Chapter X: Introduction: To Book the Third

It seemed unlikely that Lord Liverpool’s Administration, composed almost entirely of men of second-rate ability and slender talent, would have a long existence when pitted against the full strength of the Whig Party. The Cabinet was divided on more than one of the leading questions of the day, and though they could now rely with certainty on the steady support of the Prince Regent, it seemed doubtful whether they would long remain in power.

Lord Holland states that the Government obtained some popularity from the successes of the British armies in the Peninsula; and certainly Wellington’s victories were a forcible argument against the petitions and motions in Parliament urging the re-establishment of peace. That General decisively defeated Marmont in July, 1812, at Salamanca, and advanced to Madrid. Though the result of this step politically was most opportune, he was unable to maintain his position in the Spanish capital, and was forced to retire to Portugal before the advance of the French armies. Appointed Commander-in-Chief during the winter he took the field with renewed vigour in 1813. The French, dismayed at the news of their Emperor’s disastrous retreat from Moscow, were concentrated early in the spring, and commenced their retreat behind the Ebro. Wellington hurried in pursuit, defeated Joseph in a pitched battle at Vittoria, and continued his advance with such success that he entered France at the head of the Allied armies early in October.

Napoleon’s preparations for the campaign which he determined should finally bring the whole Continent under his sway were on a scale up to that time unknown in the history of the world. It will be remembered that Austria and Prussia were bound by treaty to assist him, should he require their aid. He forced them to fulfil their contract, and exacted both men and money to assist him in the furtherance of his schemes. The French armies crossed the Russian frontiers in June, 1812. Alexander, who had hurriedly made peace with the Porte, could collect but half the number of troops required to oppose the invader on even terms. Chance rather than any settled plan of action governed the fortunes of the Russian forces, which retreated before the advance of Napoleon. So far everything was successful; but the organisation of the French transport had been found wanting early in the campaign, and after the obstinately contested battle of Borodino and the occupation of Moscow, Napoleon realised that it would be an impossibility to maintain his troops in winter near that town. Orders for retreat were given; hunger and cold did their worst; every step was closely dogged by the Russian armies; and of the 480,000 men who entered Russia, little more than 20,000 returned.

Intelligence of the French disasters was sent by the Russians to General von York, who commanded the Prussian troops under French orders at Riga. After some hesitation, divining the inclinations of the nation, he threw in his lot with the Russians, though King Frederick William had up to that time given no sign of any rupture with Napoleon. He was encouraged, however, by Alexander’s successful pursuit of the French, and declared war against France in March, 1813. Napoleon, who had left the disordered remnant of his army early in December, made superhuman efforts in France to raise fresh troops for service in Germany. His endeavours were crowned with success; but the young levy, unused to the exigencies of warfare, were in no way to be compared to the veterans whose lives he had ruthlessly sacrificed in the previous campaign. The opening phases of the conflict were favourable to the French, and had Napoleon seized his opportunity after the battle of Bautzen, he could have obtained peace on sufficiently advantageous terms. But his ever-increasing ambition proved his ruin, and a conviction that the Austrian Court would remain faithful to him blinded him to the true facts of the case. That nation was indeed wavering, and Metternich, the guiding star of its foreign policy, had already perceived that Napoleon was insatiable in his demands, and that a fresh appeal to arms was inevitable. Austria joined the Allies early in August, and a series of battles took place, culminating in the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic and his retirement to France. After the decisive result of this campaign, conditions of peace were again offered by the Allies, but no definite answer was received, and the offer was withdrawn early in December.

The invasion of France commenced early in January, 1814, before Napoleon, who had lost the services of a numerous body of men left in Germany to garrison the fortresses, had gained time to collect fresh troops. It is probable that he might still have retained the throne of France, had he frankly accepted the terms offered at Chatillon in February; but Caulaincourt, the French plenipotentiary, was afraid of signing a treaty which he knew would be disavowed in the event of a French success, and the opportunity was lost for ever.

The Congress of Chatillon broke up without arriving at any decided agreement as to the future settlement of France. The Allies resolved to advance to Paris, and they entered that city on March 31. Napoleon made several skilful attempts to bar their progress; but the disgust of the French nation at the continuance of war, the treachery of his generals, and the hopeless numerical inferiority of his forces, made any permanent success an impossibility. A provisional Government was proclaimed in Paris under Talleyrand, Napoleon was dethroned and sent to Elba, and the Bourbons were recalled to the throne in the person of Louis XVIII.

Wellington, in the south, paused for some months after reaching the frontiers of France in October, 1813, till the senseless intrigues of King Ferdinand, whom Napoleon had allowed to return to Spain, made the British commander’s position somewhat insecure. He resumed operations early in February. Soult was unable to withstand his advance, and the continued British successes closed with the hard-earned battle of Toulouse—a useless sacrifice of 8,000 lives, for Napoleon had abdicated six days before. Wellington, who had accepted the post of British Ambassador in Paris, reached that city early in May, in time to be present at the conclusion of the definitive treaty.

By this treaty, briefly, France retained what was practically her frontier in 1792, without the exaction of any indemnity; Switzerland became a republic; Holland, Spain, Westphalia, Tuscany, and Piedmont were restored to their respective sovereigns; while other outstanding questions of importance were deferred for discussion at a Congress to be held at Vienna within two months.

On the completion of their task, the Emperor of Russia and the King of Prussia proceeded to England to pay a visit of congratulation to the Prince Regent; but the Emperor of Austria was obliged to return to his own dominions. London was _en fête_, and great crowds received the monarchs enthusiastically, and everywhere accompanied their progress during their stay in the country. It was about this time that rumours were heard of the approaching marriage of the Princess Charlotte of Wales, then in her seventeenth year, to the Prince of Orange, eldest son of the newly made King of Holland. The probability of the arrangement was universally believed; but the negotiations were broken off, and she married within two years Prince Leopold of Saxe-Coburg.

War broke out between England and the United States, in the summer of 1812, over the question of the British Orders in Council. The struggle lasted with varying success for two years and a half. By sea the Americans more than held their own; but their attempted invasions of Canada met with no success. Peace was concluded by the Treaty of Ghent early in 1815, much to the delight of both countries.