in a night-camp, 178.

Splenic fever, ravages of, 412, 584.

Springbok, flight of the, 257; 580.

Spring-gun of the Ostiaks and Samoyedes, 139.

Squirrels, migrations of, 253.

Steppe, origin and usage of the term, 87, 174.

Steppe-fires, 397.

Steppes, characteristics of the Asiatic, 87;
their scenery, 89;
vegetation, 91, 568;
beauty of the flowers in spring, 95;
animal life in the steppes, 97, 109, 115;
insects and reptiles, 107;
the giant wild sheep, 110;
the kulan or wild horse, 115;
a kulan hunt and capture of a foal, 119.

Steppes of Inner Africa, 168;
sketch of their seasons, 169;
miseries of the winter, 170;
spring heralded by terrible storm and rain, 171;
definition of the African steppe, 174;
inhospitable character of the region, 175;
its vegetation, 176;
difficulties of travelling, 177;
a night’s experience in camp, 177;
fauna of the country, 182;
the bird-fauna, 187;
mammals, 193;
stampede and destruction of animal life caused by the steppe-fire, 198.

Stone-seas in the Nile, 367.

Storks, stories regarding, 276, 277, 278, 281.

Swallow, courting of the, 266.

Swärtholm brooding-place, 60, 62.

Syene, or Sun, on the Nile, 359, 584.

Taiga region in Siberia, 129, 572.

Tarpan of the Dnieper steppes, 115, 571.

Tchukutchak stormed by the Dungani tribe, 401.

Termite or white ant in Africa, 181, 574.

Tiger, hunting of the, 157.

Titmouse, the penduline, 563, 586.

Tiumen, town of, 395.

Tragopan, wooing of the, 267.

Tshum or hut of the Ostiaks, 410, 423.

Tundra of the Polar region, described, 63, 566;
its lakes, 67;
vegetation, 68;
prehistoric animals embedded in its ice-crust, 72, 567;
fauna of the tundra, 72;
characteristic birds, 77;
the mosquito, 81;
autumn and winter in the tundra, 85;
an unhappy expedition to one, 411.

Umber-bird, the, 220, 576.

Ustkamenegorsk, school in, 494.

Vodki in Siberia, 524.

Voles, migrations of the, 253.

Vulture, the crested black, 559.

Wady Halfa, on the Nile, 357, 362, 387, 390.

Wallace, Alfred Russel, xxiv.

Whale, systematic migrations of the, 248.

Wild sheep hunting on the Arkat Mountains, 488.

Willows (sallows) of the tundra, 69.

Wolf, 93, 151, 152, 486, 488, 564.

Wood-ibis, song of the, 216.

Yamaul, messenger of the gods, 446, 447.

Yurt or Kirghiz house, 454, 570.

Zaizan, town of, 403, 494.

Zebra, flight of the, 256.

Zoology, history of, xv.

PRINTED BY BLACKIE AND SON, LIMITED, GLASGOW.

Transcriber’s Notes:

Italics are shown thus: _sloping_.

Small capitals have been capitalised.

Variations in spelling and hyphenation are retained.

Perceived typographical errors have been changed.