Chapter TWO: Raw Materials

Paper has been defined as “an aqueous deposit of cellulose,” and while this is incomplete as a catalogue of the materials composing a sheet of modern paper, it is an excellent epitome of the foundation of paper-making. Minute cellulose fibers, derivatives of various raw materials, are deposited upon a wire cloth by the passage of a volume of water in which they have been suspended. The pulpy film thus formed becomes a sheet of paper, after the expulsion and evaporation of the water which served as a medium for their deposit.

The minute fibers composing this hypothetical sheet of paper may have been isolated from one of several sources of raw materials in present commercial use, or the sheet may be composed of a mixture of different fibers, all more or less pure cellulose, in accordance with the preliminary treatment each has undergone.

The principal sources from which American paper fibers are derived are cotton and linen rags, hemp, jute, wood, straw; and waste papers.

Previous to the year 1840, the sources were limited to rags. These are almost wholly composed of pure cellulose fibers, which give up their non-cellulose concomitants with slight resistance. The more severe chemical treatments necessary for the isolation of cellulose fibers, from wood, for example, half of which is non-cellulose in structure, were unknown to early paper-makers, and only became possible after the discovery of bleaching-powder by Tennant, and the manufacture of soda by Le Blanc.

Although experiments in search of suitable substitutes for rags began to be made in the eighteenth century, it was Keller’s invention of ground wood in 1840, Routledge’s work on esparto grass and wood with a soda process in 1854, and our own fellow countryman Tilghmann’s patent of the sulphite process in 1866, from which we may date the beginnings of the now extensive use of materials other than cotton and linen wastes.

The accompanying table, taken from the United States Statistics of Manufacture for 1909, gives an illuminating indication of the rapid growth of our paper industry, and also shows the remarkable increase in the use of wood celluloses.

Note.--Statistics are taken from U.S. Reports for 1909. Subsequent
reports are obtainable from the Director of the Census, Washington,
D.C.

It may be observed that the percentage of increase in the use of wood-pulp of all kinds for the decade 1899-1909 was 111.6, and of rags, 50. Approximately four and one-quarter millions tons of paper were produced in 1909, for which the fibers used figured in the following proportions:

Per Cent.
Wood-pulp 61.6
Old and waste papers 21.4
Rags 7.8
Straw 6.6
Manila (rope) 2.6

Of the total amount of wood fibers, the various proportions were approximately as follows:

Per Cent.
Ground wood 47
Sulphite pulp 42
Soda pulp 11

A further investigation as to the species of woods used shows that, while spruce is still the most important, contributing nearly 60 per cent, other woods are being increasingly used.

Another noteworthy fact is the mighty increase in imports of wood-pulps, which jumped from 33,319 tons in 1899 to 307,122 tons in 1909, an amount equal to 12 per cent of all that is used in the United States.

===========================+==============+==============+=============
| 1909 | 1904 | 1899
---------------------------+--------------+--------------+-------------
MATERIALS | | |
Total cost | $165,442,341 | $111,251,478 | $70,530,236
| | |
Pulpwood, cost | $33,772,475 | $20,800,871 | $9,837,516
Wood pulp, purchased: | | |
Tons | 1,241,914 | 877,702 | 644,006
Cost | $43,861,357 | $27,633,164 | $18,369,464
Ground-- | | |
Tons | 452,849 | 317,286 | 261,962
Cost | $9,487,508 | $5,754,259 | $4,361,211
Soda fiber-- | | |
Tons | 154,626 | 120,978 | 94,042
Cost | $6,862,864 | $5,047,105 | $3,430,809
Sulphite fiber-- | | |
Tons | 626,029 | 433,160 | 273,194
Cost | $27,184,726 | $16,567,122 | $10,112,189
Other chemical fiber-- | | |
Tons | 8,410 | 6,278 | 14,808
Cost | $326,259 | $264,678 | $465,255
Rags, including cotton, | | |
flax waste and sweepings: | | |
Tons | 357,470 | 294,552 | 234,514
Cost | $10,721,559 | $8,864,607 | $6,595,427
Old and waste paper: | | |
Tons | 983,882 | 588,543 | 356,193
Cost | $13,691,120 | $7,430,335 | $4,869,409
Manila stock, including | | |
jute bagging, rope, | | |
waste, threads, etc.: | | |
Tons | 117,080 | 107,029 | 99,301
Cost | $3,560,033 | $2,502,332 | $2,437,256
Straw: | | |
Tons | 303,137 | 304,585 | 367,305
Cost | $1,460,282 | $1,502,886 | $1,395,659
All other materials cost | $58,375,515 | $42,517,283 | $27,025,505
| | |
PRODUCTS | | |
| | |
Total value | $267,656,964 | $188,715,189 | $127,326,162
Newspaper: | | |
In rolls for printing-- | | |
Tons | 1,091,017 | 840,802 | 454,572
Value | $42,807,064 | $32,783,308 | $15,754,992
In sheets for | | |
printing-- | | |
Tons | 84,537 | 72,020 | 114,640
Value | $4,048,496 | $3,143,152 | $4,336,882
Book paper: | | |
Book-- | | |
Tons | 575,616 | 434,500 | 282,093
Value | $42,846,674 | $31,156,728 | $19,466,804
Coated-- | | |
Tons | 95,213 | [2] | [2]
Value | $9,413,961 | [2] | [2]
Plate, lithograph, map, | | |
woodcut, etc.-- | | |
Tons | 6,498 | 19,837 | 22,366
Value | $555,352 | $1,458,343 | $2,018,958
Cover-- | | |
Tons | 17,578 | 22,150 | 18,749
Value | $1,982,853 | $2,023,986 | $1,665,376
Cardboard, bristol board, | | |
card middles, tickets, | | |
etc.-- | | |
Tons | 51,449 | 39,060 | 28,494
Value | $3,352,151 | $2,764,444 | $1,719,813
Fine paper: | | |
Writing-- | | |
Tons | 169,125 | 131,934 | 90,204
Value | $24,966,102 | $ 19,321,045 | $12,222,870
All other-- | | |
Tons | 29,088 | 14,898 | 22,503
Value | $4,110,536 | $2,928,125 | $3,673,104
Wrapping paper: | | |
Manila (rope, jute, | | |
tag, etc.)-- | | |
Tons | 73,731 | 86,826 | 89,419
Value | $6,989,436 | $6,136,080 | $5,929,764
Heavy (mill wrappers, | | |
etc.)-- | | |
Tons | 108,561 | 96,992 | 82,875
Value | $4,380,794 | $4,035,588 | $4,143,240
Straw-- | | |
Tons | 32,988 | 54,232 | 91,794
Value | $870,419 | $1,389,348 | $2,027,518
Bogus or wood manila, | | |
all grades-- | | |
Tons | 367,932 | 228,371 | 203,826
Value | $19,777,707 | $10,099,772 | $9,148,677
All other-- | | |
Tons | 179,855 | 177,870 | 67,338
Value | $10,202,035 | $8,774,804 | $3,293,174
Boards: | | |
Wood pulp-- | | |
Tons | 71,036 | 60,863 | 44,187
Value | $2,639,496 | $2,347,250 | $1,406,130
Straw-- | | |
Tons | 171,789 | 167,278 | 157,534
Value | $3,750,851 | $4,367,560 | $3,187,342
News-- | | |
Tons | 74,606 | 38,560 | 32,119
Value | $2,215,469 | $1,174,216 | $930,531
All other-- | | |
Tons | 514,208 | 253,950 | 131,777
Value | $17,539,768 | $9,070,531 | $4,829,316
Other paper products: | | |
Tissues-- | | |
Tons | 77,745 | 43,925 | 28,406
Value | $8,553,654 | $5,056,438 | $3,486,652
Blotting-- | | |
Tons | 9,577 | 8,702 | 4,351
Value | $1,186,180 | $1,046,790 | $580,750
Building roofing, | | |
asbestos, and | | |
sheathing-- | | |
Tons | 225,824 | 145,024 | 96,915
Value | $9,251,368 | $4,845,628 | $3,025,967
Hanging-- | | |
Tons | 92,158 | 62,606 | 54,330
Value | $4,431,514 | $3,013,464 | $2,265,345
Miscellaneous-- | | |
Tons | 96,577 | 106,296 | 49,101
Value | $6,869,169 | $6,729,820 | $2,795,841
Wood pulp made for sale or | | |
for consumption in mills | | |
other than where | | |
produced: | | |
Ground-- | | |
Tons | 310,747 | 273,400 | 280,052
Value | $5,649,466 | $4,323,495 | $4,433,699
Soda fiber-- | | |
Tons | 155,844 | 130,366 | 99,014
Value | $6,572,152 | $5,159,615 | $3,612,602
Sulphite fiber-- | | |
Tons | 444,255 | 376,940 | 271,585
Value | $17,955,748 | $ 13,661,464 | $10,451,400
| | |
All other products, value | $4,738,549 | $1,924,195 | $919,415
| | |
WOOD PULP | | |
| | |
Quantity produced | | |
(including that used in | | |
mills where | | |
manufactured), total tons | 2,495,523 | 1,921,768 | 179,535
Ground, tons | 1,179,266 | 968,976 | 586,374
Soda fiber, tons | 298,626 | 196,770 | 177,124
Sulphite fiber, tons | 1,017,631 | 756,022 | 416,037
| | |
EQUIPMENT | | |
| | |
Paper machines: | | |
Total number | 1,480 | 1,369 | 1,232
Capacity, yearly, | | |
tons | 5,293,397 | 3,857,903 | 2,782,219
Fourdrinier-- | | |
Number | 804 | 752 | 663
Capacity per 24 | | |
hours, tons | 10,508 | 8,569 | [3]
Cylinder-- | | |
Number | 676 | 617 | 569
Capacity per 24 | | |
hours, tons | 6,316 | 4,740 | [3]
Pulp: | | |
Grinders, number | 1,435 | 1,362 | 1,168
Digesters, total number | 542 | 517 | 426
Sulphite fiber, | | |
number | 348 | 309 | [2]
Soda fiber, number | 194 | 208 | [2]
Capacity, yearly, tons | | |
of pulp | 3,405,621 | 2,644,753 | 1,536,431
Ground, tons | 1,809,685 | 1,515,088 | [2]
Sulphite, tons | 1,250,983 | 885,092 | [2]
Soda, tons | 344,953 | 244,573 | [2]
---------------------------+--------------+--------------+-------------

Table from United States Statistics of Manufacture for 1909, Showing
Rapid Growth of Paper Industry.

The comparative statement follows:

==================+================================================
| QUANTITY, IN CORDS, OF PULPWOOD CONSUMED
KIND OF WOOD. +-----------+-----------+------------+-----------
| 1911 | 1910 | 1909 | 1908
------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------
Total | 4,328,052 | 4,094,306 | 4,001,607 | 3,346,953
|-----------+-----------+------------+-----------
Spruce, domestic | 1,612,355 | 1,473,542 | 1,653,249 | 1,487,356
Spruce, imported | 903,375 | 902,407 | 768,332 | 672,483
Hemlock | 616,663 | 610,478 | 559,657 | 569,173
Poplar, domestic | 333,929 | 315,717 | 302,876 | 279,564
Poplar, imported | 34,295 | 45,359 | 25,622 | 22,653
Balsam fir | 191,779 | 132,362 | [1] 95,366 | [1] 45,309
Pine | 124,019 | 105,882 | 90,885 | 84,189
Beech | 44,320 | 44,265 | 31,390 | [2]
Maple | 36,979 | 42,621 | [2] | [2]
White fir | 36,493 | 30,845 | 37,176 | [2]
Cottonwood | 25,043 | 31,099 | 36,898 | 45,679
All other | 88,268 | 97,092 | 151,179 | 140,547
Slabwood, etc, | 280,534 | 262,637 | 248,977 | [3]
------------------+-----------+-----------+------------+-----------

[1] Balsam.

[2] Included in “All other.”

[3] Included with other wood by species.

The high point of importation of chemical wood-pulp was reached in 1914, when approximately 3,600,000 tons came in from Europe and 92,000 from Canada. In January 1916 owing to the war, imports for the month from Europe dropped from an average of 30,694 tons to 12,985 tons, while Canadian pulp increased from an average of 7,654 to an actual importation for the month of 28,833 tons.

Although the use of wood now so heavily overshadows that of rags that it almost seems as though the latter were being slowly abandoned, this is of course only relatively true, their consumption being actually greater than ever. The mere cost of the rags in 1909 was slightly in excess of the total value of all paper products recorded in the United States Census for 1850, a circumstance which leads us to wonder at the timely discoveries which made wood cellulose available.

It is evident, however, that to some extent paper history is already beginning to repeat itself. The visible supplies of wood are markedly less, as evidenced by their increasing costs, and we are forced to a much more active attitude than one of mere speculation as to what new sources may become available to supply our demand for paper, which has lately been increasing in the value of the annual products by almost 11 per cent.

In the decade from 1899 to 1909 shown by government statistics, book-paper advanced 104 per cent in quantity, but 120 per cent in value; writing-paper, 88 per cent in quantity, but 104 per cent in value; wrapping-paper, 43 per cent in quantity and 72 per cent in value. It is true that rising wages account in part for these changes in value, but above and behind all this stands the inexorable law of supply and demand.

The discrepancies between the percentages of increase in production and value serve to emphasize the increasing difficulties in obtaining raw material. That sprucewood is being consumed in this country faster than it is grown, is indicated by the recourse to less-favored species, as well as by the steadily increasing imports, both of pulpwood and wood-pulp. This situation emphasises the great importance of conserving waste papers, in spite of the fact that 21.4 per cent of the fiber used in 1909 in the United States were derived from waste papers. Vast quantities may readily be saved which now go to waste, as was definitely proved by England’s experience during the war, when the imports of pulp were shut off and immediate substitutes had to be found.

This is a matter demanding the attention not only of printers, but of municipalities and nations. It offers an immediate source of relief from the drain on our forests and is hence a most practical form of conservation. Furthermore as demonstrated by the city of Cleveland the revenue from collecting waste papers assists substantially in offsetting the cost of the collection of municipal wastes.