Chapter II: Part 2

1. He spoke eloquently. 2. She chattered incessantly. 3. They searched everywhere. 4. I shall know presently. 5. The bobolink sings joyously. 6. The crowd cheered heartily. 7. A great victory was finally won. 8. Threatening clouds are moving slowly. 9. The deafening waves dash angrily. 10. These questions may be settled peaceably. 11. The wounded soldier fought bravely. 12. The ranks were quickly broken. 13. The south wind blows softly. 14. Times will surely change. 15. An hour stole on.

LESSON 25.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

ONE MODIFIER JOINED TO ANOTHER.

Analyze and diagram the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, and verbs.

+Model+.--_The frightened animal fled still more rapidly_.

animal | fled
===================|=====================
\The \frightened | \rapidly
\more
\still

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--Notice that the three lines forming this group all slant the same way to show that each stands for a modifying word. The line standing for the principal word of the group is joined to the predicate line. The end of each of the other two lines is broken, and turned to touch its principal at an angle.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because----; _animal_ is the subject, because----; _fled_ is the predicate, because----; _The_ and _frightened_ are modifiers of the subject, because----; _still more rapidly_ is a modifier of the predicate, because it is a group of words joined to it to limit its meaning; _rapidly_ is the principal word of the group; _more_ modifies _rapidly_, and _still_ modifies _more_, _The frightened animal_ is the modified subject; _fled still more rapidly_ is the modified predicate.

1. The crocus flowers very early. 2. A violet bed is budding near. 3. The Quakers were most shamefully persecuted. 4. Perhaps he will return. 5. We laughed very heartily. 6. The yellow poplar leaves floated down. 7. The wind sighs so mournfully. 8. Few men have ever fought so stubbornly. 9. The debt will probably be paid. 10. The visitor will soon be here. 11. That humane project was quite generously sustained. 12. A perfectly innocent man was very cruelly persecuted.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adjective? What are the words _an_ or _a_, and _the_ called by some grammarians? When is _a_ used, and when _an?_ Give examples of their misuse.

What is the modified predicate? Give an example. Give an example of one modifier joined to another.

LESSON 26.

Select your subjects from Lesson 9, and construct twenty sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates.

Impromptu Exercise.

Select sentences from Lessons 6, 7, and 11, and conduct the exercise as directed in Lesson 10. Let the strife be to see who can supply the greatest number of modifiers to the subject and to the predicate. The teacher can vary this exercise.

LESSON 27.

ADVERBS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that the meaning of the predicate may be limited by modifiers, and that one modifier may be joined to another. Words used to modify the predicate of a sentence and those used to modify modifiers belong to one class, or one _part of speech_, and are called +Adverbs+.

+T+.--_She decided too hastily_. What word tells how she decided? +P+.---_Hastily_. +T+.--What word tells how hastily? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What then are the words _too_ and _hastily?_ +P+.--Adverbs.

+T+.--_Too much time has been wasted_. What word modifies _much_ by telling how much? +P+.--_Too_. +T+.--What _part of speech_ is _much?_ +P+.--An adjective. +T+.--What then is _too?_ +P+.--An adverb.

+T+.--Why is _too_ in the first sentence an adverb? Why is _too_ in the second sentence an adverb? Why is _hastily_ an adverb?

Let the teacher use the following and similar examples, and continue the questions. _He thinks so. So much time has been wasted_.

Let the teacher give verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, and require the pupils to modify them by appropriate adverbs.

+DEFINITION.--_An Adverb_ is a word used to modify a verb, an adjective, or an adverb+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze, diagram, and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.--_We have been very agreeably disappointed_. +Diagram+ as in. Lesson 25.

For +Written Parsing+, use _Model_, Lesson 22, adding a column for adverbs.

+Oral Parsing+.--_We_ is a pronoun, because----; _have been disappointed_ is a verb, because----; _very_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the adverb _agreeably_ to tell how agreeably; _agreeably_ is an _adverb_, because it is joined to the verb _have been disappointed_ to indicate manner.

1. The plough-boy plods homeward. 2. The water gushed forth. 3. Too much time was wasted. 4. She decided too hastily. 5. You should listen more attentively. 6. More difficult sentences must be built. 7. An intensely painful operation was performed. 8. The patient suffered intensely. 9. That story was peculiarly told. 10. A peculiarly interesting story was told. 11. An extravagantly high price was paid. 12. That lady dresses extravagantly.

The pupil will notice that, in some of the examples above, the same adverb modifies an adjective in one sentence and an adverb in another, and that, in other examples, an adjective and a verb are modified by the same word. You may learn from this why such modifiers are grouped into one class.

LESSON 28.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES FOR REVIEW.

1. You must diagram neatly. 2. The sheaves are nearly gathered. 3. The wheat is duly garnered. 4. The fairies were called together. 5. The birds chirp merrily. 6. This reckless adventurer has returned. 7. The wild woods rang. 8. White fleecy clouds are floating above. 9. Those severe laws have been repealed. 10. A republican government was established. 11. An unusually large crop had just been harvested. 12. She had been waiting quite patiently. 13. A season so extremely warm had never before been known. 14. So brave a deed [Footnote: _Can be commended_ is the verb, and _not_ is an adverb.] cannot be too warmly commended.

LESSON 29.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES FOR REVIEW.

Build sentences containing the following adverbs.

Hurriedly, solemnly, lightly, well, how, somewhere, abroad, forever, seldom, exceedingly.

Using the following subjects and predicates as foundations, build six sentences having modified subjects and modified predicates, two of which shall contain adverbs modifying adjectives; two, adverbs modifying adverbs; and two, adverbs modifying verbs.

1. ------- boat glides -----. 2. ------- cloud is rising -----. 3. ------- breezes are blowing -----. 4. ------- elephant was captured -----. 5. ------- streams flow -----. 6. ------- spring has opened -----.

We here give you, in classes, the material out of which you are to build five sentences with modified subjects and modified predicates.

Select the subject and the predicate first.

_Nouns and Pronouns. Verbs. Adjectives. Adverbs_.

branch | was running | large, that | lustily coach | were played | both, the | downward they | cried | all, an | very we | is growing | several, a | rapidly games | cheered | amusing | not, loudly, then

LESSON 30.

ERRORS FOR CORRECTION.

+To the Teacher+.--We here suggest additional work in composition, with particular reference to the choice and position of adjectives. See Notes, pp. 171,172.

+_Caution_+.--When two or more adjectives are used with a noun, care must be taken in their arrangement. If there is any difference in their relative importance, place nearest the noun the one that is most intimately connected with it.

+To the Teacher+.--We have in mind here those numerous cases where one adjective modifies the noun, and the second modifies the noun as limited by the first. _All ripe apples are picked_. Here _ripe_ modifies _apples_, but _all_ modifies _apples_ limited by _ripe_. Not _all apples_ are _picked_, but only _all_ that are _ripe_.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS OF POSITION.

A wooden pretty bowl stood on the table.
The blue beautiful sky is cloudless.
A young industrious man was hired.
The new marble large house was sold.

+_Caution_+.--When the adjectives are of the _same_ rank, place them where they will sound the best. This will usually be in the order of their length--the longest last.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

An entertaining and fluent speaker followed.
An enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd was addressed.

+_Caution_+.--Do not use the pronoun +_them_+ for the adjective +_those_+.

CORRECT THESE ERRORS.

Them books are nicely bound.
Them two sentences should be corrected.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS.

arouse, o romans
hear, o israel
it is i
i may be Mistaken
you Have frequently been warned
some Very savage beasts have been Tamed

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is an adverb? Give an example of an adverb modifying an adjective; one modifying a verb; one modifying an adverb. Why are such expressions as _a wooden pretty bowl_ faulty? Why is _an enthusiastic, noisy, large crowd_ faulty? Why is _them books_ wrong? Why is _i may be Mistaken_ wrong? Why is _hear, o israel_, wrong? Study the Review Questions given in previous Lessons.

+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from Darwin.

LESSON 31.

PHRASES INTRODUCED BY PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, you have learned that several words may be grouped together and used as one modifier. In the examples given, the principal word is joined directly to the subject or to the predicate, and this word is modified by another word. In this Lesson also groups of words are used as modifiers, but these words are not united with one another, or with the word which the group modifies, just as they are in the preceding Lessons. I will write on the board this sentence: _De Soto marched into Florida_. +T+.--What tells where De Soto marched? +P+.--_Into Florida_. +T+.--What is the principal word of the group? +P+.--_Florida_. +T+.--Is _Florida_ joined directly to the predicate, as rapidly was in Lesson 25? +P+.--No. +T+.--What little word comes in to unite the modifier to _marched?_ +P+.--_Into_. +T+.--Does _Florida_ alone, tell where he marched? +P+.--No. +T+.--Does _into_ alone, tell where he marched? +P+.--No.

+T+.--These groups of related words are called +Phrases+. Let the teacher draw on the board the diagram of the sentence above.

Phrases of the form illustrated in this diagram are the most common, and they perform a very important function in our language.

Let the teacher frequently call attention to the fact that all the words of a phrase are _taken together_ to perform _one distinct office_.

A phrase modifying the subject is equivalent to an adjective, and, frequently, may be changed into one. _The dew of the morning has passed away_. What word may be used for the phrase _of the morning?_ +P+.--_Morning_. +T+.--Yes. The _morning_ dew has passed away.

A phrase modifying the predicate is equivalent to an adverb, and, frequently, may be changed into one. _We shall go to that place_. What word may be used for the phrase, _to that place?_ +P+.--_There_. +T+.--Yes. We shall go _there_.

Change the phrases in these sentences:---

_A citizen of America was insulted.

We walked toward home_.

Let the teacher write on the board the following words, and require the pupils to add to each, one or more words to complete a phrase, and then to construct a sentence in which the phrase may be properly employed: _To, from, by, at, on, with, in, into, over_.

+DEFINITION.--A _Phrase_ is a group of words denoting related ideas but not expressing a thought+.

Analysis and Parsing.

Analyze the following sentences, and parse the nouns, pronouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs.

Model.--_The finest trout in the lake are generally caught in the deepest water_.

trout | are caught
================|================
\The \finest \in \generally \in
\ \
\ lake \ water
------ ----------
\the \the \deepest

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will notice that the diagram of the _phrase_ is made up of a slanting line, standing for the introductory and connecting word, and a horizontal line, representing the principal word. Under the latter, are placed the little slanting lines standing for the modifiers of the principal word. Here and elsewhere all modifiers are joined to their principal words by slanting lines.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ------; _trout_ is the subject, because -----; _are caught_ is the predicate, because ------; the words _The_ and _finest_, and the phrase, _in the lake_, are modifiers of the subject, because -----; the word _generally_ and the phrase, _in the deepest water_, are modifiers of the predicate, because ------; _in_ introduces the first phrase, and _lake_ is the principal word; _in_ introduces the second phrase, and _water_ is the principal word; _the_ and _deepest_ are modifiers of _water_; _The finest trout in the lake_ is the modified subject, and _are generally caught in the deepest water_ is the modified predicate.

1. The gorilla lives in Africa. 2. It seldom rains in Egypt. 3. The Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. 4. The wet grass sparkled in the light. 5. The little brook ran swiftly under the bridge. 6. Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga. 7. The steeples of the village pierced through the dense fog. 8. The gloom of winter settled down on everything. 9. A gentle breeze blows from the south. 10. The temple of Solomon was destroyed. 11. The top of the mountain is covered with snow. 12. The second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia.

LESSON 32.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences, employing the following phrases as modifiers.

To Europe, of oak, from Albany, at the station, through the fields, for vacation, among the Indians, of the United States.

Supply to the following predicates subjects modified by phrases.

---- is situated on the Thames. ---- has arrived. ---- was destroyed by an earthquake. ---- was received. ---- has just been completed. ---- may be enjoyed.

Supply to the following subjects predicates modified by phrases.

Iron ----. The trees ----. Squirrels ----. The Bible ----. Sugar ----. Cheese ----. Paul ----. Strawberries ----. The mountain ----.

Write five sentences, each of which shall contain one or more phrases used as modifiers.

LESSON 33.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Re-write the following sentences, changing the italicized words into equivalent phrases.

+Model+.--A _golden_ image was made.
An image _of gold_ was made.

You will notice that the adjective _golden_ was placed before the subject, but, when changed to a phrase, it followed the subject.

1. The book was _carefully_ read. 2. The old soldiers fought _courageously_. 3. A group of children were strolling _homeward_. 4. No season of life should be spent _idly_. 5. The _English_ ambassador has just arrived. 6. That _generous_ act was liberally rewarded.

Change the following adjectives and adverbs into equivalent phrases, and employ the phrases in sentences of your own building.

Wooden, penniless, eastward, somewhere, here, evening, everywhere, yonder, joyfully, wintry.

Make a sentence out of the words in each line below.

Boat, waves, glides, the, the, over.
He, Sunday, church, goes, the, on, to.
Year, night, is dying, the, the, in.
Qualities, Charlemagne, vices, were alloyed, the, great, of, with.
Indians, America, intemperance, are thinned, the, out, of, by.

LESSON 34.

PREPOSITIONS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the preceding Lessons, the little words that were placed before nouns, thus forming phrases, belong to a, class of words called +Prepositions+. You noticed that these words, which you have now learned to call prepositions, served to introduce phrases. The preposition shows the relation of the _idea_ expressed by the principal word of the phrase to that of the word which the phrase modifies. It serves also to connect these words.

In the sentence, _The squirrel ran up a tree_, what word shows the relation of the act of running, to the tree? Ans. _Up_.

Other words may be used to express different relations. Repeat, nine times, the sentence above given, supplying, in the place of _up_, each of the following prepositions: _Around, behind, down, into, over, through, to, under, from_.

Let this exercise be continued, using such sentences as, _The man went into the house; The ship sailed toward the bay_.

+DEFINITION.--A _Preposition_ is a word that introduces a phrase modifier, and shows the relation, in sense, of its principal word to the word modified+.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.--_Flowers preach to us_.

For +Analysis+ and +Diagram+, see Lesson 31.

For +Written Parsing+, see Lesson 22. Add the needed columns.

+Oral Parsing+.--_Flowers_ is a noun, because----; _preach_ is a verb, because----; _to_ is a _preposition_, because it shows the relation, in sense, between _us_ and _preach;_ _us_ is a pronoun, because it is used instead of the name of the speaker and the names of those for whom he speaks.

1. The golden lines of sunset glow. 2. A smiling landscape lay before us. 3. Columbus was born at Genoa. 4. The forces of Hannibal were routed by Scipio. 5. The capital of New York is on the Hudson. 6. The ships sail over the boisterous sea. 7. All names of the Deity should begin with capital letters. 8. Air is composed chiefly of two invisible gases. 9. The greater portion of South America lies between the tropics. 10. The laurels of the warrior must at all times be dyed in blood. 11. The first word of every entire sentence should begin with a capital letter. 12. The subject of a sentence is generally placed before the predicate.

Impromptu Exercise.

(The teacher may find it profitable to make a separate lesson of this exercise.)

Let the teacher write on the board a subject and a predicate that will admit of many modifiers. The pupils are to expand the sentence into as many separate sentences as possible, each containing one apt phrase modifier. The competition is to see who can build the most and the best sentences in a given time. The teacher gathers up the slates and reads the work aloud, or has the pupils exchange slates and read it themselves.

LESSON 35.

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE.

When two or more subjects united by a connecting word have the same predicate, they form a +_Compound Subject;_+ and, when two or more predicates connected in like manner have the same subject, they form a +_Compound Predicate_+.

In the sentence, _Birds and bees can fly_, the two words _birds_ and _bees_, connected by _and_, have the same predicate; the same action is asserted of both birds and bees. In the sentence, _Leaves fade and fall_, two assertions are made of the same things. In the first sentence, _birds_ and _bees_ form the _compound subject_; and, in the second, _fade_ and _fall_ form the _compound predicate_.

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Models+.--_Napoleon rose, reigned, and fell_.

_Frogs, antelopes, and kangaroos can jump_.

rose Frogs
,=,===== ======.=.
/ ' ' \
Napoleon| / X ' reigned antelopes ' X \ | can jump
========|==| '======== ==========' |==|=========
| \and' 'and/ |
\ ' fell kangaroos ' /
`-'====== =========='='

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--The short line following the subject line represents the entire predicate, and is supposed to be continued in the three horizontal lines that follow, each of which represents one of the parts of the _compound predicate_. These three lines are united by dotted lines, which stand for the connecting words. The +X+ denotes that an _and_ is understood.

Study this explanation carefully, and you will understand the other diagram.

+Oral Analysis+ of the first sentence.

This is a sentence, because ----; _Napoleon_ is the subject, because ----; _rose_, _reigned_, and _fell_ form the _compound predicate_, because they belong in common to the same subject, and say something about Napoleon. _And_ connects _reigned_ and _fell_.

1. The Rhine and the Rhone rise in Switzerland. 2. Time and tide wait for no man. 3. Washington and Lafayette fought for American Independence. 4. Wild birds shrieked, and fluttered on the ground. 5. The mob raged and roared. 6. The seasons came and went. 7. Pride, poverty, and fashion cannot live in the same house. 8. The tables of stone were cast to the ground and broken. 9. Silver or gold will be received in payment. 10. Days, months, years, and ages will circle away.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a phrase? A phrase modifying a subject is equivalent to what? Illustrate. A phrase modifying a predicate is equivalent to what? Illustrate.

What are prepositions? What do you understand by a compound subject? Illustrate. What do you understand by a compound predicate? Illustrate.

LESSON 36.

CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.

The words _and_ and _or_, used in the preceding Lesson to connect the nouns and the verbs, belong to a class of words called +_Conjunctions_+.

Conjunctions may also connect _words_ used as _modifiers;_ as,

A daring _but_ foolish feat was performed.

They may connect phrases; as,

We shall go to Saratoga _and_ to Niagara.

They may connect _clauses_, that is, expressions that, standing alone, would be sentences; as,

He must increase, _but_ I must decrease.

+DEFINITION.--A _Conjunction_, is a word used to connect words, phrases, or clauses+.

The +_Interjection_+ is the eighth and last _part of speech_. Interjections are mere exclamations, and are without grammatical relation to any other word in the sentence.

+DEFINITION.--An _Interjection_ is a word used to express strong or sudden feeling+.

Examples:--

Bravo! hurrah! pish! hush! ha, ha! alas! hail! lo! pshaw!

Analyze and parse the following sentences.

+Model+.--_Hurrah! that cool and fearless fireman has rushed into the house and up the burning stairs_.

Hurrah
------

fireman | has rushed
===================|=======================
\That\ and \ | \ and \
\.....\ \........\
\ \ \ \up
\cool \fearless \into \stairs
\ ----------
\house \the \burning
------
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--The line representing the interjection is not connected with the diagram. Notice the dotted lines, one standing for the _and_ which connects the two _word_ modifiers; the other, for the _and_ connecting the two _phrase_ modifiers.

+Written Parsing+.

N. Pro. Adj. Vb. Adv. Prep. Conj. Int. | | | | | | | fireman | | the | has rushed | | into | and | hurrah house | | that | | | up | and | stairs | | cool | | | | | | | fearless | | | | | | | burning | | | | |

+Oral Parsing+ of the _conjunction_ and the _interjection_.

The two _ands_ are conjunctions, because they _connect_. The first connects two word modifiers; the second, two phrase modifiers. _Hurrah_ is an _interjection_, because it expresses a burst of sudden feeling.

1. The small but courageous band was finally overpowered. 2. Lightning and electricity were identified by Franklin. 3. A complete success or an entire failure was anticipated. 4. Good men and bad men are found in all communities. 5. Vapors rise from the ocean and fall upon the land. 6. The Revolutionary war began at Lexington and ended at Yorktown. 7. Alas! all hope has fled. 8. Ah! I am surprised at the news. 9. Oh! we shall certainly drown. 10. Pshaw! you are dreaming. 11. Hurrah! the field is won.

LESSON 37.

PUNCTUATION AND CAPITAL LETTERS.

+COMMA--RULE.--Phrases that are placed out of their natural order [Footnote: A phrase in its natural order follows the word it modifies.] and made emphatic, or that are loosely connected with the rest of the sentence, should be set off by the comma+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.--The cable, _after many failures_, was successfully laid. Upon the platform 'twixt eleven and twelve I'll visit you. To me this place is endeared by many associations. Your answers with few exceptions have been correctly given. In English much depends on the placing of phrases.

+COMMA--RULE.--Words or phrases connected by conjunctions are separated from each other by the comma unless all the conjunctions are expressed+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING SENTENCES.

+Model+.--Caesar _came, saw, and conquered_.
Caesar _came and saw and conquered_.

He travelled in _England, in Scotland, and in Ireland_.

(The comma is used in the first sentence, because a conjunction is omitted; but not in the second, as all the conjunctions are expressed.)

A brave prudent and honorable man was chosen.

Augustus Tiberius Nero and Vespasian were Roman emperors.

Through rainy weather across a wild country over muddy roads after a long ride we came to the end of our journey.

+PERIOD and CAPITAL LETTER--RULE.--_Abbreviations_ generally begin with capital letters and are always followed by the period+.

CORRECT THE FOLLOWING ERRORS. +Model.--+_Mr., Esq., N. Y., P. M_.

gen, a m, mrs, no, u s a, n e, eng, p o, rev, prof, dr, gram, capt, coi, co, va, conn.

+EXCLAMATION POINT--RULE.--All _exclamatory expressions_ must be followed by the exclamation point+.

PUNCTUATE THE FOLLOWING EXPRESSIONS.

+Model.--+_Ah! Oh! Zounds! Stop pinching!_

Pshaw, whew, alas, ho Tom, halloo Sir, good-bye, welcome.

LESSON 38.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

+To the Teacher.--+Call attention to the agreement of verbs with compound subjects. Require the pupils to justify the verb-forms in Lesson 36 and elsewhere. See Notes, pp. 165-167.

Write _predicates_ for the following _compound subjects_.

Snow and hail; leaves and branches; a soldier or a sailor; London and Paris.

Write _compound predicates_ for the following _subjects_.

The sun; water; fish; steamboats; soap; farmers; fences; clothes.

Write _subjects_ for the following _compound predicates_.

Live, feel, and grow; judges and rewards; owes and pays; inhale and exhale; expand and contract; flutters and alights; fly, buzz, and sting; restrain or punish.

Write _compound subjects_ before the following _predicates_.

May be seen; roar; will be appointed; have flown; has been recommended.

_Write compound predicates_ after the following _compound subjects_.

Boys, frogs, and horses; wood, coal, and peat; Maine and New Hampshire; Concord, Lexington, and Bunker Hill; pins, tacks, and needles.

Write _compound subjects_ before the following _compound predicates_.

Throb and ache; were tried, condemned, and hanged; eat, sleep, and dress.

Choose your own material and write five sentences, each having a _compound subject_ and a _compound predicate_.

LESSON 39.

COMPLEMENTS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--When we say, _The sun gives_, we express no complete thought. The subject _sun_ is complete, but the predicate _gives_ does not make a complete assertion. When we say, _The sun gives light_, we do utter a complete thought. The predicate _gives_ is completed by the word _light_. Whatever fills out, or _completes_, we call a +Complement+. We will therefore call _light_ the complement of the predicate. As _light_ completes the predicate by naming the thing acted upon, we call it the +Object Complement+.

Expressions like the following may be written on the board, and by a series of questions the pupils may be made to dwell upon these facts till they are thoroughly understood.

The officer arrested -----; the boy found -----; Charles saw -----; coopers make -----.

Besides these verbs requiring object complements, there are others that do not make complete sense without the aid of a complement of _another_ kind.

A complete predicate does the asserting and expresses what is asserted. In the sentence, _Armies march_, _march_ is a complete predicate, for it does the asserting and expresses what is asserted; viz., _marching_. In the phrase, _armies marching_, _marching_ expresses the same act as that denoted by _march_, but it _asserts_ nothing. In the sentence, _Chalk is white_, _is_ does the asserting, but it does not express what is asserted. We do not wish to assert merely that chalk _is_ or _exists_. What we wish to assert of chalk, is the quality expressed by the adjective _white_. As _white_ expresses a quality or attribute, we may call it an +Attribute Complement+.

Using expressions like the following, let the facts given above be drawn from the class by means of questions.

Grass growing; grass grows; green grass; grass is green.

+DEFINITION.--The _Object Complement of a sentence_ completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act+.

+DEFINITION.--The _Attribute Complement_ of a sentence completes the predicate and belongs to the subject+.

The complement with all its modifiers is called the +_Modified Complement_+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.--_Fulton invented the first steamboat_.

Fulton | invented | steamboat
========|======================
| \ \
\the \first

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--You will see that the line standing for the _object complement_ is a continuation of the predicate line, and that the little vertical line only touches this without cutting it.

+Oral Analysis.--+_Fulton_ and _invented_, as before. _Steamboat_ is the _object complement_, because it completes the predicate, and names that which receives the act. _The_ and _first_, as before. _The first steamboat_ is the _modified complement_.

1. Caesar crossed the Rubicon. 2. Morse invented the telegraph. 3. Ericsson built the Monitor. 4. Hume wrote a history. 5. Morn purples the east, 6. Antony beheaded Cicero.

+Model+.--_Gold is malleable_.

Gold | is \ malleable =====|=============== |

In this diagram, the line standing for the _attribute complement_, like the _object line_, is a continuation of the predicate line; but notice the difference in the little mark separating the _incomplete_[Footnote: Hereafter we shall call the _verb_ the _predicate_, but, when followed by a complement, it must be regarded as an _incomplete_ predicate.] predicate from the complement.

+Oral Analysis+.---_Gold_ and _is_, as before.

_Malleable_ is the _attribute complement_, because it completes the predicate, and expresses a quality belonging to gold.

7. Pure water is tasteless. 8. The hare is timid. 9. Fawns are graceful. 10. This peach is delicious. 11. He was extremely prodigal. 12. The valley of the Mississippi is very fertile.

+To the Teacher+--See Notes, pp. 183,184.

* * * * *

LESSON 40.

ERRORS IN THE USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.--Place _adverbs_ where there can be no doubt as to the words they modify.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I only bring forward a few things.

Hath the Lord only [Footnote: Adverbs sometimes modify phrases.]spoken by Moses?

We merely speak of numbers.

The Chinese chiefly live upon rice.

+Caution+.--In placing the adverb, regard must be had to the _sound_ of the sentence.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

We always should do our duty. The times have changed surely. The work will be never finished. He must have certainly been sick.

+Caution+.--_Adverbs_ must not be used _for adjectives_.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I feel badly. Marble feels coldly. She looks nicely. It was sold cheaply. It appears still more plainly. That sounds harshly. I arrived at home safely.

+Caution+.--_Adjectives_ must not be used _for adverbs_.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

The bells ring merry. The curtain hangs graceful. That is a decided weak point. Speak no coarser than usual. These are the words nearest connected. Talk slow and distinct. She is a remarkable pretty girl.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in distinguishing adjectives from adverbs, see Notes, p. 181.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

What is a conjunction? What is an interjection? Give two rules for the use of the comma (Lesson 37). What is the rule for writing abbreviations? What is the rule for the exclamation point? What is an object complement? What is an attribute complement? Illustrate both. What are the cautions for the position of the adverb? What are the cautions for the use of the adverb and the adjective?

+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement-Selection from Habberton.

* * * * *

LESSON 41.

ERRORS IN THE POSITION AND USE OF MODIFIERS.

+Caution+.--Phrase modifiers should be placed as near as may be to the words they modify.

+To the Teacher+.--For composition exercises with particular reference to arrangement, see Notes, pp. 172-176.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

A fellow was arrested with short hair.
I saw a man digging a well with a Roman nose.
He died and went to his rest in New York.
Wanted--A room by two gentlemen thirty feet long and twenty feet wide.
Some garments were made for the family of thick material.
The vessel was beautifully painted with a tall mast.
I perceived that it had been scoured with half an eye.
A house was built by a mason of brown stone.
A pearl was found by a sailor in a shell.

Punctuate these sentences when corrected.

+Caution+.--Care must be taken to select the right preposition.

+To the Teacher+.--For the preposition to be used, consult the Unabridged Dictionaries.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

They halted with the river on their backs.
The cat jumped on the chair.
He fell onto the floor.
He went in the house.
He divides his property between his four sons.
He died for thirst.
This is different to that.
Two thieves divided the booty among themselves.
I am angry at him.

+Caution+.--Do not use two negative, or denying, words so that one shall contradict the other, unless you wish to affirm.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED.

I haven't no umbrella.

Correct by dropping either the adjective _no_ or the adverb _not_; as, I have _no_ umbrella, or I have _not_ an umbrella.

I didn't say nothing.
I can't do this in no way.
No other emperor was so wise nor powerful.
Nothing can never be annihilated.

LESSON 42.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

1. Brutus stabbed Caesar. 2. Man is an animal. 3. Washington captured Cornwallis. 4. Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. 5. Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean. 6. Vulcan was a blacksmith. 7. The summer has been very rainy. 8. Columbus made four voyages to the New World. 9. The moon reflects the light of the sun. 10. The first vice-president of the United States was John Adams. 11. Roger Williams was the founder of Rhode Island. 12. Harvey discovered the circulation of blood. 13. Diamonds are combustible. 14. Napoleon died a prisoner, at St.. Helena. 15. In 1619 the first ship-load of slaves was landed at Jamestown.

The pupil will notice that _animal_, in sentence No. 2, is an _attribute complement_, though it is not an adjective expressing a quality belonging to man, but a noun denoting his class. +_Nouns_+ then may be +_attribute compliments_+.

The pupil will notice also that some of the _object_ and _attribute complements_ above have phrase modifiers.

LESSON 43.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Using the following predicates, build sentences having subjects, predicates, and object complements with or without modifiers.

---- climb ----; ---- hunt ----; ---- command ----; ---- attacked ----; ---- pursued ----; ---- shall receive ----; ---- have seen ----; ---- love ----.

Change the following expressions into sentences by _asserting_ the qualities here _assumed_. Use these verbs for predicates:

Is, were, appears, may be, became, was, have been, should have been, is becoming, are.

+Model+.--_Heavy_ gold. Gold _is heavy_.

Green fields; sweet oranges; interesting story; brilliant sunrise; severe punishment; playful kittens; warm weather; pitiful sight; sour grapes; amusing anecdote.

Prefix to the following nouns several adjectives expressing qualities, and then make complete sentences by _asserting_ the same qualities.

white | Chalk _is white_.
+Model+.--brittle + chalk. Chalk _is brittle_.
soft | Chalk _is soft_.

Gold, pears, pens, lead, water, moon, vase, rock, lakes, summer, ocean, valley.

Find your own material, and build two sentences having object complements, and two having attribute complements.

LESSON 44.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Models+.--

expands
/===========
Learning | / ' \ | mind
=========|=and' \=======
| \ ' elevates / \the
\============

ran
=========
/ ' \forward
He | / '
=======|=== and'
| \ '
\ ' kissed | him
\================

In the second diagram, one of the predicate lines is followed by a complement line; but the two predicate lines are not united, for the two verbs have not a common object.

1. Learning expands and elevates the mind. 2. He ran forward and kissed him. 3. The earth and the moon are planets. 4. The Swiss scenery is picturesque. 5. Jefferson was chosen the third president of the United States. 6. Nathan Hale died a martyr to liberty. 7. The man stood speechless. 8. Labor disgraces no man. 9. Aristotle and Plato were the most distinguished philosophers of antiquity. 10. Josephus wrote a history of the Jews. 11. This man seems the leader of the whole party. 12. The attribute complement completes the predicate and belongs to the subject. 13. Lord Cornwallis became governor of Bengal after his disastrous defeat. 14. The multitude ran before him and strewed branches in the way. 15. Peter Minuits traded with the Indians, and bought the whole island of Manhattan for twenty-four dollars.

LESSON 45.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

+Model+.--

wise
/==========
/ ' \in
/ X' \ council
/ ' \---------
Henry IV. | was \ / ' simple
===========|============== '==========
\of | \very \ and' \in
\ House \ ' \ manners
\-------- \ ' \---------
\the \of \ ' chivalric
\ Burbon \============
\------- \in
\ field
\-------
\the

The line standing for the word-modifier is joined to that part of the complement line which represents the _entire_ attribute complement.

1. Henry IV., of the House of Bourbon, was very wise in council, simple in manners, and chivalric in the field. 2. Caesar defeated Pompey at Pharsalia. 3. The diamond is the most valuable gem. 4. The Greeks took Troy by stratagem. 5. The submarine cable unites the continent of America and the Old World. 6. The Gauls joined the army of Hannibal. 7. Columbus crossed the Atlantic with ninety men, and landed at San Salvador. 8. Vulcan made arms for Achilles. 9. Cromwell gained at Naseby a most decisive victory over the Royalists. 10. Columbus was a native of Genoa. 11. God tempers the wind to the shorn lamb. 12. The morning hour has gold in its mouth. 13. The mill of the gods grinds late, but grinds to powder. 14. A young farmer recently bought a yoke of oxen, six cows, and a horse. 15. America has furnished to the world tobacco, the potato, and Indian corn.

LESSON 46.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS.

Cotton | is raised
===========|===============
| \ Egypt
\ /'-------
\in / '
\ / X'
\ / ' India
\--/ '--------
\ '
\and'
\ '
\ ' United States
\---------------
\the

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram the line representing the principal part of the phrase separates into three lines. This shows that the principal part of the phrase is compound. _Egypt_, _India_, and _United States_ are all introduced by the same preposition _in_, and have the same relation to _is raised_.

1. Cotton is raised in Egypt, India, and the United States. 2. The navy of Hiram brought gold from Ophir. 3. The career of Cromwell was short. 4. Most mountain ranges run parallel with the coast. 5. Now swiftly glides the bonny boat. 6. An able but dishonest judge presided. 7. The queen bee lays eggs in cells of three different sizes. 8. Umbrellas were introduced into England from China. 9. The first permanent English settlement in America was made at Jamestown, in 1607. 10. The spirit of true religion is social, kind, and cheerful. 11. The summits of the Alps are covered with perpetual snow. 12. The months of July and August were named after Julius Caesar and Augustus Caesar. 13. All the kings of Egypt are called, in Scripture, Pharaoh. 14. The bamboo furnishes to the natives of China, shade, food, houses, weapons, and clothing.

LESSON 47.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Supply _attribute complements_ to the following expressions. (See Caution, Lesson 40.)

The marble feels ----. Mary looks ----. The weather continues ----. The apple tastes ----. That lady appears ----. The sky grows ----. The leaves of roses are ----. The undertaking was pronounced ----.

Write a subject and a predicate to each of the following nouns taken as _attribute complements_.

+Model+.--_Soldier_.--That old man has been a _soldier_.

Plant, insect, mineral, vegetable, liquid, gas, solid, historian, poet, artist, traveler, emperor.

Using the following nouns as subjects, build sentences each having a simple predicate and two or more _object complements_.

Congress, storm, education, king, tiger, hunter, Arnold, shoemakers, lawyers, merchant.

Build three sentences on each of the following subjects, two of which shall contain _object complements_, and the third, an _attribute complement_.

+Model+.--_Sun_.--
The _sun_ gives _light_.
The _sun_ warms the _earth_.
The _sun_ is a luminous _body_.

Moon, oak, fire, whiskey.

LESSON 48.

SUBJECT OR COMPLEMENT MODIFIED BY A PARTICIPLE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--You have learned, in the preceding Lessons, that a _quality_ may be _assumed_ as belonging to a thing; as, _white chalk_, or that it may be _asserted_ of it; as, _Chalk is white_. An _action_, also, may be _assumed_ as belonging to something; as, _Peter turning_, or it may be _asserted;_ as, Peter _turned_. In the expression, _Peter, turning, said_, what word expresses an action as _assumed_, and which _asserts_ an action? Each pupil may give an example of an action asserted and of an action assumed; as, Corn _grows_, corn _growing_; geese _gabble_; geese _gabbling_.

This form of the verb, which merely _assumes_ the act, being, or state, is called the +Participle+.

When the words _growing_ and _gabbling_ are placed before the nouns, thus: _growing corn, gabbling geese_, they tell simply the kind of corn and the kind of geese, and are therefore _adjectives_.

When _the_ or some other adjective is placed before these words, and a preposition after them, thus: _The growing of the corn, the gabbling of the geese_, they are simply the _names_ of actions, and are therefore _nouns_.

Let each pupil give an example of a verb asserting an action, and change it to express:--

1st, An _assumed_ action; 2d, A permanent _quality;_ 3d, The _name_ of an action.

_Participles_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.--_Truth, crushed to earth, will rise again_.

Truth | will rise
==========|=============
\cru | \again
\ shed
--------
\to
\ earth
\-------

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--In this diagram, the line standing for the principal word of the participial phrase is broken; one part slants, and the other is horizontal. This shows that the participle _crushed_ is used like an adjective to modify _Truth_, and yet retains the nature of a verb, expressing an action received by truth.

+Oral Analysis+.--This is a sentence, because ----; _Truth_ is the subject, because ----; _will rise_ is the predicate, because ----; the phrase, _crushed to earth_, is a modifier of the Subj., because ----; _crushed_ introduces the phrase and is the principal word in it; the phrase _to earth_ is a modifier of _crushed_; _to_ introduces it, and _earth_ is the principal word in it; _again_ is a modifier of the Pred., because ----. _Truth crushed to earth_ is the modified subject, _will rise again_ is the modified predicate.

+Parsing+--_Crushed_ is the form of the verb called _participle_. The action expressed by it is merely _assumed_.

1. The mirth of Addison is genial, imparting a mild glow of thought. 2. The general, riding to the front, led the attack. 3. The balloon, shooting swiftly into the clouds, was soon lost to sight. 4. Wealth acquired dishonestly will prove a curse. 5. The sun, rising, dispelled the mists. 6. The thief, being detected, surrendered to the officer. 7. They boarded the vessel lying in the harbor. 8. The territory claimed by the Dutch was called New Netherlands. 9. Washington, having crossed the Delaware, attacked the Hessians stationed at Trenton. 10. Burgoyne, having been surrounded at Saratoga, surrendered to Gen. Gates. 11. Pocahontas was married to a young Englishman named John Rolfe. 12. A shrug of the shoulders, translated into words, loses much force. 13. The armies of England, mustered for the battles of Europe, do not awaken sincere admiration.

(Note that the participle, like the predicate verb, may consist of two or more words.)

(Note, too, that the participle, like the adjective, may belong to a _noun complement_.)

LESSON 49.

THE INFINITIVE PHRASE.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--There is another form of the verb which, like the participle, cannot be the predicate of a sentence, for it cannot _assert_; as, She went out _to see_ a friend; _To lie_ is a disgrace. As this form of the verb expresses the action, being, or state in a general manner, without limiting it directly to a subject, it is called an +Infinitive+, which means _without limit_. The infinitive generally follows _to_; as, _to walk, to sleep_.

Let each pupil give an infinitive.

The infinitive and the preposition _to_ constitute a phrase, which may be employed in several ways.

+T+.--_I have a duty to perform_. The infinitive phrase modifies what?

+P+.--The noun _duty_. +T+.--It then performs the office of what? +P+.--Of an adjective modifier.

+T+.--_I come to hear_. The infinitive phrase modifies what? +P+.--The verb _come_. +T+.--What office then does it perform? +P+.--Of an adverb modifier.

+T+.--_To lie is base_. _What_ is base? +P+.--To lie. +T+.--_He attempted to speak_. _What_ did he attempt? +P+.--To speak. +T+.--_To lie_ is a subject, and _to speak_ is an _object_. What part of speech is used as subject and object? +P+.--The noun.

+T+.--The +Infinitive+ phrase is used as an +adjective+, an +adverb+, and a +noun+.

_Infinitives_ may be completed by _objects_ and _attributes_.

+Analysis and Parsing+.

+Model+.--_David hasted to meet Goliath_.

David | hasted
==========|===========
| \to
\ meet | Goliath
\----------------

+Analysis of the Infinitive Phrase+.--_To_ introduces the phrase; _meet_, completed by the object _Goliath_, is the principal part.

+Parsing of the Phrase+.--_To_ is a preposition, because ----; _meet_ is a verb, because ----; _Goliath_ is a noun, because ----.

1. I come not here to talk. 2. I rejoice to hear it. 3. A desire to excel leads to eminence. 4. Dr. Franklin was sent to France to solicit aid for the colonies. 5. To retreat was impossible.

(_To_ is here used merely to introduce the infinitive phrase.)

\to
\ retreat
\---------
|
|
/ \ | was \ impossible
==========|======================
|

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--As this _phrase subject_ cannot, in its proper form, be written on the subject line, it is placed above, and, by means of a support, the phrase diagram is made to rest on the subject line. The _phrase complement_ may be diagramed in a similar way, and made to rest on the complement line.

6. The hands refuse to labor. 7. To live is not all of life. 8. The Puritans desired to obtain religious freedom. 9. The Romans, having conquered the world, were unable to conquer themselves. 10. Narvaez sailed from Cuba to conquer Florida. 11. Some savages of America and Africa love to wear rings in the nose. 12. Andrew Jackson, elected to succeed J. Q. Adams, was inaugurated in 1829.

LESSON 50.

POSITION AND PUNCTUATION OF THE PARTICIPIAL PHRASE.

ERRORS TO BE CORRECTED. (See Caution 1, Lesson 41.)

Punctuate as you correct. (See Lesson 37.)

A house was built for a clergyman having seven gables.
The old man struck the saucy boy raising a gold-headed cane.
We saw a marble bust of Sir W. Scott entering the vestibule.
Here is news from a neighbor boiled down.
I found a cent walking over the bridge.
Balboa discovered the Pacific ocean climbing to the top of a mountain.

Punctuate the following exercises.

Cradled in the camp Napoleon was the darling of the army.
Having approved of the plan the king put it into execution.
Satan incensed with indignation stood unterrified.
My friend seeing me in need offered his services.
James being weary with his journey sat down on the wall.
The owl hid in the tree hooted through the night.

REVIEW QUESTIONS.

Give the caution relating to the position of the phrase modifier; that relating to the choice of prepositions; that relating to the double negative (Lesson 41). Give examples of errors. Can a noun be an attribute complement? Illustrate. What do you understand by a participle? Into what may some participles be changed? Illustrate. What offices does the infinitive phrase perform? Illustrate them.

+To the Teacher+.--See COMPOSITION EXERCISES in the Supplement--Selection from George Eliot.

LESSON 51.

REVIEW.

MISCELLANEOUS ERRORS FOR CORRECTION. (See Cautions in Lessons 30, 40, and 41.)

There never was such another man.
He was an old venerable patriarch.

John has a cadaverous, hungry, and lean look.
He was a well-proportioned, fine fellow.

Pass me them potatoes.

Put your trust not in money.
We have often occasion for thanksgiving,

Now this is to be done how?
Nothing can justify ever profanity.

To continually study is impossible.

(An adverb is seldom placed between the preposition _to_ and the infinitive.)

Mary likes to tastefully dress.
Learn to carefully choose your words.

She looks queerly.
Give me a soon and direct answer.

The post stood firmly.
The eagle flies highly.
The orange tastes sweetly.

I feel tolerable well.
The branch breaks easy.
Thistles grow rapid.
The eagle flies swift.
This is a miserable poor pen.

A wealthy gentleman will adopt a little boy with a small family.
A gentleman called from Africa to pay his compliments.

Water consists in oxygen and hydrogen.
He went out attended with a servant.
I have a dislike to such tricksters.
We have no prejudice to foreigners.
She don't know nothing about it.
Father wouldn't give me none.
He hasn't been sick neither.
I won't have no more nohow.

+To the Teacher+.--Let the reason be given for every correction.

LESSON 52.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Build sentences in which the following participles shall be used as modifiers.

Being fatigued; laughing; being amused; having been elected; running; having been running.

Expand each of the following sentences into three sentences, using the _participial form_ of the verb as a _participle_, in the first; the same form as an _adjective_, in the second; and as a _noun_, in the third.

+Model+.--The stream _flows_. The stream, _flowing_ gently, crept through the meadow. The _flowing_ stream slipped away to the sea. The _flowing_ of the stream caused a low murmur. The stream flows. The sun rises. Insects hum. The birds sing. The wind whistles. The bells are ringing. The tide ebbs.

Form _infinitive phrases_ from the following verbs, and use these phrases as _adjectives, adverbs_, and _nouns_, in sentences of your own building.

Smoke, dance, burn, eat, lie, try.

+To the Teacher+.--For exercises to distinguish the participle from the predicate verb, see Notes, pp. 181, 182.

LESSON 53.

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS AS MODIFIERS.

+Hints for Oral Instruction+.--In the sentence, _The robin's eggs are blue_, the noun _robin's_ does what? +P+.--It tells what or whose eggs are blue. +T+.--What word names the things owned or possessed? +P+.--_Eggs_. +T+.--What word names the owner or possessor? +P+.--_Robin's_.

+T+.--The noun _robin's_ is here used as a _modifier_. You see that this word, which I have written on the board, is the word _robin_ with a little mark (') called an apostrophe, and the letter _s_ added. These are added to denote possession.

In the sentence, _Webster, the statesman, was born in New Hampshire_, the noun _statesman_ modifies the subject _Webster_ by explaining what or which Webster is meant. Both words name the same person.

Let the pupils give examples of each of these two kinds of +Noun Modifiers+--the +Possessive+ and the +Explanatory+.

Analysis and Parsing.

+Model+.--_Julia's sister Mary has lost her diamond ring_.

sister (Mary) | has lost | ring
===============|============'=============
\Julia's | \her \diamond

+Explanation of the Diagram+.--_Mary_ is written on the subject line, because _Mary_ and _sister_ both name the same person, but the word _Mary_ is inclosed within marks of parenthesis to show that _sister_ is the proper grammatical subject.

In _oral analysis_, call _Julia's_ and _Mary_ modifiers of the subject, _sister_, because _Julia's_ tells whose sister, and _Mary_ explains sister by adding another name of the same person. _Her_ is a modifier of the object, because it tells whose ring is meant.

_Julia's sister Mary_ is the _modified subject_, the predicate is unmodified, and _her diamond ring_ is the _modified object complement_.

1. The planet Jupiter has four moons. 2. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 3. Peter's wife's mother lay sick of a fever.

mother
========
\wife's
\Peter's

4. An ostrich outruns an Arab's horse. 5. His pretty little nephew Arthur had the best claim to the throne. 6. Milton, the great English poet, became blind. 7. Caesar gave his daughter Julia in marriage to Pompey. 8. London, the capital of England, is the largest and richest city in the world. 9. Joseph, Jacob's favorite son, was sold by his brethren to the Ishmaelites. 10. Alexander the Great [Footnote: _Alexander the Great_ may be taken as one name, or _Great_ may be called an explanatory modifier of _Alexander_.] was educated under the celebrated philosopher Aristotle. 11. Friends tie their purses with a spider's thread. 12. Caesar married Cornelia, the daughter of Cinna. 13. His fate, alas! was deplorable. 14. Love rules his kingdom without a sword.

LESSON 54.

SENTENCE-BUILDING.

Nouns and pronouns denoting possession may generally be changed to equivalent phrases; as, _Arnold's treason_ = _the treason of Arnold_. Here the preposition _of_ indicates _possession_, the same relation expressed by the apostrophe (') and _s_. Change the following possessive nouns to equivalent phrases, and the phrases indicating possession to possessive nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.--The _earth's_ surface. The surface _of the earth_ is made up of land and water.

The earth's surface: Solomon's temple; England's Queen; Washington's Farewell Address; Dr. Kane's Explorations; Peter's wife's mother; George's friend's father; Shakespeare's plays; Noah's dove; the diameter of the earth; the daughter of Jephthah; the invasion of Burgoyne; the voyage of Cabot; the Armada of Philip; the attraction of the earth; the light of the moon.

Find for the things mentioned below, _other_ names which shall describe or explain them. Add such names to these nouns, and then expand the expressions into complete sentences.

+Model+.--_Ink_.--_Ink, a dark fluid_, is used in writing.

Observe the following rule.

+COMMA-RULE.--An _Explanatory Modifier_, when it does not restrict the modified term or combine closely with it, is set off by the comma+.

+To the Teacher+.--See Notes, pp. 176, 177.

New York, rain, paper, the monkey, the robin, tea, Abraham Lincoln, Alexander Hamilton, world, peninsula, Cuba, Shakespeare.

Write three sentences, each of which shall contain a noun or pronoun denoting possession, and a noun or pronoun used to explain.

+To the Teacher+.--For additional exercises in the use of possessive modifiers, see Notes, pp. 182, 183.

LESSON 55.

ANALYSIS AND PARSING.

MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES IN REVIEW.