Chapter XII: Postscript

In the course of the enquiry which has just been brought to a provisional end we came across a number of side-paths which we avoided pursuing in the first instance but in which there was much that offered us promises of insight. We propose now to take up a few of the points that have been left on one side in this way.

A. The distinction between identification of the ego with an object and replacement of the ego ideal by an object finds an interesting illustration in the two great artificial groups which we began by studying, the army and the Christian church.

It is obvious that a soldier takes his superior, that is, really, the leader of the army, as his ideal, while he identifies himself with his equals, and derives from this community of their egos the obligations for giving mutual help and for sharing possessions which comradeship implies. But he becomes ridiculous if he tries to identify himself with the general. The soldier in _Wallensteins Lager_ laughs at the sergeant for this very reason:

Wie er räuspert und wie er spuckt,
Das habt ihr ihm glücklich abgeguckt![66]

It is otherwise in the Catholic Church. Every Christian loves Christ as his ideal and feels himself united with all other Christians by the tie of identification. But the Church requires more of him. He has also to identify himself with Christ and love all other Christians as Christ loved them. At both points, therefore, the Church requires that the position of the libido which is given by a group formation should be supplemented. Identification has to be added where object-choice has taken place, and object love where there is identification. This addition evidently goes beyond the constitution of the group. One can be a good Christian and yet be far from the idea of putting oneself in Christ's place and of having like him an all-embracing love for mankind. One need not think oneself capable, weak mortal that one is, of the Saviour's largeness of soul and strength of love. But this further development in the distribution of libido in the group is probably the factor upon which Christianity bases its claim to have reached a higher ethical level.

B. We have said that it would be possible to specify the point in the mental development of man at which the advance from group to individual psychology was also achieved by the individual members of the group.[67]

For this purpose we must return for a moment to the scientific myth of the father of the primal horde. He was later on exalted into the creator of the world, and with justice, for he had produced all the sons who composed the first group. He was the ideal of each one of them, at once feared and honoured, a fact which led later to the idea of taboo. These many individuals eventually banded themselves together, killed him and cut him in pieces. None of the group of victors could take his place, or, if one of them did, the battles began afresh, until they understood that they must all renounce their father's heritage. They then formed the totemistic community of brothers, all with equal rights and united by the totem prohibitions which were to preserve and to expiate the memory of the murder. But the dissatisfaction with what had been achieved still remained, and it became the source of new developments. The persons who were united in this group of brothers gradually came towards a revival of the old state of things at a new level. Man became once more the chief of a family, and broke down the prerogatives of the gynaecocracy which had become established during the fatherless period. As a compensation for this he may at that time have acknowledged the mother deities, whose priests were castrated for the mother's protection, after the example that had been given by the father of the primal horde. And yet the new family was only a shadow of the old one; there were numbers of fathers and each one was limited by the rights of the others.

It was then, perhaps, that some individual, in the exigency of his longing, may have been moved to free himself from the group and take over the father's part. He who did this was the first epic poet; and the advance was achieved in his imagination. This poet disguised the truth with lies in accordance with his longing. He invented the heroic myth. The hero was a man who by himself had slain the father--the father who still appeared in the myth as a totemistic monster. Just as the father had been the boy's first ideal, so in the hero who aspires to the father's place the poet now created the first ego ideal. The transition to the hero was probably afforded by the youngest son, the mother's favourite, whom she had protected from paternal jealousy, and who, in the era of the primal horde, had been the father's successor. In the lying poetic fancies of prehistoric times the woman, who had been the prize of battle and the allurement to murder, was probably turned into the seducer and instigator to the crime.

The hero claims to have acted alone in accomplishing the deed, which certainly only the horde as a whole would have ventured upon. But, as Rank has observed, fairy tales have preserved clear traces of the facts which were disavowed. For we often find in them that the hero who has to carry out some difficult task (usually a youngest son, and not infrequently one who has represented himself to the father surrogate as being stupid, that is to say, harmless)--we often find, then, that this hero can carry out his task only by the help of a crowd of small animals, such as bees or ants. These would be the brothers in the primal horde, just as in the same way in dream symbolism insects or vermin signify brothers and sisters (contemptuously, considered as babies). Moreover every one of the tasks in myths and fairy tales is easily recognisable as a substitute for the heroic deed.

The myth, then, is the step by which the individual emerges from group psychology. The first myth was certainly the psychological, the hero myth; the explanatory nature myth must have followed much later. The poet who had taken this step and had in this way set himself free from the group in his imagination, is nevertheless able (as Rank has further observed) to find his way back to it in reality. For he goes and relates to the group his hero's deeds which he has invented. At bottom this hero is no one but himself. Thus he lowers himself to the level of reality, and raises his hearers to the level of imagination. But his hearers understand the poet, and, in virtue of their having the same relation of longing towards the primal father, they can identify themselves with the hero.[68]

The lie of the heroic myth culminates in the deification of the hero. Perhaps the deified hero may have been earlier than the Father God and may have been a precursor to the return of the primal father as a deity. The series of gods, then, would run chronologically: Mother Goddess--Hero--Father God. But it is only with the elevation of the never forgotten primal father that the deity acquires the features that we still recognise in him to-day.[69]

C. A great deal has been said in this paper about directly sexual instincts and those that are inhibited in their aims, and it may be hoped that this distinction will not meet with too much resistance. But a detailed discussion of the question will not be out of place, even if it only repeats what has to a great extent already been said before.

The development of the libido in children has made us acquainted with the first but also the best example of sexual instincts which are inhibited in their aims. All the feelings which a child has towards its parents and those who look after it pass by an easy transition into the wishes which give expression to the child's sexual tendencies. The child claims from these objects of its love all the signs of affection which it knows of; it wants to kiss them, touch them, and look at them; it is curious to see their genitals, and to be with them when they perform their intimate excremental functions; it promises to marry its mother or nurse--whatever it may understand by that; it proposes to itself to bear its father a child, etc. Direct observation, as well as the subsequent analytic investigation of the residue of childhood, leave no doubt as to the complete fusion of tender and jealous feelings and of sexual intentions, and show us in what a fundamental way the child makes the person it loves into the object of all its incompletely centred sexual tendencies.[70]

This first configuration of the child's love, which in typical cases is co-ordinated with the Oedipus complex, succumbs, as we know, from the beginning of the period of latency onwards to a wave of repression. Such of it as is left over shows itself as a purely tender emotional tie, which relates to the same people, but is no longer to be described as 'sexual'. Psycho-analysis, which illuminates the depths of mental life, has no difficulty in showing that the sexual ties of the earliest years of childhood also persist, though repressed and unconscious. It gives us courage to assert that wherever we come across a tender feeling it is the successor to a completely 'sensual' object tie with the person in question or rather with that person's prototype (or _imago_). It cannot indeed disclose to us without a special investigation whether in a given case this former complete sexual current still exists under repression or whether it has already been exhausted. To put it still more precisely: it is quite certain that it is still there as a form and possibility, and can always be charged with cathectic energy and put into activity again by means of regression; the only question is (and it cannot always be answered) what degree of cathexis and operative force it still has at the present moment. Equal care must be taken in this connection to avoid two sources of error--the Scylla of under-estimating the importance of the repressed unconscious, and the Charybdis of judging the normal entirely by the standards of the pathological.

A psychology which will not or cannot penetrate the depths of what is repressed regards tender emotional ties as being invariably the expression of tendencies which have no sexual aim, even though they are derived from tendencies which have such an aim.[71]

We are justified in saying that they have been diverted from these sexual aims, even though there is some difficulty in giving a representation of such a diversion of aim which will conform to the requirements of metapsychology. Moreover, those instincts which are inhibited in their aims always preserve some few of their original sexual aims; even an affectionate devotee, even a friend or an admirer, desires the physical proximity and the sight of the person who is now loved only in the 'Pauline' sense. If we choose, we may recognise in this diversion of aim a beginning of the _sublimation_ of the sexual instincts, or on the other hand we may fix the limits of sublimation at some more distant point. Those sexual instincts which are inhibited in their aims have a great functional advantage over those which are uninhibited. Since they are not capable of really complete satisfaction, they are especially adapted to create permanent ties; while those instincts which are directly sexual incur a loss of energy each time they are satisfied, and must wait to be renewed by a fresh accumulation of sexual libido, so that meanwhile the object may have been changed. The inhibited instincts are capable of any degree of admixture with the uninhibited; they can be transformed back into them, just as they arose out of them. It is well known how easily erotic wishes develop out of emotional relations of a friendly character, based upon appreciation and admiration, (compare Molière's 'Embrassez-moi pour l'amour du grec'), between a master and a pupil, between a performer and a delighted listener, and especially in the case of women. In fact the growth of emotional ties of this kind, with their purposeless beginnings, provides a much frequented pathway to sexual object-choice. Pfister, in his _Frömmigkeit des Grafen von Zinzendorf_,[72] has given an extremely clear and certainly not an isolated example of how easily even an intense religious tie can revert to ardent sexual excitement. On the other hand it is also very usual for directly sexual tendencies, short-lived in themselves, to be transformed into a lasting and purely tender tie; and the consolidation of a passionate love marriage rests to a large extent upon this process.

We shall naturally not be surprised to hear that the sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims arise out of the directly sexual ones when inner or outer obstacles make the sexual aims unattainable. The repression during the period of latency is an inner obstacle of this kind--or rather one which has become inner. We have assumed that the father of the primal horde owing to his sexual intolerance compelled all his sons to be abstinent, and thus forced them into ties that were inhibited in their aims, while he reserved for himself freedom of sexual enjoyment and in this way remained without ties. All the ties upon which a group depends are of the character of instincts that are inhibited in their aims. But here we have approached the discussion of a new subject, which deals with the relation between directly sexual instincts and the formation of groups.

D. The last two remarks will have prepared us for finding that directly sexual tendencies are unfavourable to the formation of groups. In the history of the development of the family there have also, it is true, been group relations of sexual love (group marriages); but the more important sexual love became for the ego, and the more it developed the characteristics of being in love, the more urgently it required to be limited to two people--_una cum uno_--as is prescribed by the nature of the genital aim. Polygamous inclinations had to be content to find satisfaction in a succession of changing objects.

Two people coming together for the purpose of sexual satisfaction, in so far as they seek for solitude, are making a demonstration against the herd instinct, the group feeling. The more they are in love, the more completely they suffice for each other. The rejection of the group's influence is manifested in the shape of a sense of shame. The extremely violent feelings of jealousy are summoned up in order to protect the sexual object-choice from being encroached upon by a group tie. It is only when the tender, that is, the personal, factor of a love relation gives place entirely to the sensual one, that it is possible for two people to have sexual intercourse in the presence of others or for there to be simultaneous sexual acts in a group as occurs at an orgy. But at that point a regression has taken place to an early stage in sexual relations, at which being in love as yet played no part, and all sexual objects were judged to be of equal value, somewhat in the sense of Bernard Shaw's malicious aphorism to the effect that being in love means greatly exaggerating the difference between one woman and another.

There are abundant indications that being in love only made its appearance late on in the sexual relations between men and women; so that the opposition between sexual love and group ties is also a late development. Now it may seem as though this assumption were incompatible with our myth of the primal family. For it was after all by their love for their mothers and sisters that the troop of brothers was, as we have supposed, driven to parricide; and it is difficult to imagine this love as being anything but unbroken and primitive--that is, as an intimate union of the tender and the sensual. But further consideration resolves this objection into a confirmation. One of the reactions to the parricide was after all the institution of totemistic exogamy; the prohibition of any sexual relation with those women of the family who had been tenderly loved since childhood. In this way a wedge was driven in between a man's tender and sensual feelings, one still firmly fixed in his erotic life to-day.[73] As a result of this exogamy the sensual needs of men had to be satisfied with strange and unloved women.

In the great artificial groups, the church and the army, there is no room for woman as a sexual object. The love relation between men and women remains outside these organisations. Even where groups are formed which are composed of both men and women the distinction between the sexes plays no part. There is scarcely any sense in asking whether the libido which keeps groups together is of a homosexual or of a heterosexual nature, for it is not differentiated according to the sexes, and particularly shows a complete disregard for the aims of the genital organisation of the libido.

Even in a person who has in other respects become absorbed in a group the directly sexual tendencies preserve a little of his individual activity. If they become too strong they disintegrate every group formation. The Catholic Church had the best of motives for recommending its followers to remain unmarried and for imposing celibacy upon its priests; but falling in love has often driven even priests to leave the church. In the same way love for women breaks through the group ties of race, of national separation, and of the social class system, and it thus produces important effects as a factor in civilization. It seems certain that homosexual love is far more compatible with group ties, even when it takes the shape of uninhibited sexual tendencies--a remarkable fact, the explanation of which might carry us far.

The psycho-analytic investigation of the psycho-neuroses has taught us that their symptoms are to be traced back to directly sexual tendencies which are repressed but still remain active. We can complete this formula by adding to it: or, to tendencies inhibited in their aims, whose inhibition has not been entirely successful or has made room for a return to the repressed sexual aim. It is in accordance with this that a neurosis should make its victim asocial and should remove him from the usual group formations. It may be said that a neurosis has the same disintegrating effect upon a group as being in love. On the other hand it appears that where a powerful impetus has been given to group formation, neuroses may diminish and at all events temporarily disappear. Justifiable attempts have also been made to turn this antagonism between neuroses and group formation to therapeutic account. Even those who do not regret the disappearance of religious illusions from the civilized world of to-day will admit that so long as they were in force they offered those who were bound by them the most powerful protection against the danger of neurosis. Nor is it hard to discern in all the ties with mystico-religious or philosophico-religious sects and communities the manifestation of distorted cures of all kinds of neuroses. All of this is bound up with the contrast between directly sexual tendencies and those which are inhibited in their aims.

If he is left to himself, a neurotic is obliged to replace by his own symptom formations the great group formations from which he is excluded. He creates his own world of imagination for himself, his religion, his own system of delusions, and thus recapitulates the institutions of humanity in a distorted way which is clear evidence of the dominating part played by the directly sexual tendencies.[74]

E. In conclusion, we will add a comparative estimate, from the standpoint of the libido theory, of the states with which we have been concerned, of being in love, of hypnosis, of group formation, and of the neurosis.

_Being in love_ is based upon the simultaneous presence of directly sexual tendencies and of sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims, so that the object draws a part of the narcissistic ego-libido to itself. It is a condition in which there is only room for the ego and the object.

_Hypnosis_ resembles being in love in being limited to these two persons, but it is based entirely upon sexual tendencies that are inhibited in their aims and substitutes the object for the ego ideal.

_The group_ multiplies this process; it agrees with hypnosis in the nature of the instincts which hold it together, and in the replacement of the ego ideal by the object; but to this it adds identification with other individuals, which was perhaps originally made possible by their having the same relation to the object.

Both states, hypnosis and group formation, are an inherited deposit from the phylogenesis of the human libido--hypnosis in the form of a predisposition, and the group, besides this, as a direct survival. The replacement of the directly sexual tendencies by those that are inhibited in their aims promotes in both states a separation between the ego and the ego ideal, a separation with which a beginning has already been made in the state of being in love.

_The neurosis_ stands outside this series. It also is based upon a peculiarity in the development of the human libido--the twice repeated start made by the directly sexual function, with an intervening period of latency.[75] To this extent it resembles hypnosis and group formation in having the character of a regression, which is absent from being in love. It makes its appearance wherever the advance from directly sexual instincts to those that are inhibited in their aims has not been completely successful; and it represents a _conflict_ between those instincts which have been received into the ego after having passed through this development and those portions of the same instincts which, like other instinctive desires that have been completely repressed, strive, from the repressed unconscious, to attain direct satisfaction. The neurosis is extraordinarily rich in content, for it embraces all possible relations between the ego and the object--both those in which the object is retained and others in which it is abandoned or erected inside the ego itself--and also the conflicting relations between the ego and its ego ideal.

INDEX

_Abraham_, 62, 108.

Affectivity. _See under_ Emotion.

Altruism, 57.

Ambivalence, 18, 55, 61.

Anaclitic type, 60.

Archaic inheritance, 10, 99.

Army 42-6, 89, 94, 110, 122.

Autistic mental acts, 2.

_Bernheim_, 35, 100

_Bleuler_, 2.

Brothers, 43, 114.
in Christ, 43.
Community of, 90, 112, 122.

_Brugeilles_, 34.

_Caesar_, 44.

Cathexis, 18, 20, 28, 117.
Object-, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.

Catholic Church, 42-3, 111, 123.

Celibacy of priests, 123.

Censorship of dreams, 16, 69.

Chieftains, Mana in, 96.

Children, 14, 16, 18-19, 30, 67 82, 91.
Dread in, 83, 85-6.
Parents and, 54, 86, 116.
Sexual object of, 72, 116.
Unconscious of, 18.

_Christ_, 42-5, 50, 111.
Equal love of, 50.
Identification with, 111.

Church, 42-3, 89, 94, 110-11, 122-3.

Commander-in-Chief, 42-5.

Conflict, 18, 107, 126.

Conscience, 10, 28, 68-9, 75, 79
Social, 88.

Contagion, Emotional, 10-13, 27, 34-5, 46-7.

Crowd, 1, 3, 26, 92.

Danger, Effect on groups, 46-9.

_Darwin_, 90.

Delusions:
of inferiority, 107.
of observation, 69.

Devotion to abstract idea, 17, 75.

Doubt:
absence in groups, 15-16
interpretation in dreams, 15-16.

Dread:
Children's, 83, 85-6.
in a group, 46-8, 50.
in an individual, 47-8.
Neurotic, 48.
of society, 10.
Panic, 45-9.

Dream, 20, 69, 104.
Interpretation of doubt and uncertainty in, 15-16.
symbolism, 114.

Duty, Sense of, 84, 88, 95.

Ego, 10, 18-19, 62-70, 74, 84, 93, 100-9, 120, 125-7.
Relations between ego ideal and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
Relations between object and, 62-70, 74-6, 108-10.

Ego ideal, 68-70, 74-7, 80, 100-3, 105-10, 113, 126-7.
Abrogation of the, 105.
Hypnotist in the place of, 77.
Object as substitute for, 74-6, 80, 103, 110.
Relations between ego and, 68-70, 103, 105-10.
Testing reality of things, 77.
The first, 113.

Egoism, 57.

Emotion:
Ambivalent, 18, 55.
Charge of, 28.
Contagion of. _See_ Contagion.
Intensification of, in groups, 16, 23, 27-30, 33, 46, 81.
Primitive induction of, 27, 34, 46-7.
Tender, 72-3, 78, 116-17.

Emotional tie, 40, 43, 45, 52-3, 59-60, 64-5, 81, 88, 91, 94, 100, 117-20.
Cessation of, 46-9.

Empathy, relation to identification, 66, 70.

Enthusiasm, in groups, 25.

Envy, 87-8.

Equality, demand for, 88, 89.

Eros, 38-40.

Esprit de corps, origin of, 87.

Ethical:
conduct of a group, 18.
level of Christianity, 111.
standards of individual, 24-5.

Fairy tales, the hero in, 114.

Family, 70, 95, 100, 113, 120.
a group formation, 95.
and Christian community, 43.
and social instinct, 3.
Primal, 122.

Fascination, 11, 13, 21, 75.

Father, 43, 92, 98-9.
Equal love of, 95.
God, 115.
Identification with, 60-2.
Object tie with, 62.
Primal, 92, 94-5, 99-100, 112-13, 115, 120.
Deification of, 93, 115.
Killing the, 94, 112-13, 122.
Surrogate, 43, 114.

_Federn, P._, 50.

_Felszeghy, Bela v._, 48.

_Ferenczi_, 76, 98.

Festivals, 105.

Folk-lore, 25.

Folk-song, 25.

French Revolution, 26.

Function:
for testing reality, 20, 77.
(Instanz), 15.

Gemeingeist, origin of, 87.

Genital organisation, 19.

God, 85, 96.
Father, 115.

Gregariousness, 83-4, 92.

Group:
Artificial, 41-2, 52, 82, 89, 94, 110, 122.
Different kinds of, 26, 41.
Disintegration of, 49-51.
Dread in, 47.
Equality in, 89.
feeling, 86-7, 121.
Heightened affectivity in. _See under_ Emotion.
ideal, 100, 102.
Intellectual capacity of, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.
Intensification of emotion in. _See under_ Emotion.
Leaders of. _See under_ Leader.
Libidinal structure of, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 51, 53-4, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
marriages, 120.
Mental change of the individual in, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
mind, 3, 5-27, 40, 49, 82.
Organisation in, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.
Primitive, 31, 33, 41, 80.
psychological character of, 6-32.
psychology, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92-4, 101, 112, 114.
Revolutionary, 26.
Sexual instincts and, 120.
spirit, 37.
Stable, 26, 41, 84, 101.
Suggestibility of, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.
Transient, 25, 41, 84, 101.

Guilt, Sense of, 20, 63, 65, 84, 106.

Gynaecocracy, 113.

Hatred, 53, 56.

_Hebbel_, 49.

Herd, 83-5, 89.
instinct, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.

Hero, 17, 113-15.

Homosexuality, 57, 66-7, 94, 123.

Horde Primal, 89-95, 99, 113-14, 120.
Father of the. _See under_ Father.

Hypnosis, 10-13, 20-1, 77-9, 81, 95-100, 125-6.
a group of two, 78, 100.
and sleep, 79, 98.
of terror, 79.

Hypnotist, 13, 77, 95-9.

Hysteria, Identification in, 63-5.

Idealisation, 74.
Identification, 59-70, 75-6, 84, 86-9, 94, 101-3, 111, 125.
Ambivalent, 61.
in hysterical symptom, 63-5.
Regression of object-choice to, 64.
with a lost or rejected object, 67-8, 108-9.
with Christ, 111.
with the father, 60-2.
with the hero, 115.
with the leader, 110-11.

Imitation, 34-5, 65, 70.

Individual:
a member of many groups, 101.
Dread in, 47-8.
Mental change in a group, 6-14, 33-4, 45, 56, 81, 102.
Psychology, 1-2, 92-3, 112, 114.

Induction of Emotion, 27, 34, 46-7.

Infection, mental, 64-65.

Inferiority, Delusions of, 57, 106-7.

Inheritance, archaic, 10, 99.

Inhibition:
Collective, of intellectual functioning, 23, 33.
Removal of, 17, 28, 33.

Instinct:
Herd, 3, 83-6, 105, 121.
inhibited in aim, 72-3, 78, 115-26.
Life and death, 56.
Love, 37, 39, 58.
Nutrition, 85.
Primary, 84-5.
Self-preservative, 34, 85.
Sexual, 19, 39, 56, 71-8, 85-5, 94, 115-26.
Social, 3.
unhibited in aim, 73, 77-8, 94, 115-26.
Unconscious, 10.

Intellectual ability, lowering of,
in groups, 14, 18, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 81.

Introjection, of object into ego, 65, 67-8, 76.

Jealousy, 121.

Kings, Mana in, 96.

_Kraškovič, B. Jnr._, 23.

_Kroeger_, 90.

Language, 25, 38, 71.

Latency, period of, 72, 117, 120, 126.

Leader, 20-2, 41, 44-5, 78, 82, 85, 89, 92, 99, 110.
Abstractions as substitutes for, 53.
Equal love of, 93, 95.
Identification with, 110-11.
Killing the, 90.
Loss of, 49.
Negative, 53.
Prestige of, 21-2.
the group ideal, 100, 102, 110.
Tie with, 49, 52, 66.

_Le Bon_, 5-25, 29, 34, 82, 84, 100-1.

Libidinal:
structure of the group, 37, 40, 44-5, 47, 53, 70, 79-80, 102-3.
The word, 44.
ties, 44, 56-8, 65, 93, 100.
in the group, 45, 51, 54.

Libido, 33-40, 44, 57, 79, 83, 102, 111, 116, 119, 123, 126.
Narcissistic, 58, 74, 93, 104, 125.
Oral phase of, 61.
theory, 57, 83, 125.
Unification of, 19.
Withdrawal of, 108.

Love, 37-40, 42, 73, 87, 108, 122.
a factor of civilisation, 57, 93.
and character formation, 94, 118-20.
and hatred, 56.
Being in, 58, 71-9, 120-1, 124-6.
Child's, 116-17.
Christ's, 43.
Equal, 42, 50, 89, 93.
Pauline, 118.
Self-. _See under_ Narcissism.
Sensual, 71-3, 78, 117.
Sexual, 37-8, 57, 120-2.
Sublimated homosexual, 57.
The word, 37-9, 71.
Unhappy, 75.
Unsensual, 73.

_McDougall_, 1, 26-31, 34-6, 46-7, 49, 84.

Magical power of words, 19.

Magnetic influence, 11.

Magnetism, animal, 96.

Mana, 96.

Mania, 106-9.

_Marcuszewicz_, 68.

Marriage, 54, 120.

Melancholia, 68, 106-9.

Metapsychology, 63, 118.

_Moede, Walter_, 24.

_Molière_, 119.

Morality, Totemism the origin of, 90.

Mother deities, 113, 115.

Multicellularity, 7, 32, 83.

Myth, 113-15.

_Nachmansohn_, 39.

Names, Taboo upon, 19.

_Napoleon_, 44.

Narcissism, 2, 38, 54-8, 69, 74-5, 93, 94, 104.

_Nestroy_, 49.

Neurosis, 18, 20, 37, 44, 58, 63, 103-4, 123-26.

_Nietzsche_, 93.

Nutrition, Instinct of, 84.

Object, 57-8, 62, 68, 74, 87, 93, 104, 125, 127.
cathexis, 48, 58, 60-1, 71-2, 76.
Change of, 18, 119, 121.
Child's, 72.
-choice, 54, 62, 64, 74, 111, 119, 121.
Eating the, 61-62.
Hyper-cathexis of, 76.
Identification with ego, 108.
Less or Renunciation of, 68, 108.
-love, 56, 63, 74, 111.
Relations with the ego, 65, 67-8, 70, 76.
Sexual, 67, 72-3, 116.
Substituted for ego ideal, 74, 80, 103, 125.

Observation, delusions of, 69.

Oedipus complex, 60-61, 63, 66, 117.
Inverted, 62.

Oral phase of organisation of the libido, 61.

Organisation in groups, 26, 30-1, 33, 41-2, 80, 82, 90.

Orgy, 121.

Panic, 45-9.

Pan-sexualism, 39.

_Paul, Saint_, 39, 118.

_Pfister_, 39, 119.

_Plato_, 38.

Poet, the first epic, 113-114.

Power, 9, 15, 28.
of leaders, 21.
of words, 19.

Prestige, 21-2, 34.

Primitive peoples, 14, 18-19, 24, 92, 96, 105.

Psycho-Analysis, 4, 7, 14, 18, 36, 38-9, 59-60, 84, 97.

Psychology:
Group, 1-4, 6, 25-6, 33-4, 37, 45, 53, 59, 92, 94, 101.
Group and individual, 1-2, 92-93, 112, 114.

Psychoses, 66, 103.

Puberty, 67, 72-73.

Races, repugnance between related, 55.

_Rank, Otto_, 112, 114.

Rapport, 97.

Reality:
Function for testing, 20, 77.
Contrast between Objective and Psychological, 20.

Regression, 82, 91, 117, 121, 126.

Religion, 51, 90.
Wars of, 51.

Repressed:
Sexual tendencies, 74, 117, 123-4.
The, 10, 104, 117-18, 126.

Repression, 9, 54, 64-5, 69, 72, 84, 95, 105, 117, 120.

Resistance, 84, 104.

Responsibility, Sense of, 9-10, 29-30.

_Richter, Konrad_, 36.

_Sachs, Hanns_, 16, 115.

_Schopenhauer_, 54.

Self-:
consciousness, 30-1.
depreciation, 107.
love. _See under_ Narcissism.
observation, 69.
preservation, 15, 34, 84-5.
sacrifice, 11, 38, 75.

Sex, 39.

Sexual:
act, 92, 121.
aims, 58, 72.
Diversion of instinct from, 58.
Infantile, 72.
Obstacles to, 120.
life, 19, 72.
over-estimation, 53-5.
Tendencies, Inhibited and uninhibited. 72-3, 77-8, 94, 115-16, 125-26.
union, 37-8.

_Shaw, Bernard_, 121.

_Sidis, Boris_, 84

_Sighele_, 24-5.

_Simmel, E._, 44.

Sleep, 98, 104.
and hypnosis, 98.

_Smith, Robertson_, 70.

Social:
duties, 88, 95.
relations, 2-3, 57.

Socialistic tie, 51.

Society, 24, 26, 28, 90.
Dread of, 10.

Sociology. _See under_ Group Psychology.

Speech, 84.

Sublimated:
devotion, 17, 75.
homosexual love, 57.

Sublimation, 118.

Suggestibility, 11, 13, 35, 84-5.

Suggestion, 12-13, 17, 29, 34-7, 40, 82, 95, 99, 102.
Counter-, 35.
Definition for, 100.
Mutual, 12, 27, 34, 82.

Superman, 93.

Taboo, 19, 96, 112.

_Tarde_, 34.

Totemism, 90, 112-13.

Totemistic:
clan, 95.
community of brothers, 112.
exogamy, 122.

Tradition, 17, 21.
of the group, 31.
of the individual, 32.

Transference, 97-8.

_Trotter_, 32, 83-5, 89, 105.

Uncanniness, 95, 99.

Uncertainty, absence in groups, 15-16.
interpretation in dreams, 15-16.

Unconscious, 8, 10, 12, 14-16, 18, 23-4, 64, 67, 72, 97, 100, 104.
Groups led by, 14.
instincts, 10.
_Le Bon's_, 10, 14, 24.
of children, 18, 117.
of neurotics, 18.
Racial, 9.

_Wallenstein_, 44.

War neuroses, 44.

War, The, 44.

_Wilson, President_, 44.

Wishes, Affective cathexis of, 20.

Words, magical power of, 19.

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FOOTNOTES:

[1] ['Group' is used throughout this translation as equivalent to the rather more comprehensive German '_Masse_'. The author uses this latter word to render both McDougall's 'group', and also Le Bon's '_foule_', which would more naturally be translated 'crowd' in English. For the sake of uniformity, however, 'group' has been preferred in this case as well, and has been substituted for 'crowd' even in the extracts from the English translation of Le Bon.--_Translator._.]

[2] _The Crowd: a Study of the Popular Mind._ Fisher Unwin 12th. Impression, 1920.

[3] [See footnote page 1.]

[4] [References are to the English translation.--_Translator._]

[5] [The German translation of Le Bon, quoted by the author, reads '_bewusster_'; the English translation has 'unconscious'; and the original French text '_inconscients_'.--_Translator._]

[6] [The English translation reads 'which we ourselves ignore'--a misunderstanding of the French word '_ignorées_'.--_Translator._]

[7] There is some difference between Le Bon's view and ours owing to his concept of the unconscious not quite coinciding with the one adopted by psycho-analysis. Le Bon's unconscious more especially contains the most deeply buried features of the racial mind, which as a matter of fact lies outside the scope of psycho-analysis. We do not fail to recognize, indeed, that the ego's nucleus, which comprises the 'archaic inheritance' of the human mind, is unconscious; but in addition to this we distinguish the 'unconscious repressed', which arose from a portion of that inheritance. This concept of the repressed is not to be found in Le Bon.

[8] Compare Schiller's couplet:

Jeder, sieht man ihn einzeln, ist leidlich klug und verständig;
Sind sie in corpore, gleich wird euch ein Dummkopf daraus.
[Everyone, seen by himself, is passably shrewd and discerning;
When they're _in corpore_, then straightway you'll find he's an ass.]

[9] 'Unconscious' is used here correctly by Le Bon in the descriptive sense, where it does not only mean the 'repressed'.

[10] Compare _Totem und Tabu_, III., 'Animismus, Magie, und Allmacht der Gedanken.' [_Totem and Taboo._ New York, Moffat, 1918. London, Kegan Paul, 1919.]

[11] [See footnote p. 69.]

[12] In the interpretation of dreams, to which, indeed, we owe our best knowledge of unconscious mental life, we follow a technical rule of disregarding doubt and uncertainty in the narrative of the dream, and of treating every element of the manifest dream as being quite certain. We attribute doubt and uncertainty to the influence of the censorship to which the dream-work is subjected, and we assume that the primary dream-thoughts are not acquainted with doubt and uncertainty as critical processes. They may naturally be present, like everything else, as part of the content of the day's residue which leads to the dream. (See _Die Traumdeutung_, 6. Auflage, 1921, S. 386. [_The Interpretation of Dreams._ Allen and Unwin, 3rd. Edition, 1913, p. 409.])

[13] The same extreme and unmeasured intensification of every emotion is also a feature of the affective life of children, and it is present as well in dream life. Thanks to the isolation of the single emotions in the unconscious, a slight annoyance during the day will express itself in a dream as a wish for the offending person's death, or a breath of temptation may give the impetus to the portrayal in the dream of a criminal action. Hanns Sachs has made an appropriate remark on this point: 'If we try to discover in consciousness all that the dream has made known to us of its bearing upon the present (upon reality), we need not be surprised that what we saw as a monster under the microscope of analysis now reappears as an infusorium.' (_Die Traumdeutung_, S. 457. [Translation p. 493.])

[14] In young children, for instance, ambivalent emotional attitudes towards those who are nearest to them exist side by side for a long time, without either of them interfering with the expression of the other and contrary one. If eventually a conflict breaks out between the two, it often settled by the child making a change of object and displacing one of the ambivalent emotions on to a substitute. The history of the development of a neurosis in an adult will also show that a suppressed emotion may frequently persist for a long time in unconscious or even in conscious phantasies, the content of which naturally runs directly counter to some predominant tendency, and yet that this antagonism does not result in any proceedings on the part of the ego against what it has repudiated. The phantasy is tolerated for quite a long time, until suddenly one day, usually as a result of an increase in the affective cathexis [see footnote page 48] of the phantasy, a conflict breaks out between it and the ego with all the usual consequences. In the process of a child's development into a mature adult there is a more and more extensive integration of its personality, a co-ordination of the separate instinctive feelings and desires which have grown up in him independently of one another. The analogous process in the domain of sexual life has long been known to us as the co-ordination of all the sexual instincts into a definitive genital organisation. (_Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 1905. [_Three Contributions to the Sexual Theory._ Nervous and Mental Disease Monograph Series, No. 7, 1910.]) Moreover, that the unification of the ego is liable to the same interferences as that of the libido is shown by numerous familiar instances, such as that of men of science who have preserved their faith in the Bible, and the like.

[15] See Totem and Tabu.

[16] [See footnote p. 48.]

[17] B. Kraškovič, jun.: _Die Psychologie der Kollektivitäten_. Translated [into German] from the Croatian by Siegmund von Posavec. Vukovar, 1915. See the body of the work as well as the bibliography.

[18] See Walter Moede: 'Die Massen-und Sozialpsychologie im kritischen Überblick.' Meumann and Scheibner's _Zeitschrift für pädagogische Psychologie und experimentelle Pädagogik_. 1915, XVI.

[19] Cambridge University Press, 1920.

[20] _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin, 1916.

[21] Brugeilles: 'L'essence du phénomèna social: la suggestion.' _Revue philosophique_, 1913, XXV.

[22] Konrad Richter: 'Der deutsche S. Christoph.' Berlin, 1896, _Acta Germanica_, V, I.

[23] [Literally:"Christopher bore Christ; Christ bore the whole world; Say, where did Christopher then put his foot?']

[24] Thus, McDougall: 'A Note on Suggestion.' _Journal of Neurology and Psychopathology_, 1920, Vol. I, No. I.

[25] Nachmansohn: 'Freuds Libidotheorie verglichen mit der Eroslehre Platos'. _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1915, Bd. III; Pfister: 'Plato als Vorläufer der Psychoanalyse', ibid., 1921, Bd. VII. ['Plato: a Fore-Runner of Psycho-Analysis'. _International Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, 1922, Vol. III.]

[26] 'Though I speak with the tongues of men and of angels, and have not love, I am become as sounding brass, or a tinkling cymbal.'

[27] [An idiom meaning 'for their sake'. Literally: 'for love of them'.--_Translator._]

[28] An objection will justly be raised against this conception of the libidinal [see next foot-note] structure of an army on the ground that no place has been found in it for such ideas as those of one's country, of national glory, etc., which are of such importance in holding an army together. The answer is that that is a different instance of a group tie, and no longer such a simple one; for the examples of great generals, like Caesar, Wallenstein, or Napoleon, show that such ideas are not indispensable to the existence of an army. We shall presently touch upon the possibility of a leading idea being substituted for a leader and upon the relations between the two. The neglect of this libidinal factor in an army, even when it is not the only factor operative, seems to be not merely a theoretical omission but also a practical danger. Prussian militarism, which was just as unpsychological as German science, may have had to suffer the consequences of this in the great war. We know that the war neuroses which ravaged the German army have been recognized as being a protest of the individual against the part he was expected to play in the army; and according to the communication of E. Simmel (_Kriegsneurosen and 'Psychisches Trauma'._ Munich, 1918), the hard treatment of the men by their superiors may be considered as foremost among the motive forces of the disease. If the importance of the libido's claims on this score had been better appreciated, the fantastic promises of the American President's fourteen points would probably not have been believed so easily, and the splendid instrument would not have broken in the hands of the German leaders.

[29] [Here and elsewhere the German 'libidinös' is used simply as an adjectival derivative from the technical term '_Libido_'; 'libidinal' is accordingly introduced in the translation in order to avoid the highly-coloured connotation of the English 'libidinous'.--_Translator._]

[30] ['Cathexis', from the Greek 'κατἑχω', 'I occupy'. The German word '_Besetzung_' has become of fundamental importance in the exposition of psycho-analytical theory. Any attempt at a short definition or description is likely to be misleading, but speaking very loosely, we may say that 'cathexis' is used on the analogy of an electric charge, and that it means the concentration or accumulation of mental energy in some particular channel. Thus, when we speak of the existence in someone of a libidinal cathexis of an object, or, more shortly, of an object-cathexis, we mean that the libidinal energy is directed towards, or rather infused into, the idea (_Vorstellung_) of some object in the outer world. Readers who desire to obtain a more precise knowledge of the term are referred to the discussions in 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus' and the essays on metapsychology in _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge.--_Translator._]

[31] See _Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse_. XXV, 3. Auflage, 1920. [_Introductory Lectures on Psycho-Analysis._ Lecture XXV. George Allen and Unwin, 1922.]

[32] Compare Bela v. Felszeghy's interesting though somewhat fantastic paper 'Panik und Pankomplex'. _Imago_, 1920, Bd. VI.

[33] Compare the explanation of similar phenomena after the abolition of the paternal authority of the sovereign given in P. Federn's _Die vaterlose Gesellschaft_. Vienna, Anzengruber-Verlag, 1919.

[34] 'A company of porcupines crowded themselves very close together one cold winter's day so as to profit by one another's warmth and so save themselves from being frozen to death. But soon they felt one another's quills, which induced them to separate again. And now, when the need for warmth brought them nearer together again, the second evil arose once more. So that they were driven backwards and forwards from one trouble to the other, until they had discovered a mean distance at which they could most tolerably exist.' (_Parerga und Paralipomena_, II. Teil, XXXI., 'Gleichnisse und Parabeln'.)

[35] Perhaps with the solitary exception of the relation of a mother to her son, which is based upon narcissism, is not disturbed by subsequent rivalry, and is reinforced by a rudimentary attempt at sexual object-choice.

[36] In a recently published study, _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_ (1920) [_Beyond the Pleasure Principle_, International Psycho-Analytical Library, No. 4], I have attempted to connect the polarity of love and hatred with a hypothetical opposition between instincts of life and death, and to establish the sexual instincts as the purest examples of the former, the instincts of life.

[37] See 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus', 1914. _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.

[38] [Literally, 'leaning-up-against type'; from the Greek 'ἁνακλἱνω' 'I lean up against'. In the first phase of their development the sexual instincts have no independent means of finding satisfaction; they do so by propping themselves upon or 'leaning up against' the self-preservative instincts. The individual's first choice of a sexual object is said to be of the 'anaclitic type' when it follows this path; that is, when he choses as his first sexual object the same person who has satisfied his early non-sexual needs. For a full discussion of the anaclitic and narcissistic types of object-choice compare 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus.--_Translator._]

[39] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, and Abraham's 'Untersuchungen über die früheste prägenitale Entwicklungsstufe der Libido', _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1916, Bd, IV; also included in his _Klinische Beiträge zur Psychoanalyse_ (Internationale psychoanalytische Bibliothek. Nr. 10, 1921).

[40] [_Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre._ Zweite Folge.]

[41] Marcuszewicz: 'Beitrag zum autistischen Denken bei Kindern.' _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI.

[42] ['Trauer und Melancholie.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.]

[43] ['_Instanz_'--like 'instance' in the phrase 'court of first instance'--was originally a legal term. It is now used in the sense of one of a hierarchy of authorities or functions.--_Translator._]

[44] 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus', 'Trauer und Melancholie.'

[45] 'Zur Einführung des Narzissmus.'

[46] We are very well aware that we have not exhausted the nature of identification with these samples taken from pathology, and that we have consequently left part of the riddle of group formations untouched. A far more fundamental and comprehensive psychological analysis would have to intervene at this point. A path leads from identification by way of imitation to empathy, that is, to the comprehension of the mechanism by means of which we are enabled to take up any attitude at all towards another mental life. Moreover there is still much to be explained in the manifestations of existing identifications. These result among other things in a person limiting his aggressiveness towards those with whom he has identified himself, and in his sparing them and giving them help. The study of such identifications, like those, for instance, which lie at the root of clan feeling, led Robertson Smith to the surprising result that they rest upon the recognition of a common substance (_Kinship and Marriage_, 1885), and may even therefore be brought about by a meal eaten in common. This feature makes it possible to connect this kind of identification with the early history of the human family which I constructed in _Totem und Tabu_.

[47] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, l.c.

[48] 'Über die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.

[49] Cf. 'Metapsychologische Ergänzung zur Traumlehre.' _Kleine Schriften zur Neurosenlehre_, Vierte Folge, 1918.

[50] W. Trotter: _Instincts of the Herd in Peace and War._ Fisher Unwin, 1916.

[51] See my essay _Jenseits des Lustprinzips_.

[52] See the remarks upon Dread in _Vorlesungen zur Einführung in die Psychoanalyse_. XXV.

[53] _Totem und Tabu._

[54] What we have just described in our general characterisation of mankind must apply especially to the primal horde. The will of the individual was too weak; he did not venture upon action. No impulses whatever came into play except collective ones; there was only a common will, there were no single ones. An idea did not dare to turn itself into a volition unless it felt itself reinforced by a perception of its general diffusion. This weakness of the idea is to be explained by the strength of the emotional tie which is shared by all the members of the horde; but the similarity in the circumstances of their life and the absence of any private property assist in determining the uniformity of their individual mental acts. As we may observe with children and soldiers, common activity is not excluded even in the excremental functions. The one great exception is provided by the sexual act, in which a third person is at the best superfluous and in the extreme case is condemned to a state of painful expectancy. As to the reaction of the sexual need (for genital gratification) towards gregariousness, see below.

[55] It may perhaps also be assumed that the sons, when they were driven out and separated from their father, advanced from identification with one another to homosexual object love, and in this way won freedom to kill their father.

[56] 'Das Unheimliche.' _Imago_, 1919, Bd. V.

[57] See _Totem und Tabu_ and the sources there quoted.

[58] This situation, in which the subject's attitude is unconsciously directed towards the hypnotist, while he is consciously occupied with the monotonous and uninteresting perceptions, finds a parallel among the events of psycho-analytic treatment, which deserves to be mentioned here. At least once in the course of every analysis a moment comes when the patient obstinately maintains that just now positively nothing whatever occurs to his mind. His free associations come to a stop and the usual incentives for putting them in motion fail in their effect. As a result of pressure the patient is at last induced to admit that he is thinking of the view from the consulting-room window, of the wall-paper that he sees before him, or of the gas-lamp hanging from the ceiling. Then one knows at once that he has gone off into the transference and that he is engaged upon what are still unconscious thoughts relating to the physician; and one sees the stoppage in the patient's associations disappear, as soon as he has been given this explanation.

[59] Ferenczi: 'Introjektion und Übertragung.' _Jahrbuch der Psychoanalyse_, 1909, Bd. I [_Contributions to Psycho-Analysis._ Boston, Badger, 1916, Chapter II.]

[60] It seems to me worth emphasizing the fact that the discussions in this section have induced us to give up Bernheim's conception of hypnosis and go back to the _naïf_ earlier one. According to Bernheim all hypnotic phenomena are to be traced to the factor of suggestion, which is not itself capable of further explanation. We have come to the conclusion that suggestion is a partial manifestation of the state of hypnosis, and that hypnosis is solidly founded upon a predisposition which has survived in the unconscious from the early history of the human family.

[61] 'Trauer und Melancholie.'

[62] _Totem und Tabu._

[63] Trotter traces repression back to the herd instinct. It is a translation of this into another form of expression rather than a contradiction when I say in my 'Einführung des Narzissmus' that on the part of the ego the construction of an ideal is the condition of repression.

[64] Cf. Abraham: 'Ansätze zur psychoanalytischen Erforschung und Behandlung des manisch-depressiven Irreseins', 1912, in _Klinische Beiträge zur Psychoanalyse_, 1921.

[65] To speak more accurately, they conceal themselves behind the reproaches directed towards the person's own ego, and lend them the fixity, tenacity, and imperativeness which characterize the self-reproaches of a melancholiac.

[66] [Literally: 'How he clears his throat and how he spits, that you have cleverly copied from him.']

[67] What follows at this point was written under the influence of an exchange of ideas with Otto Rank.

[68] Cf. Hanns Sachs: 'Gemeinsame Tagträume', a summary made by the lecturer himself of a paper read at the Sixth Psycho-analytical Congress, held at the Hague in 1920. _Internationale Zeitschrift für Psychoanalyse_, 1920, Bd. VI. ['Day-Dreams in Common'. _International Journal of Psycho-Analysis_, 1920, Vol. I.]

[69] In this brief exposition I have made no attempt to bring forward any of the material existing in legends, myths, fairy tales, the history of manners, etc., in support of the construction.

[70] Cf. _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_.

[71] Hostile feelings, which are a little more complicated in their construction, offer no exception to this rule.

[72] [_Schriften zur angewandten Seelenkunde._ Heft 8. Vienna, Deuticke, 1910.]

[73] See 'Über die allgemeinste Erniedrigung des Liebeslebens.'

[74] See _Totem und Tabu_, towards the end of Part II, 'Das Tabu und die Ambivalenz'.

[75] See _Drei Abhandlungen zur Sexualtheorie_, 4. Auflage, 1920, S. 96.

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