Chapter M: J. Berkeley (11)

Any one who has observed any locality with reference to its Mycologic Flora over a period of years will have been struck with the difference in number and variety caused by what may be termed a "favourable season," that is, plenty of moisture in August with warm weather afterwards. Although we know but little of the conditions of germination in Agarics, it is but reasonable to suppose that a succession of dry seasons will considerably influence the flora of any locality. Heat and humidity, therefore, are intimately concerned in the mycologic vegetation of a country. Fries has noted in his essay the features to which we have alluded. "The fact," he says, "must not be lost sight of that some species of fungi which have formerly been common in certain localities may become, within our lifetime, more and more scarce, and even altogether cease to grow there. The cause of this, doubtless, is the occurrence of some change in the physical constitution of a locality, such as that resulting from the destruction of a forest, or from the drainage, by ditches and cuttings, of more or less extensive swamps, or from the cultivation of the soil--all of them circumstances which cause the destruction of the primitive fungaceous vegetation and the production of a new one. If we compare the fungal flora of America with that of European countries, we observe that the former equals, in its richness and the variety of its forms, that of the phanerogamous flora; it is probable, however, that, in the lapse of more or fewer years, this richness will decrease, in consequence of the extension of cultivation--as is illustrated, indeed, in what has already taken place in the more thickly peopled districts, as, for example, in the vicinity of New York."

Although heat and humidity influence all kinds of vegetation, yet heat seems to exert a less, and humidity a greater, influence on fungi than on other plants. It is chiefly during the cool moist autumnal weather that the fleshy fungi flourish most vigorously in our own country, and we observe their number to increase with the humidity of the season. Rain falls copiously in the United States, and this is one of the most fruitful countries known for the fleshy fungi. Hence it is a reasonable deduction that moisture is a condition favourable to the development of these plants. The _Myxogastres_, according to Dr. Henry Carter, are exceedingly abundant--in individuals, at least, if not in species--in Bombay, and this would lead to the conclusion that the members of this group are influenced as much by heat as humidity in their development, borne out by the more plentiful appearance of the species in this country in the warmer weather of summer.

In the essay to which we have alluded, Fries only attempts the recognition of two zones in his estimate of the distribution of fungi, and these are the temperate and tropical. The frigid zone produces no peculiar types, and is poor in the number of species, whilst no essential distinction can be drawn between the tropical and sub-tropical with our present limited information. Even these two zones must not be accepted too rigidly, since tropical forms will in some instances, and under favourable conditions, extend far upwards into the temperate zone.

"In any region whatever," writes Fries, "it is necessary, in the first instance, to draw a distinction between its open naked plains and its wooded tracts. In the level open country there is a more rapid evaporation of the moisture by the conjoined action of the sun and wind; whence it happens that such a region is more bare of fungi than one that is mountainous or covered by woods. On the other hand, plains possess several species peculiar to themselves; as, for example, _Agaricus pediades_, certain _Tricholomata_, and, above all, the family _Coprini_, of which they may be regarded as the special habitat. The species of this family augment in number, in any given country, in proportion to the extent and degree of its cultivation; for instance, they grow more luxuriantly in the province of Scania, in Sweden--a district farther distinguished above all others by its cultivation and fertility. In well-wooded countries moisture is retained a much longer time, and, as a result, the production of fungi is incomparably greater; and it is here desirable to make a distinction between the fungi growing in forests of resinous-wooded trees (_Coniferæ_) and those which inhabit woods of other trees, for these two descriptions of forests may be rightly regarded, as to their fungaceous growths, as two different regions. Beneath the shade of _Coniferæ_, fungi are earlier in their appearance; so much so, that it often happens they have attained their full development when their congeners in forests of non-resinous trees have scarcely commenced their growth. In woods of the latter sort, the fallen leaves, collected in thick layers, act as an obstacle to the soaking of moisture into the earth, and thereby retard the vegetation of fungi; on the other hand, such woods retain moisture longer. These conditions afford to several large and remarkable species the necessary time for development. The beech is characteristic of our own region, but, further north this tree gives place to the birch. Coniferous woods are, moreover, divisible into two regions--that of the pines and that of the firs. The latter is richer in species than the former, because, as is well known, fir-trees flourish in more fertile and moister soils. Whether, with respect to the South of Europe, other subdivisions into regions are required, we know not; still less are we able to decide on the like question in reference to the countries beyond Europe."[C]

In very cold countries the higher fungi are rare, whilst in tropical countries they are most common at elevations which secure a temperate climate. In Java, Junghuhn found them most prolific at an elevation of 3,000 to 5,000 feet; and in India, Dr. Hooker remarked that they were most abundant at an elevation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea level.

For the higher fungi we must be indebted to the summary made by Fries, to which we have little to add.

The genus _Agaricus_ occupies the first place, and surpasses, in the number of species, all the other generic groups known. It appears, from our present knowledge, that the _Agarici_ have their geographic centre in the temperate zone, and especially in the colder portion of that zone. It is a curious circumstance that all the extra-European species of this genus _Agaricus_ may be referred to various European subgenera.

In tropical countries it appears that the _Agarici_ occupy only a secondary position in relation to other genera of fungi, such as _Polyporus_, _Lenzites_, etc. North America, on the other hand, is richer in species of _Agaricus_ than Europe; for whilst the majority of typical forms are common to both continents, America further possesses many species peculiar to itself. In the temperate zone, so close is the analogy prevailing between the various countries in respect to the _Agaricini_, that from Sweden to Italy, and as well in England as North America, the same species are to be found. Of 500 _Agaricini_ met with in St. Petersburg, there are only two or three which have not been discovered in Sweden; and again, of fifty species known in Greenland, there is not one that is not common in Sweden. The same remarks hold good in reference to the _Agaricini_ of Siberia, Kamtschatka, the Ukraine, etc. The countries bordering upon the Mediterranean possess, however, several peculiar types; and Eastern and Western Europe present certain dissimilarities in their Agaric inhabitants. Several species, for example, of _Armillaria_ and _Tricholoma_, which have been found in Russia, have been met with in Sweden only in Upland, that is, in the most eastern province; all the species which belong to the so-called _abiegno-rupestres_ and _pineto-montanæ_ regions of Sweden are wanting in England; and it is only in Scotland that the species of northern mountainous and pine-bearing regions are met with--a circumstance explicable from the similarity in physical features between Sweden and the northern portions of Great Britain.

The species of _Coprinus_ appear to find suitable habitats in every quarter of the globe.

The _Cortinariæ_ predominate in the north; they abound in Northern latitudes, especially on wooded hills; but the plains offer also some peculiar species which flourish during the rainy days of August and September. In less cold countries they are more scarce or entirely absent. The species of the genus _Hygrophorus_ would at first seem to have a similar geographical distribution to those of the last group; but this is really not the case, for the same _Hygrophori_ are to be found in nearly every country of Europe, and even the hottest countries (and those under the equator) are not destitute of representatives of this wide-spread genus.

The _Lactarii_, which are so abundant in the forests of Europe and North America, appear to grow more and more scarce towards both the south and north. The same may be stated in regard to _Russula_.

The genus _Marasmius_ is dispersed throughout the globe, and everywhere presents numerous species. In inter-tropical countries they are still more abundant, and exhibit peculiarities in growth which probably might justify their collection into a distinct group.

The genera _Lentinus_ and _Lenzites_ are found in every region of the world; their principal centre, however, is in hot countries, where they attain a splendid development. On the contrary, towards the north they rapidly decrease in number.

The _Polypori_ constitute a group which, unlike that of the Agarics, especially belongs to hot countries. The _Boleti_ constitute the only exception to this rule, since they select the temperate and frigid zones for their special abode, and some of them at times find their way to the higher regions of the Alps. No one can describe the luxuriance of the torrid zone in _Polypori_ and _Trametes_, genera of _Hymenomycetes_, which flourish beneath the shade of the virgin forests, where perpetual moisture and heat promote their vegetation and give rise to an infinite variety of forms. But though the genus _Polyporus_, which rivals _Agaricus_ in the number of its species, inhabits, in preference, warm climates at large, it nevertheless exhibits species peculiar to each country. This arises from the circumstance that the _Polypori_, for the most part, live upon trees, and are dependent on this or that particular tree for a suitable habitat; and the tropical flora being prolific in trees of all kinds, a multitude of the most varied forms of these fungi is a necessary consequence. _Hexagona_, _Favolus_, and _Laschia_ are common in inter-tropical countries, but they are either entirely absent or extremely rare in temperate climes.

When the majority of the species of a genus are of a fleshy consistence, it may generally be concluded that that genus belongs to a Northern region, even if it should have some representatives in lands which enjoy more sunshine. Thus the _Hydna_ are the principal ornaments of Northern forests, where they attain so luxuriant a growth and beauty that every other country must yield the palm to Sweden in respect to them. In an allied genus, that of _Irpex_, the texture assumes a coriaceous consistence, and we find its species to be more especially inhabitants of warm climates.

Most of the genera of _Auricularini_ are cosmopolitan, and the same is true of some species of _Stereum_, of _Corticium_, etc., which are met with in countries of the most different geographical position. In tropical countries, these genera of fungi assume the most curious and luxuriant forms. The single and not considerable genus _Cyphella_ appears to be pretty uniformly distributed over the globe. The _Clavariæi_ are equally universal in their diffusion, although more plentiful in the north; however, the genus _Pterula_ possesses several exotic forms, though in Europe it has but two representative species. That beautiful genus of _Hymenomycetes_, _Sparassis_, occupies a similar place next the _Clavariæi_, and is peculiarly a production of the temperate zone and of the coniferous region.

The fungi which constitute the family of _Tremellini_ prevail in Europe, Asia, and North America, and exhibit no marked differences amongst themselves, notwithstanding the distances of the several countries apart. It must, however, be stated that the _Hirneolæ_ for the most part inhabit the tropics.

We come now to the _Gasteromycetes_--an interesting family, which exhibits several ramifications or particular series of developments. The most perfect _Gasteromycetes_ almost exclusively belong to the warmer division of the temperate, and to the tropical zone, where their vegetation is the most luxuriant. Of late the catalogue of these fungi has been greatly enriched by the addition of numerous genera and species, proper to hot countries, previously unknown. Not uncommonly, the exotic floras differ from ours, not merely in respect of the species, but also of the genera of _Gasteromycetes_. It must, besides, be observed that this family is rich in well-defined genera, though very poor in distinct specific forms. Among the genera found in Europe, many are cosmopolitan.

The _Phalloidei_ present themselves in the torrid zone under the most varied form and colouring, and comprise many genera rich in species. In Europe their number is very restricted. As we advance northward they decrease rapidly, so that the central districts of Sweden possess only a single species, the _Phallus impudicus_, and even this solitary representative of the family is very scarce. In Scania, the most southern province of Sweden, there is likewise but one genus and one species belonging to it, viz., the _Mutinus caninus_. Among other members of the _Phalloidei_, may be further mentioned the _Lysurus_ of China, the _Aseröe_ of Van Diemen's Land, and the _Clathrus_, one species of which, _C. cancellatus_, has a very wide geographical range; for instance, it is found in the south of Europe, in Germany, and in America; it occurs also in the south of England and the Isle of Wight; whereas the other species of this genus have a very limited distribution.

The _Tuberacei_[D] are remarkable amongst the fungi in being all of them more or less hypogeous. They are natives of warm countries, and are distributed into numerous genera and species. The _Tuberacei_ constitute in Northern latitudes a group of fungi very poor in specific forms. The few species of the _Hymenogastres_ belonging to Sweden, with the exception of _Hyperrhiza variegata_ and one example of the genus _Octaviana_, are confined to the southern provinces. The greater part of this group, like the _Lycoperdacei_, are met with in the temperate zone. Most examples of the genus _Lycoperdon_ are cosmopolitan.

The _Nidulariacei_ and the _Trichodermacei_ appear to be scattered over the globe in a uniform manner, although their species are not everywhere similar. The same statement applies to the _Myxogastres_, which are common in Lapland, and appear to have their central point of distribution in the countries within the temperate zone. At the same time, they are not wanting in tropical regions, notwithstanding that the intensity of heat, by drying up the mucilage which serves as the medium for the development of their spores, is opposed to their development.[E]

Of the _Coniomycetes_, the parasitic species, as the _Cæomacei_, the _Pucciniei_, and the _Ustilagines_, accompany their foster-plants into almost all regions where they are found; so that smut, rust, and mildew are as common on wheat and barley in the Himalayas and in New Zealand as in Europe and America. _Ravenelia_ and _Cronartium_ only occur in the warmer parts of the temperate zone, whilst _Sartvellia_ is confined to Surinam. Species of _Podisoma_ and _Roestelia_ are as common in the United States as in Europe, and the latter appears also at the Cape and Ceylon. Wherever species of _Sphæria_ occur there the _Sphæronemei_ are found, but they do not appear, according to our present knowledge, to be so plentiful in tropical as in temperate countries. The _Torulacei_ and its allies are widely diffused, and probably occur to a considerable extent in tropical countries.

_Hyphomycetes_ are widely diffused; some species are peculiarly cosmopolitan, and all seem to be less influenced by climatic conditions than the more fleshy fungi. The _Sepedoniei_ are represented by at least one species wherever _Boletus_ is found. The _Mucedines_ occur everywhere in temperate and tropical regions, _Penicillium_ and _Aspergillus_ flourishing as much in the latter as in the former. _Botrytis_ and _Peronospora_ are almost as widely diffused and as destructive in warmer as in temperate countries, and although from difficulty in preservation the moulds are seldom represented to any extent in collections, yet indications of their presence constantly occur in connection with other forms, to such an extent as to warrant the conclusion that they are far from uncommon. The _Dematiei_ are probably equally as widely diffused. Species of _Helminthosporium_, _Cladosporium_, and _Macrosporium_ seem to be as common in tropical as temperate climes. The distribution of these fungi is imperfectly known, except in Europe and North America, but their occurrence in Ceylon, Cuba, India, and Australasia indicated a cosmopolitan range. _Cladosporium herbarum_ would seem to occur everywhere. The _Stilbacei_ and _Isariacei_ are not less widely diffused, although as yet apparently limited in species. _Isaria_ occurs on insects in Brazil as in North America, and species of _Stilbum_ and _Isaria_ are by no means rare in Ceylon.

The _Physomycetes_ have representatives in the tropics, species of _Mucor_ occurring in Cuba, Brazil, and the southern states of North America, with the same and allied genera in Ceylon. _Antennaria_ and _Pisomyxa_ seem to reach their highest development in hot countries.

The _Ascomycetes_ are represented everywhere, and although certain groups are more tropical than others, they are represented in all collections. The fleshy forms are most prolific in temperate countries, and only a few species of _Peziza_ affect the tropics, yet in elevated districts of hot countries, such as the Himalayas of India, _Peziza_, _Morchella_, and _Geoglossum_ are found. Two or three species of _Morchella_ are found in Kashmir, and at least one or two in Java, where they are used as food. The genus _Cyttaria_ is confined to the southern parts of South America and Tasmania. The United States equal if they do not exceed European states in the number of species of the _Discomycetes_. The _Phacidiacei_ are not confined to temperate regions, but are more rare elsewhere. _Cordierites_ and _Acroseyphus_ (?) are tropical genera, the former extending upwards far into the temperate zone, as _Hysterium_ and _Rhytisma_ descend into the tropics. Amongst the _Sphæriacei_, _Xylaria_ and _Hypoxylon_ are well represented in the tropics, such species as _Xylaria hypoxylon_ and _Xylaria corniformis_ being widely diffused. In West Africa an American species of _Hypoxylon_ is amongst the very few specimens that have ever reached us from the Congo, whilst _H. concentricum_ and _Ustulina vulgaris_ seem to be almost cosmopolitan. _Torrubia_ and _Nectria_ extend into the tropics, but are more plentiful in temperate and sub-tropical countries. _Dothidea_ is well represented in the tropics, whilst of the species of _Sphæria_ proper, only the more prominent have probably been secured by collectors; hence the _Superficiales_ section is better represented than the _Obtectæ_, and the tropical representatives of foliicolous species are but few. _Asterina_, _Micropeltis_, and _Pemphidium_ are more sub-tropical than temperate forms. The _Perisporiacei_ are represented almost everywhere; although species of _Erysiphe_ are confined to temperate regions, the genus _Meliola_ occupies its place in warmer climes. Finally, the _Tuberacei_, which are subterranean in their habits, are limited in distribution, being confined to the temperate zone, never extending far into the cold, and but poorly represented out of Europe. One species of _Mylitta_ occurs in Australia, another in China, and another in the Neilgherries of India; the genus _Paurocotylis_ is found in New Zealand and Ceylon. It is said that a species of _Tuber_ is found in Himalayan regions, but in the United States, as well as in Northern Europe, the _Tuberacei_ are rare.

The imperfect condition of our information concerning very many countries, even of those partially explored, must render any estimate or comparison of the floras of those countries most fragmentary and imperfect. Recently, the mycology of our own islands has been more closely investigated, and the result of many years' application on the part of a few individuals has appeared in a record of some 2,809 species,[F] to which subsequent additions have been made, to an extent of probably not much less than 200 species,[G] which would bring the total to about 3,000 species. The result is that no material difference exists between our flora and that of Northern France, Belgium, and Scandinavia, except that in the latter there are a larger number of Hymenomycetal forms. The latest estimates of the flora of Scandinavia are contained in the works of the illustrious Fries,[H] but these are not sufficiently recent, except so far as regards the _Hymenomycetes_, for comparison of numbers with British species.

The flora of Belgium has its most recent exponent in the posthumous work of Jean Kickx; but the 1,370 species enumerated by him can hardly be supposed to represent the whole of the fungi of Belgium, for in such case it would be less than half the number found in the British Islands, although the majority of genera and species are the same.[I]

For the North of France no one could have furnished a more complete list, especially of the microscopic forms, than M. Desmazières, but we are left to rely solely upon his papers in "Annales des Sc. Nat." and his published specimens, which, though by no means representative of the fleshy fungi, are doubtless tolerably exhaustive of the minute species. From what we know of French _Hymenomycetes_, their number and variety appear to be much below those of Great Britain.[J]

The mycologic flora of Switzerland has been very well investigated, although requiring revision. Less attention having been given to the minute forms, and more to the _Hymenomycetes_ than in France and Belgium, may in part account for the larger proportion of the latter in the Swiss flora.[K]

In Spain and Portugal scarce anything has been done; the small collection made by Welwitsch can in no way be supposed to represent the Peninsula.

The fungi of Italy[L] include some species peculiar to the Peninsula. The _Tuberacei_ are well represented, and although the _Hymenomycetes_ do not equal in number those of Britain or Scandinavia, a good proportion is maintained.

Bavaria and Austria (including Hungary, and the Tyrol) are being more thoroughly investigated than hitherto, but the works of Schæffer, Tratinnick, Corda, and Krombholz have made us acquainted with the general features of their mycology,[M] to which more recent lists and catalogues have contributed.[N] The publication of dried specimens has of late years greatly facilitated acquaintance with the fungi of different countries in Europe, and those issued by Baron Thümen from Austria do not differ materially from those of Northern Germany, although Dr. Rehm has made us acquainted with some new and interesting forms from Bavaria.[O]

Russia is to a large extent unknown, except in its northern borders.[P] Karsten has investigated the fungi of Finland,[Q] and added considerably to the number of _Discomycetes_, for which the climate seems to be favourable; but, as a whole, it may be concluded that Western and Northern Europe are much better explored than the Eastern and South-Eastern, to which we might add the South, if Italy be excepted.

We have only to add, for Europe, that different portions of the German empire have been well worked, from the period of Wallroth to the present.[R] Recently, the valley of the Rhine has been exhaustively examined by Fuckel;[S] but both Germany and France suffered checks during the late war which made their mark on the records of science not so speedily to be effaced. Denmark, with its splendid Flora Danica still in progress, more than a century after its commencement,[T] has a mycologic flora very like to that of Scandinavia, which is as well known.

If we pass from Europe to North America, we find there a mycologic flora greatly resembling that of Europe, and although Canada and the extreme North is little known, some parts of the United States have been investigated. Schweinitz[U] first made known to any extent the riches of this country, especially Carolina, and in this state the late Dr. Curtis and H. W. Ravenel continued their labours. With the exception of Lea's collections in Cincinnati, Wright's in Texas, and some contributions from Ohio, Alabama, Massachusetts, and New York, a great portion of this vast country is mycologically unknown. It is remarkably rich in fleshy fungi, not only in _Agaricini_, but also in _Discomycetes_, containing a large number of European forms, mostly European genera, with many species at present peculiar to itself. Tropical forms extend upwards into the Southern States.

The islands of the West Indies have been more or less examined, but none so thoroughly as Cuba, at first by Ramon de la Sagra, and afterwards by Wright.[V] The three principal genera of _Hymenomycetes_ represented are _Agaricus_, _Marasmius_, and _Polyporus_, represented severally by 82, 51, and 120 species, amounting to more than half the entire number. Of the 490 species, about 57 per cent. are peculiar to the island; 13 per cent. are widely dispersed species; 12 per cent. are common to the island and Central America, together with the warmer parts of South America and Mexico; 3 per cent. are common to it with the United States, especially the Southern; while 13 per cent. are European species, including, however, 13 which may be considered as cosmopolitan. Some common tropical species do not occur, and, on the whole, the general character seems sub-tropical rather than tropical. Many of the species are decidedly those of temperate regions, or at least nearly allied. Perhaps the most interesting species are those which occur in the genera _Craterellus_ and _Laschia_, the latter genus, especially, yielding several new forms. The fact that the climate is, on the whole, more temperate than that of some other islands in the same latitudes, would lead us to expect the presence of a comparatively large number of European species, or those which are found in the more northern United States, or British North America, and may account for the fact that so small a proportion of species should be identical with those from neighbouring islands.

In Central America only a few small collections have been made, which indicate a sub-tropical region.

From the northern parts of South America, M. Leprieur collected in French Guiana.[W] Southwards of this, Spruce collected in the countries bordering on the River Amazon, and Gardner in Brazil,[X] Gaudichaud in Chili and Peru,[Y] Gay in Chili,[Z] Blanchet in Bahia,[a] Weddell in Brazil,[b] and Auguste de Saint Hiliare[c] in the same country. Small collections have also been made in the extreme south. All these collections contain coriaceous species of _Polyporus_, _Favolus_, and allied genera, with _Auricularini_, together with such _Ascomycetes_ as _Xylaria_, and such forms of _Peziza_ as _P. tricholoma_, _P. Hindsii_, and _P. macrotis_. As yet we cannot form an estimate of the extent or variety of the South American flora, which has furnished the interesting genus _Cyttaria_, and may yet supply forms unrecognized elsewhere.

The island of Juan Fernandez furnished to M. Bertero a good representative collection,[d] which is remarkable as containing more than one-half its number of European species, and the rest possessing rather the character of those of a temperate than a sub-tropical region.

Australasia has been partly explored, and the results embodied in the Floras of Dr. Hooker and subsequent communications. In a note to an enumeration of 235 species in 1872, the writer observes that "many of them are either identical with European species, or so nearly allied that with dried specimens only, unaccompanied by notes or drawings, it is impossible to separate them; others are species which are almost universally found in tropical or sub-tropical countries, while a few only are peculiar to Australia, or are undescribed species, mostly of a tropical type. The collections on the whole can scarcely be said to be of any great interest, except so far as geographical distribution is concerned, as the aberrant forms are few."[e]

The fungi collected by the Antarctic Expedition in Auckland and Campbell's Islands, and in Fuegia and the Falklands,[f] were few and of but little interest, including such cosmopolitan forms as _Sphæria herbarum_ and _Cladosporium herbarum_, _Hirneola auricula-judæ_, _Polyporus versicolor_, _Eurotium herbariorum_, etc.

In New Zealand a large proportion have been found, and these may be taken to represent the general character of the fungi of the islands, which is of the type usually found in temperate regions.[g]

The fungi of Asia are so little known that no satisfactory conclusions can be drawn from our present incomplete knowledge. In India, the collections made by Dr. Hooker in his progress to the Sikkim Himalayas,[h] a few species obtained by M. Perottet in Pondicherry, and small collections from the Neilgherries,[i] are almost all that have been recorded. From these it may be concluded that elevations such as approximate a temperate climate are the most productive, and here European and North American genera, with closely allied species, have the preponderance. The number of _Agaricini_, for instance, is large, and amongst the twenty-eight subgenera into which the genus _Agaricus_ is divided, eight only are unrepresented. Casual specimens received from other parts of India afford evidence that here is a vast field unexplored, the forests and mountain slopes of which would doubtless afford an immense number of new and interesting forms.

Of the Indian Archipelago, Java has been most explored, both by Junghuhn[j] and Zollinger.[k] The former records 117 species in 40 genera, Nees von Esenbeck and Blume 11 species in 3 genera, and Zollinger and Moritzi 31 species in 20 genera, making a total of 159 species, of which 47 belong to _Polyporus_. Léveillé added 87 species, making a total of 246 species. The fungi of Sumatra, Borneo, and other islands are partly the same and partly allied, but of a similar tropical character.

The fungi of the island of Ceylon, collected by Gardner, Thwaites, and König, were numerous. The Agarics comprise 302 species, closely resembling those of our own country.[l] It is singular that every one of the subgenera of Fries is represented, though the number of species in one or two is greatly predominant. _Lepiota_ and _Psalliota_ alone comprise one-third of the species, while _Pholiota_ offers only a single obscure species. The enumeration recently published of the succeeding families contains many species of interest.

In Africa, the best explored country is Algeria, although unfortunately the flora was never completed.[m] The correspondence between the fungi of Algeria and European countries is very striking, and the impression is not removed by the presence of a few sub-tropical forms. It is probable that were the fungi of Spain known the resemblance would be more complete.

From the Cape of Good Hope and Natal collections have been made by Zeyher,[n] Drége, and others, and from these we are enabled to form a tolerable estimate of the mycologic flora. Of the _Hymenomycetes_, the greater part belong to _Agaricus_: there are but four or five _Polypori_ in Zeyher's collection, one of which is protean. The _Gasteromycetes_ are interesting, belonging to many genera, and presenting two, _Scoleciocarpus_ and _Phellorinia_, which were founded upon specimens in this collection. _Batarrea_, _Tulostoma_, and _Mycenastrum_ are represented by European species. There are also two species of _Lycoperdon_, and one of _Podaxon_. Besides these, there is the curious _Secotium Gueinzii_. The genus _Geaster_ does not appear in the collection, nor _Scleroderma_. Altogether the Cape flora is a peculiar one, and can scarcely be compared with any other.

At the most, only scattered and isolated specimens have been recorded from Senegal, from Egypt, or from other parts of Africa, so that, with the above exceptions, the continent may be regarded as unknown.

From this imperfect summary it will be seen that no general scheme of geographical distribution of fungi can as yet be attempted, and the most we can hope to do is to compare collection with collection, and what we know of one country with what we know of another, and note differences and agreements, so as to estimate the probable character of the fungi of other countries of which we are still in ignorance. It is well sometimes that we should attempt a task like the present, since we then learn how much there is to be known, and how much good work lies waiting to be done by the capable and willing hands that may hereafter undertake it.

[A] Mr. E. P. Fries, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 1861, xv. p. 10.

[B] Berkeley and Broome, "Enumeration of the Fungi of Ceylon," in
"Journ. Linn. Soc." xiv. Nos. 73, 74, 1873.

[C] Fries, "On the Geographical Distribution of Fungi," in "Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist." ser. iii. vol. ix. p. 279.

[D] The _Hypogæi_ are evidently intended here by Fries.

[E] Fries, "On the Geographical Distribution of Fungi" in "Ann. and
Mag. Nat. Hist." ser. 3, vol. ix. p. 285.

[F] Cooke's "Handbook of British Fungi," 2 vols. 1871.

[G] "Grevillea," vols. i. and ii. London, 1872-1874.

[H] Fries, "Summa Vegetabilium Scandinaviæ" (1846), and "Monographia
Hymenomycetum Sueciæ" (1863); "Epicrisis Hymenomycetum Europ."
(1874).

[I] "Flore cryptogamique des Flanders" (1867).

[J] "Ainé Plantes Cryptogames-cellulaires du Départment de Saone et
Loire" (1863); Bulliard, "Hist. des Champignons de la France"
(1791); De Candolle, "Flore Française" (1815); Duby, "Botanicon
Gallicum" (1828-1830); Paulet, "Iconographie des Champignons"
(1855); Godron, "Catalogue des Plantes Cellulaires du
Départment de la Meurthe" (1845); Crouan, "Florule du
Finistëre" (1867); De Seynes, "Essai d'une Flore Mycologique de
la Région de Montpellier et du Gard" (1863).

[K] Secretan, "Mycographie Suisse" (1833); Trog, "Verzeichniss
Schweizerischer Schwämme" (1844).

[L] Passerini, "Funghi Parmensi," in "Giorn. Bot. Italiano"
(1872-73); Venturi, "Miceti dell' Agro Bresciano" (1845);
Viviani, "Funghi d'Italia" (1834); Vittadini, "Funghi
Mangerecci d'Italia" (1835).

[M] Schæffer, "Fungorum qui in Bavaria," &c. (1762-1774); Tratinnick,
"Fungi Austriaci" (1804-1806 and 1809-30); Corda, "Icones
Fungorum" (Prague, 1837-1842); Krombholz, "Abbildungen der
Schwämme" (1831-1849).

[N] Reichardt, "Flora von Iglau;" Niessl, "Cryptogamenflora
Nieder-Oesterreichs" (1857, 1859); Schulzer, "Schwämme Ungarns,
Slavoniens," &c.

[O] Rehm, "Ascomyceten," fasc. i.-iv.

[P] Weinmann, "Hymeno-et Gasteromycetes," in "Imp. Ross" (1836);
Weinmann, "Enumeratio Stirpium, in Agro Petropolitano" (1837).

[Q] Karsten, "Fungi in insulis Spetsbergen collectio" (1872);
Karsten, "Monographia Pezizarum fennicarum" (1869); Karsten,
"Symbolæ ad Mycologiam fennicam" (1870).

[R] Rabenhorst, "Deutschlands Kryptogamen Flora" (1844); Wallroth,
"Flora Germanica" (1833); Sturm, "Deutschlands Flora, iii. die
Pilze" (1837, &c.).

[S] Fuckel, "Symbolæ mycologicæ" (1869).

[T] "Flora Danica" (1766-1873); Holmskjold, "Beata ruris otia Fungis
Danicis impensa" (1799); Schumacher, "Enumeratio plantarum
Sellandiæ" (1801).

[U] Schweinitz, "Synopsis Fungorum," in "America Boreali," &c.
(1834). Lea, "Catalogue of Plants of Cincinnati" (1849);
Curtis, "Catalogue of the Plants of North Carolina" (1867);
Berkeley, "North American Fungi," in "Grevillea," vols.
i.-iii.; Peck, in "Reports of New York Museum Nat. Hist."

[V] Berkeley and Curtis, "Fungi Cubensis," in "Journ. Linn. Soc."
(1868); Ramon de la Sagra, "Hist. Phys. de l'Isle de Cuba,
Cryptogames, par Montagne" (1841); Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci.
Nat." February, 1842.

[W] Montagne, "Cryptogamia Guyanensis," "Ann. Sci. Nat." 4^me sér.
iii.

[X] Berkeley, in "Hooker's Journal of Botany" for 1843, &c.

[Y] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 2^me sér. vol. ii. p. 73
(1834).

[Z] Gay, "Hist. fisica y politica de Chile" (1845).

[a] Berkeley and Montagne, "Ann. des Sci. Nat." xi. (April, 1849).

[b] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." 4^me sér. v. No. 6.

[c] Montagne, in "Ann. des Sci. Nat." (July, 1839).

[d] Montagne, "Prodromus Floræ Fernandesianæ," in "Ann. des Sci.
Nat." (June, 1835).

[e] Berkeley, "On Australian Fungi," in "Journ. Linn. Society," vol.
xiii. (May, 1872).

[f] Hooker's "Cryptogamia Antarctica," pp. 57 and 141.

[g] Hooker's "New Zealand Flora."

[h] Berkeley, "Sikkim Himalayan Fungi," in Hooker's "Journal of
Botany" (1850), p. 42, &c.

[i] Montagne, "Cryptogamæ Neilgherrensis," in "Ann. des Sci. Nat."
2^me sér. xviii. p. 21 (1842).

[j] Junghuhn, "Premissa in Floram Crypt. Javæ."

[k] Zollinger, "Fungi Archipalegi Malaijo Neerlandici novi."

[l] Berkeley and Broome, "Fungi of Ceylon," in "Journ. Linn. Soc."
for May, 1871.

[m] "Flore d'Algerie, Cryptogames" (1846, &c.).

[n] Berkeley, in Hooker's "Journal of Botany," vol. ii. (1843), p.
408.

XIV.

COLLECTION AND PRESERVATION.

The multitudinous forms which fungi assume, the differences of substance, and variability in size, render a somewhat detailed account of the modes adopted for their collection and preservation necessary. The habitats of the various groups have already been indicated, so that there need be no difficulty in selecting the most suitable spots, and as to the period of the year, this will be determined by the class of objects sought. Although it may be said that no time, except when the ground is covered with snow, is entirely barren of fungi, yet there are periods more prolific than others.[A] Fleshy fungi, such as the _Hymenomycetes_, are most common from September until the frosts set in, whereas many microscopic species may be found in early spring, and increase in number until the autumn.

The collector may be provided with an ordinary collecting box, but for the Agarics an open shallow basket is preferable. A great number of the woody kinds may be carried in the coat-pocket, and foliicolous species placed between the leaves of a pocket-book. It is a good plan to be provided with a quantity of soft bibulous paper, in which specimens can be wrapped when collected, and this will materially assist in their preservation when transferred to box or basket. A large clasp-knife, a small pocket-saw, and a pocket-lens will complete the outfit for ordinary occasions. In order to preserve the fleshy fungi for the herbarium, there is but one method, which has often been described. The Agaric, or other similar fungus, is cut perpendicularly from the pileus downwards through the stem. A second cut in the same direction removes a thin slice, which represents a section of the fungus; this may be laid on blotting paper, or plant-drying paper, and put under slight pressure to dry. From one-half of the fungus the pileus is removed, and with a sharp knife the gills and fleshy portion of the pileus are cut away. In the same manner the inner flesh of the half stem is also cleared. When dried, the half of the pileus is placed in its natural position on the top of the half stem, and thus a portrait of the growing fungus is secured, whilst the section shows the arrangement of the hymenium and the character of the stem. The other half of the pileus may be placed, gills downward, on a piece of black paper, and allowed to rest there during the night. In the morning the spores will have been thrown down upon the paper, which may be placed with the other portions. When dry, the section, profile, and spore paper may be mounted together on a piece of stiff paper, and the name, locality, and date inscribed below, with any additional particulars. It is advisable here to caution the collector never to omit writing down these particulars at once when the preparations are made, and to place them together, between the folds of the drying paper, in order to prevent the possibility of a mistake. Some small species may be dried whole or only cut down the centre, but the spores should never be forgotten. When dried, either before or after mounting, the specimens should be poisoned, in order to preserve them from the attacks of insects. The best medium for this purpose is carbolic acid, laid on with a small hog-hair brush. Whatever substance is used, it must not be forgotten by the manipulator that he is dealing with poison, and must exercise caution. If the specimens are afterwards found to be insufficiently poisoned, or that minute insects are present in the herbarium, fresh poisoning will be necessary. Some think that benzine or spirits of camphor is sufficient, but as either is volatile, it is not to be trusted as a permanent preservative. Mr. English, of Epping, by an ingenious method of his own, preserves a great number of the fleshy species in their natural position, and although valueless for an herbarium, they are not only very ornamental, but useful, if space can be devoted to them.

Leaf parasites, whether on living or dead leaves, may be dried in the usual way for drying plants, between folds of bibulous paper under pressure. It may be sometimes necessary with dead leaves to throw them in water, in order that they may be flattened without breaking, and then dry them in the same manner as green leaves. All species produced on a hard matrix, as wood, bark, etc., should have as much as possible of the matrix pared away, so that the specimens may lie flat in the herbarium. This is often facilitated in corticolous species by removing the bark and drying it under pressure.

The dusty _Gasteromycetes_ are troublesome, especially the minute species, and if mounted openly on paper are soon spoiled. A good plan is to provide small square or round cardboard boxes, of not more than a quarter of an inch in depth, and to glue the specimen to the bottom at once, allowing it to dry in that position before replacing the cover. The same method should be adopted for many of the moulds, such as _Polyactis_, etc., which, under any circumstances, are difficult to preserve.

In collecting moulds, we have found it an excellent plan to go out provided with small wooden boxes, corked at top and bottom, such as entomologists use, and some common pins. When a delicate mould is collected on a decayed Agaric, or any other matrix, after clearing away with a penknife all unnecessary portions of the matrix, the specimen may be pinned down to the cork in one of these boxes. Another method, and one advisable also for the _Myxogastres_, is to carry two or three pill-boxes, in which, after being wrapped in tissue paper, the specimen may be placed.

A great difficulty is often experienced with microscopic fungi, such, for instance, as the _Sphæriacei_, in the necessity, whenever a new examination is required, to soak the specimen for some hours, and then transfer the fruit to a slide, before it can be compared with any newly-found specimen that has to be identified. To avoid this, mounted specimens ready for the microscope are an acquisition, and may be secured in the following manner. After the fungus has been soaked in water, where that is necessary, and the hymenium extracted on the point of a penknife, let it be transferred to the centre of a clean glass slide. A drop of glycerine is let fall upon this nucleus, then the covering glass placed over it. A slight pressure will flatten the object and expel all the superfluous glycerine around the edges of the covering glass. A spring clip holds the cover in position, whilst a camel-hair pencil is used to remove the glycerine which may have been expelled. This done, the edges of the cover may be fixed to the slide by painting round with gum-dammar dissolved in benzole. In from twelve to twenty-four hours the spring clip may be removed, and the mount placed in the cabinet. Glycerine is, perhaps, the best medium for mounting the majority of these objects, and when dammar and benzole are used for fixing, there is no difficulty experienced, as is the case with Canada balsam, if the superfluous glycerine is not wholly washed away. Specimens of _Puccinia_ mounted in this way when fresh gathered, and before any shrivelling had taken place, are as plump and natural in our cabinet as they were when collected six or seven years ago.

Moulds are always troublesome to preserve in a herbarium in a state sufficiently perfect for reference after a few years. We have found it an excellent method to provide some thin plates of mica, the thinner the better, of a uniform size, say two inches square, or even less. Between two of these plates of mica enclose a fragment of the mould, taking care not to move one plate over the other after the mould is placed. Fix the plates by a clip, whilst strips of paper are gummed or pasted over the edges of the mica plates so as to hold them together. When dry, the clip may be removed, and the name written on the paper. These mounts may be put each in a small envelope, and fastened down in the herbarium. Whenever an examination is required, the object, being already dry-mounted, may at once be placed under the microscope. In this manner the mode of attachment of the spores can be seen, but if mounted in fluid they are at once detached; and if the moulds are only preserved in boxes, in the course of a short time nearly every spore will have fallen from its support.

Two or three accessories to a good herbarium may be named. For fleshy fungi, especially Agarics, faithfully coloured drawings, side by side with the dried specimens, will compensate for loss or change of colour which most species undergo in the process of drying. For minute species, camera lucida drawings of the spores, together with their measurements, will add greatly to the practical value of a collection. In mounting specimens, whether on leaves, bark, or wood, it will be of advantage to have one specimen glued down to the paper so as to be seen at once, and a duplicate loose in a small envelope beside it, so that the latter may at any time be removed and examined under the microscope.

In arranging specimens for the herbarium, a diversity of taste and opinion exists as to the best size for the herbarium paper. It is generally admitted that a small size is preferable to the large one usually employed for phanerogamous plants. Probably the size of foolscap is the most convenient, each sheet being confined to a single species. In public herbaria, the advantage of a uniform size for all plants supersedes all other advantages, but in a private herbarium, consisting entirely of fungi, the smaller size is better.

The microscopic examination of minute species is an absolute necessity to ensure accurate identification. Little special remark is called for here, since the methods adopted for other objects will be available. Specimens which have become dry may be placed in water previous to examination, a process which will be found essential in such genera as _Peziza_, _Sphæria_, etc. For moulds, which must be examined as opaque objects, if all their beauties and peculiarities are to be made out, a half-inch objective is recommended, with the nozzle bevelled as much to a point as possible, so that no light be obstructed.[B]

In examining the sporidia of minute _Pezizæ_ and some others, the aid of some reagent will be found necessary. When the sporidia are very delicate and hyaline, the septa cannot readily be seen if present; to aid in the examination, a drop of tincture of iodine will be of considerable advantage. In many cases sporidia, which are very indistinct in glycerine, are much more distinct when the fluid is water.

The following hints to travellers, as regards the collection of fungi, drawn up some years since by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley, have been widely circulated, and may be usefully inserted here, though at the risk of repetition:--

"It is frequently complained that in collections of exotic plants, no tribe is so much neglected as that of fungi; this arises partly from the supposed difficulty of preserving good specimens, partly from their being less generally studied than other vegetable productions. As, however, in no department of botany, there is a greater probability of meeting with new forms, and the difficulties, though confessedly great in one or two genera, are far less than is often imagined, the following hints are respectfully submitted to such collectors as may desire to neglect no part of the vegetable kingdom.

"The greater proportion, especially of tropical fungi, are dried, simply by light pressure, with as much ease as phoenogamous plants; indeed, a single change of the paper in which they are placed is generally sufficient, and many, if wrapped up in soft paper when gathered, and submitted to light pressure, require no further attention. Such as are of a tough leathery nature, if the paper be changed a few hours after the specimens have been laid in, preserve all their characters admirably; and if in the course of a few weeks there is an opportunity of washing them with a solution of turpentine and corrosive sublimate, submitting them again to pressure for a few hours merely to prevent their shrinking, there will be no fear of their suffering from the attacks of insects.

"Many of the mushroom tribe are so soft and watery that it is very difficult to make good specimens without a degree of labour which is quite out of the question with travellers. By changing, however, the papers in which they are dried two or three times the first day, if practicable, useful specimens may be prepared, especially if a few notes be made as to colour, etc. The more important notes are as to the colour of the stem and pileus, together with any peculiarities of the surface, _e.g._, whether it be dry, viscid, downy, scaly, etc., and whether the flesh of the pileus be thin or otherwise; as to the stem, whether hollow or solid; as to the gills, whether they are attached to the stem or free; and especially what is their colour and that of the spores. It is not in general expedient to preserve specimens in spirits, except others are dried by pressure, or copious notes be made; except, indeed, in some fungi of a gelatinous nature, which can scarcely be dried at all by pressure.

"The large woody fungi, the puff-balls, and a great number of those which grow on wood, etc., are best preserved, after ascertaining that they are dry and free from larvæ, by simply wrapping them in paper or placing them in chip-boxes, taking care that they are so closely packed as not to rub. As in other tribes of plants, it is very requisite to have specimens in different stages of growth, and notes as to precise habitats are always interesting.

"The attention of the traveller can scarcely be directed to any more interesting branch, or one more likely to produce novelty, than the puff-ball tribe; and he is particularly requested to collect these in every stage of growth, especially in the earliest, and, if possible, to preserve some of the younger specimens in spirits. One or two species are produced on ant-hills, the knowledge of the early state of which is very desirable.

"The fungi which grow on leaves in tropical climates are scarcely less abundant than in our own country, though belonging to a different type. Many of these must constantly come under the eye of the collector of phoenogams, and would be most acceptable to the mycologist. But the attention of the collector should also be directed to the lichen-like fungi, which are so abundant in some countries on fallen sticks. Hundreds of species of the utmost interest would reward active research, and they are amongst the easiest to dry; indeed, in tropical countries, the greater proportion of the species are easy to preserve, but they will not strike the eye which is not on the watch for them. The number of fleshy species is but few, and far less likely to furnish novelty."

* * * * *

In conclusion, we may urge upon all those who have followed us thus far to adopt this branch of botany as their speciality. Hitherto it has been very much neglected, and a wide field is open for investigation and research. The life-history of the majority of species has still to be read, and the prospects of new discoveries for the industrious and persevering student are great. All who have as yet devoted themselves with assiduity have been in this manner rewarded. The objects are easily obtainable, and there is a constantly increasing infatuation in the study. Where so much is unknown, not a few difficulties have to be encountered, and here the race is not to the swift so much as to the untiring. May our efforts to supply this introduction to the study receive their most welcome reward in an accession to the number of the students and investigators of the nature, uses, and influences of fungi.

[A] The genus _Chionyphe_ occurs on granaries under snow, as well as
in that formidable disease, the Madura fungus-foot. (_See_
Carter's "Mycetoma.")

[B] Bubbles of air are often very tiresome in the examination of
moulds. A little alcohol will remove them.

INDEX.

_Æcidiacci_, structure of, 41.
_Æcidium_ and _Puccinia_, 199.
germination, 141.
_Agaricini_, habitats of, 233.
structure of, 17.
Agaric of the olive, 108.
Agarics, growth of, 138.
Algo-lichen hypothesis, 10.
Alveolate spores, 130.
Amadou, 103.
American floras, 281.
fungi, 281.
Antheridia, presumed, 171.
Appearance of new forms, 248.
Arrangement of families, 80.
Asci and sporidia, 131.
in Agarics (?), 23.
their dehiscence, 59.
_Ascobolei_, structure of, 56.
_Ascomycetes_, classification of, 75.
distribution of, 277.
habitats of, 241.
structure of, 55.
_Aspergillus glaucus_, 187.
Atmosphere, spores in, 214.

Barberry cluster-cups, 201.
Barren cysts of _Lecythea_, 37.
Basidiospores, 120.
Beech morels, 101.
Beefsteak fungus, 96.
Berberry and mildew, 199.
_Boletus_, esculent species, 95.
Books on structure, 63.
_Bulgaria_, its dualism, 198.
Bunt and smut, 225.
spores, germination of, 150.