Chapter IX: The Rifle (2)

The Government of this country had on all previous occasions exacted from inventors their brains and their money, as an offering in exchange for patronage; on this occasion, however, they departed widely from their usual custom, for the “mountain came to the mouse.” It would have been a grateful compliment if the Government had said to the inventor, “You have done something for the good of your country with your limited means, here are thousands of pounds at your command; do something better, for we need it.” But nothing of the kind was done: a selection was made, justified by no antecedent qualifications. The first thing necessary was the acquirement in a very short time of a practical knowledge of gunnery, in order that a weapon should be produced superior to any other; but whether success has attended these efforts or not is still doubtful, and this is in itself a fit rebuff to the Minister, who expected, like the citizen’s wife, that “gold would purchase capacity.”

The great defect in the hexagonal-bored rifle is the extreme amount of friction, and the consequent useless expenditure of means.

The bullet is produced in the most accurate manner in a lathe, and is composed of an alloy of lead, tin, and manganese, so as to render it hard enough to resist the tendency to squash or swage; which is the case in General Jacob’s principle. The angles on the bullet are cut with the greatest precision, in order to fit the groove of the barrel; constituting, in fact, a female screw of two turns in every thirty-nine inches of length.

As fair play has always been my motto, I am actuated by no other desire than that of enabling the reader to form a true conception of the intricate nature of projectile science; and though the eulogium bestowed on the inventor’s own creation is rather egotistical, I give it entire, dissecting it afterwards in the manner I think most conducive to a correct knowledge of the real science of gunnery.

“THE WHITWORTH AND ENFIELD RIFLES.

“For the last few days a very interesting and important series of
experiments has been in progress at the Government School of Musketry,
Hythe, in order to test the comparative merits of these two rifles.
The trial, which was of the most searching and impartial character,
was conducted by Colonel Hay, the able head of the school, and has
terminated in establishing beyond all doubt the great and decided
superiority of Mr. Whitworth’s invention. The Enfield rifle, which was
considered so much better than any other as to justify the formation
of a vast Government establishment for its special manufacture, has
been completely beaten. In accuracy of fire, in penetration, and in
range, its rival excels it to a degree which hardly leaves room for
comparison.

“The following table gives the best results that have been obtained
from 10 shots of each arm respectively, in the course of the
experiments, which have extended over a week in time, and were brought
to a close yesterday in the presence of Lord Panmure and of a number
of military and scientific spectators:--

-------------+---------+----------+---------
|Range in |Elevation.|Figure of
RIFLE. | yards. | | Merit.
-------------+---------+----------+---------
| | Deg. | Feet.
Whitworth } | { | 1·15 | 0·37
Enfield } | 500 { | 1·32 | 2·24
Whitworth }| {| 2·20 | 1·00
Enfield }| 800 {| 2·45 | 4·11
Whitworth } | { | 3·45 | 2·41
Enfield } |1,100 { | 4·12 | 8·04
Whitworth }| {| 5·00 | 4·62
Enfield }|1,400 {|6·20 to 7.| No hits
Whitworth } | { | 6·40 | 11·62
Enfield } |1,800 { | -- | --
-------------+---------+----------+---------

It would appear from these figures that at 500 yards in 10 shots the
Manchester rifle has a superior accuracy of 1·87 of a foot; at 800
yards 3·11; at 1,100 yards 5·63; and that at 1,400 yards and upwards
the Enfield weapon ceases to afford any data for a comparison. In
penetration the results obtained have been equally decisive; the
Whitworth projectile, with the regulation charge of powder, going
through 33 half-inch planks of elm, and being brought up by a solid
oak bulk beyond, while the Enfield ball could not get past the 13th
plank.

“The shooting on Tuesday was more to satisfy Lord Panmure and the
other strangers present upon the comparative merits of the two weapons
than to show the limit of what each could do under favourable
circumstances. Still, the targets of every 10 shots on either side
bore decisive evidence of the superiority of the new rifle, as a
glance at the following table will prove:--

-------------+--------+----------+---------
|Range in|Elevation.|Figure of
RIFLE. | yards.| | Merit.
-------------+--------+----------+---------
| | Deg. | Feet.
Whitworth } | {| 2·22 | 1·41
Enfield } | 800 {| 2·45 | 5·67
Whitworth }| | { | 1·27
Enfield }| 500 | -- { | 3·30
Whitworth } | | {| 1·33
Enfield } | 500 | -- {| 4·01
-------------+--------+----------+---------

“The last entry in the table records the mean radial distance from a
central point of 10 shots fired from a table-rest, by Colonel Hay and
Mr. Gunner, the manager of the Enfield factory. Both are first-rate
marksmen, yet at 500 yards the Manchester rifle in the hands of the
former gives three times as good shooting as the latter can get out of
the Government arm. All the other trials were made by firing from a
beautifully-constructed machine rest, which placed both weapons on a
footing of perfect equality as to the conditions under which they were
tested. In addition to the foregoing experiments, there was one for
showing that with cylindro-conoidal balls on the expansion principle
of those used for the Enfield rifle, very superior shooting could be
obtained from Whitworth’s hexagonal bore. This was most satisfactorily
established, the mean deviation on the target from the centre of the
group of 10 hits being only ·85 of a foot at 500 yards’ range. It will
be observed that at 500 yards’ range, at which the practice commenced,
the shooting of Whitworth’s rifle was so much better than the other
that no greater distance was attempted. A reference to the first table
of experiments will also demonstrate that the target made by the
former weapon at 1,100 yards is nearly as good as that made by the
latter at 500. These are great results to have achieved, and amply
justify the forethought of the late Lord Hardinge in securing the
services of so eminent a mechanic as Mr. Whitworth for the improvement
of the rifle. Until he took the subject in hand the proper principles
for guidance in the construction of the weapon had not been accurately
determined. The manufacture was still conducted by rule of thumb, and
in a very hap-hazard way on the most important points. The use of
grooves and an expansive projectile made it impossible to secure the
requisite amount of pitch in the rifling and the indispensable
hardness of metal in the bullet for penetration. Moreover, from the
small amount of bearing, the wear and tear both in the barrel and in
the projectile were enormous, and the length of the latter could not
be increased without causing it to capsize in its flight. By the
polygonal bore and rapid pitch to which the form of the bullet
accurately conforms, Mr. Whitworth has rendered stripping impossible,
and, his rifle when fired acting exactly like a male and female screw,
the projectile must rotate with perfect steadiness and precision on
its axis. He can increase its length so considerably as to secure
space for converting it into a shell if necessary; and, being able to
use metal of any degree of hardness, he can adapt its form and
strength exactly to the work which it has to perform. Thus with a
rifle 39 inches long and half-inch bore, having a turn in 20 inches,
or two turns in its length, he finds no difficulty in penetrating a
wrought-iron plate 6-10ths of an inch thick or cutting a core out of
a piece of solid timber half a foot thick; and some idea may be formed
of the extraordinary power of this arm when we mention that his
projectiles in their flight rotate at the rate of 15,000 revolutions
per minute. The question of driving holes in the 4-inch breast plates
of floating batteries is at once solved by the application of these
principles to artillery, the construction of which this new rifle
proves must be completely revolutionized. A weapon which in expert
hands will make good practice at 1,400 yards, and the range of which
can be very easily helped by a telescope if necessary, gives the _coup
de grace_ to our present system of field batteries. At the Alma it
would have silenced the Russian guns or driven them from their
position, rendering the rush of the Light Division, with the heavy
loss of life consequent thereon, unnecessary. Nor during the siege of
Sebastopol would the rope mantlets of the Redan and the Malakhoff
having given much protection to the men working behind the
embrasures,” &c., &c., &c.

So much for the praise bestowed by Mr. Whitworth on his own production. A beautiful experiment it has been, and one for which the scientific world is bound to be thankful; giving, as it does, perhaps a faint idea only of what is yet to be effected.

However, all is not gold that glitters: it is very well to do all this by straining every principle that can be brought to bear,--extra charge, bullets hardened and turned with mathematical precision, steel barrels, with a fineness of polish in the interior like that of a looking-glass--these are all great adjuncts in the trial against an ordinary unprepared gun, taken from a number promiscuously, and which perhaps might be the worst specimen in the possession of the party at Hythe. But these are trifles when compared with the two following facts. The diameter of the bore of Mr. Whitworth’s is 500, or half-inch at the largest diameter, and 450 at the smallest, or a mean, taking the two extremes, of fifty bore; the Enfield is 577, or twenty-five bore, and the bullets on leaving the guns were the same weight exactly. The length of the Enfield bullet is 7/8 inch, that of the Whitworth is 1-3/8 inch. But all this will be more fully seen from the woodcuts.

Thus it will be seen that the amount of resistance or displacement of atmospheric air by one bullet is nearly double that of the other, and this is a most important point in Mr. Whitworth’s favour; but the quantity of gunpowder used in the one is precisely the same as that used in the other, though Mr. Whitworth’s rifle is little more than half the size of bore, the pressure on the square inch being consequently nearly double; hence the circumstances are not sufficiently equal for Mr. Whitworth to claim for his rifle any great superiority: the gun may take the attention of the unwary, but its principles will not bear investigation.

Let me change the circumstances of the case, by retaining the principle of the Enfield, but changing the bore to the same as Mr. Whitworth’s, increasing at the same time the length of projectile, and I will engage to beat it with a much reduced charge. The extreme degree of female screw or spiral, one turn in twenty inches, or two turns in the whole length of the barrel, creates, as must be familiar to the most obtuse mind, an enormous amount of friction, and in consequence of this an equal quantity of force is absorbed: in other words, there is a useless waste of force.

The Enfield barrel has but a proportion of turn, one in six feet six inches, or exactly half a spiral in the three feet three, generating 300 per cent. less friction than in the Whitworth rifle; so that on this score alone the saving would be very great, and in this trial the Whitworth would be inferior to the Enfield; the inventor, therefore, has unjustly laid claim to superiority, as the trial has been conducted on very unequal terms.

Mr. Whitworth says his bullet rotates at the rate of 15,000 revolutions in a minute; now the friction on the periphery of a bullet having this extreme spinning on an axis, must very much lessen its range. If we weigh force, and carefully calculate its expenditure in 2,000 yards, the periphery has made 4,000 revolutions. Now look at the shape of the hexagonal body depicted in the woodcut at page 377, and estimate the friction it will undergo. The Enfield in the same distance would rotate only 1,000 times, thus affording another gain of 300 per cent. The question, therefore, which arises is this: If all this can be done equally well with the Enfield, why not do it? And the answer is, because there is nothing to be gained by it. Great doubts now exist whether the bore 25 is not too great a reduction: in fact, you will find no military advocates for it. The faculty will tell you that small wounds are not so destructive as large ones: the human body is as much affected by the shock as by the penetration of a bullet. Many other reasons might be advanced in favour of increased size of bullet, and much more important reasons must be given, before the whole military system has to be re-changed, than a mere gain of 300 or 400 yards; whilst there can be little doubt that the ranges we now possess in the Enfield are more than equivalent to our wants. The human eye cannot define precisely at 900 or 1,000 yards, and yet greater accuracy is required to fire a ball at a distance of 2,000 yards; again, it is a question which has frequently arisen in my mind, in how many situations in England or on the Continent can we get a clear view of 2,000 yards. The effort, indeed, to increase range appears like seeking after a remedy for a disease which has never yet been discovered.

If ranges of 2,000 yards and upwards are required, rifled cannon will again take their proper place; for on investigating the tables of practice published by General Jacob, I find the average distance of shot from the centre of butt to be, at 2,000 yards, nearly 9 feet, with 13·7 degrees elevation; whilst the Whitworth is said to be 11-1/2 feet, with about 8 degrees of elevation. I saw, some time ago, some practice at Shoeburyness with an 18-pounder rifle cannon, which gave a range of 3,650 yards, with an elevation of 0·10-3/4 degrees, and a breeze blowing across, a mean deflection of only 30 inches from the centre. This throws Jacob, Whitworth, and the Enfield all into the shade together; yet there can be no doubt that this can be excelled, when heavier guns are brought to the same state of perfection as this 18-pounder. The case therefore stands thus: the Jacob rifle has a greater range than the Enfield, at a cost of 100 per cent. more friction, and an expenditure of 50 per cent. more of projectile force; the Whitworth has also a greater range, but at a cost of 300 per cent. more friction, and 100 per cent. additional projectile force. With these observations I leave this subject in the hands of the public, being convinced that projectile power obtained at such a cost will never come into general use; though the production of the Whitworth rifle will always be looked upon as an experiment of very great interest.

There is but one other point relating to the use of guns on such a principle, and that is their safety; which is always of the greatest importance. It is a well-known fact that the first movement of projectiles depends very much on the amount of inertia in that projectile; and different forms of projectiles, though of the same weight, will offer very different amounts of resistance to motion. No one can doubt that two columns of lead, each of an ounce in weight, one being as high again as the other, will offer different amounts of resistance; first, from the law that the time occupied in overcoming inertia is in proportion to the length of that body; secondly, if these columns of metals are confined in tubes, then the friction on the one which is half an inch long will be much less than on the other, which is one inch in length: and this is, on the mildest terms, the relative position of the two. There can be no doubt that a much greater pressure is required to start the longer column of double the length; but when we consider that there are the facets of six angles, with a spiral inclination of one in nineteen, the difficulty of starting this bullet becomes still more apparent. Now suppose the gun has been loaded a few hours, and a certain amount of adhesion has been effected between the bullet and sides of the barrel, by the unctuous deposit from previous discharges, then the difficulty of starting the bullet instantaneously will be still more increased: supposing the breech end of a barrel, with the ordinary charge of the Enfield cartridge and bullet, has a force exerted upon it of 2,000 pounds in the square inch, then in the hexagonal not much less than double that strength will be requisite to meet the contingencies of dirty guns: in fact I know that a serious accident did occur very recently with a double rifle constructed on Whitworth’s principle, notwithstanding all the care bestowed upon it by a first-rate maker; and I believe that this gun, if it is to be used with safety, must have a barrel double the strength of other rifles.

The doubtful nature of Mr. Whitworth’s experiments must be apparent from the fact that they were made in a shed, from which strong currents of air were excluded: any bullet would range accurately in vacuo, or in atmosphere equally quiescent; deductions, therefore, drawn from such experiments must be worthless. Battles occur not under such favourable circumstances; protuberances on bullets tell most in high currents, and least in a quiet atmosphere; so that had the experiments been instituted in the open air, they would doubtless have yielded a different result. The hexagonal bullet of large size has been proved to be very eccentric indeed in its flight; hence a bullet of the smallest dimensions was used, for had it been larger, its great enemy, the atmosphere, would have rendered the chance of even partial success perfectly hopeless.

Now, observe what would be the effect of extension of length and decrease of diameter in the Greenerean expansive bullet. Harden it by alloys, as adopted in the Whitworth; use the same charge, and the probability is great, that, from the absence of extreme friction, it will excel in range, accuracy, and penetration the Whitworth, as much as that does now the Enfield.

If the Government can see any important advantage to be gained by extending the range we now possess; if anything is to be gained by reduction from 25 to 50 bore; if, indeed, there is any point which is advantageous in the Whitworth, I will pledge my reputation that this may be obtained in the expansive principle: and that, too, with a much less expenditure of expellant force.

The “hoodwinking” of the public by not disclosing the fact that the pressure of the gunpowder in the Whitworth was double, the bore being but one-half, is at best an attempt at concealment not creditable to the parties concerned. Knowledge of the principles which regulate projectile science is not so scanty as to allow the palm to be carried away from the profession, and worn by a gentleman who, on his own admission, is unpractised in the science of gunnery. The science to be effectually improved must be carried on at the cost of the nation, as Mr. Whitworth’s experiments were. This fact certainly bears the appearance of a good precedent, and I hope it may be extended.

Mr. Whitworth, like General Jacob, has had to sacrifice scientific economy in order to obtain the points he required. I have already dilated upon the truism that all projectiles range with the greatest economy which have the centre of gravity in the head or fore part of the bullet. I have also pointed out the fact that the elongated projectiles which have not the centre of gravity in the head, turn over during their flight after leaving the muzzle of the gun; and this is also found to be the case in rifles having a greater degree of spiral than the Enfield, one turn in six feet 6 inches. To meet this difficulty, therefore, General Jacob adopts one turn of spiral in every three feet: thus his bullet in passing out has double the friction of the Enfield; and when we look at the fact that he is further compelled to increase the length of his bullet to 2-1/2 diameters, a little reflection will point out the entire want of economy in his whole arrangement.

On turning to the Whitworth, we find that, in order to ensure his bullet keeping point foremost in its flight, he has to double the very great spiral adopted by Jacob: thus we have all its concomitant disadvantages, friction, expenditure of matter, and danger of bursting the gun. When we contemplate such arrangements as exist in these two guns, it must be evident that they are both self-destructive. No system of projectiles can be durable which is effected by straining all the acknowledged principles of mechanics; and this has been done in each of these cases.

The scientific world knows well that a much higher rate of speed can be attained in railway travelling than is daily practised; but they also know that it can only be obtained in the same way as Jacob and Whitworth obtained their range in gunnery: namely, by an excessive expenditure of fuel, and a wear of engine amounting to comparative destruction; whilst, at the same time, the danger is so much increased that it would be folly and recklessness to persist in such a course. The question, therefore, resolves itself into this; that in locomotion and in projectile science, if we would have them perfect, we must study the mode of obtaining the greatest results with the least expenditure of means.

Facility of loading must at all times be of great importance: the soldier cannot have the means of cleaning his rifle when in action, and yet if the hexagonal principle were to be adopted, it must be repeatedly cleaned, or it would be almost impossible to load it, and when discharged it would either burst or its fire would not be effective. During such a war as that in India, going on day and night, a soldier could not be expected to wash out his rifle after every half-dozen shots.

The field in which experiments are carried on is very different from that of a battle. Experiments, as detailed, sometimes turn out most fallacious when put to the use for which they are intended; and in no case is this more apparent than in breech-loading arms: thousands of rounds may be fired in a few days with great success; but extend that over twelve months, a certain number being fired every day, and the gun being cleaned after each day’s practice, and long before thousands are fired, the gun displays weak points--points which could not be discovered in the lesser experiment. So it is in practice: a gun left dirty for hours is undergoing rapid destruction; the unctuous deposit from gunpowder has such an affinity for iron that minute galvanic cells are formed on its surface in a very short time: half an hour after a gun has been discharged in a damp atmosphere these operations may be seen to be going on with rapidity, and an old gun on the hexagonal principle (if one should last long enough to grow old) would not be a very desirable weapon, in point of safety.

The comparative cost of ammunition for the hexagonal rifle and the Enfield, is a point of no little importance. Calculation gives the former at something equivalent to 4-1/2_d._ or 5_d._ at each discharge, while the latter cannot exceed 1-1/4_d._, or at most 1-1/2_d._--a serious question for the Chancellor of the Exchequer.

That this sum may be lessened by the employment of machinery is not unlikely; but this can only be done to a limited extent, it being essential that mathematical nicety, as well as the right degree of hardness, should be strictly observed, otherwise the power of penetration will be sacrificed: and of this property a great deal has been made. There are few who do not know that a pound hammer will soon drive to the head a fine-pointed slender nail; whilst a short, thick, stumpy nail requires three times the force: again, if fine steel polished nails were constructed, a still smaller amount of force would suffice. If such effects are carefully studied, much may be done with very little means.

Very recently a statement appeared in the press that, owing to some ill-made cartridges being served out to the troops in India, the men found it almost impossible to load their Enfield rifles at all; having to call in the aid of trees and stones against which to butt the ramrod, in order to force the bullet home. The same account attributed this defect to the careless construction of these cartridges by the contractors. This, however, is unjust; all cartridges for the Enfield rifles being alone produced in the laboratory at Woolwich; and hence the defect is the more unpardonable. It is easy to conceive that in India, where the heat is intense, the grease on the cartridge might have disappeared; the unctuous deposit of gunpowder on the interior of the barrel is also rendered more adhesive, and necessarily offers greater obstruction to the ramming down of the bullet. The very slight difference between the diameter of the bullet and that of the bore, or windage, must necessarily add to the difficulty under such circumstances; but if half a size, or a few decimals of diameter, were taken from the sides of the bullet and added to its length, the difficulty would be effectually removed: with increased length, and increasing means of expansion, if necessary, such an occurrence could never take place.

The original expanding bullet was intended to fill up the difference of three sizes of gauge; surely, then, there can be no difficulty in expanding a much less diameter of bullet one half, or even full one size of gauge. Where would be the difficulty in having the bullet 26-bore, or even smaller, and expanding it to 25. The occurrence, indeed, of such a fact as that alluded to is to an intelligent mind quite incomprehensible; it could only arise from gross incompetency--some cobbling with the bullet’s cup in the pressing, or perhaps enlargement by wear, or more likely still from the pulp-made cartridge paper. That this difficulty has been experienced is obvious; and the inference is strong, that the official managers of these affairs are still in the midst of a long experiment: it is clear that they are not perfectly masters of the practice of gunnery, and it is almost time the people of this country had their work better done. It is more than probable that, instead of meeting this difficulty with the proper spirit of improvement, they will fly off at some other tangent, and adopt the nostrum of some “arrant quack;” thus effectually adding to the complication.

Each regiment ought to have moulds, and the means of making their cartridges on such emergencies; a body of provident officials ought to attend to this, that a repetition of it may be avoided.

An ordinary mind would have perceived that, in such lengthened operations as those our soldiers have been engaged in, the cleaning of their arms would be almost impossible; still the men are not instructed that in such a difficulty an oiled rag passed up and down the barrel would diminish it; neither is such a simple remedy provided: let us trust, however, that this misfortune will lead to improvement. If this difficulty is encountered in the Enfield, which is, comparatively speaking, a smooth bore, what would be the difficulty in the hexagonal bore with two turns in 39 inches! The possibility of loading the latter would be very remote indeed, if not quite impracticable, and a total bar to anything like its general adoption.

Pure lead is indispensable for all rifle bullets, but more especially for the expansive, which is in reality useless without it. A lubricating grease, of a given consistency for various climates, is also a desideratum yet to be accomplished; how desirable it would be, is shown by all the accounts of good shooting I have ever received or met with.

A vast number of projectiles have been produced, and strenuously advocated; but from the total want of scientific arrangement in their construction they have had but a very short existence. The vital principle in all elongated projectiles is to have the centre of gravity in the fore end; wanting that, an unnecessary spinning motion must be resorted to, at the cost of immense friction: for the tendency to change position can only be obviated by excessive spiral motion; whilst in a bullet having the centre of gravity in the head, much less spiral motion suffices: its scientific construction admits of no tendency to change; straight forward is its natural inclination, and to this inclination it adheres.

A late writer on projectiles has laboured hard to condemn the expansive principle and the cup; he has even aspired to lecture on it before Royalty, and as an improvement upon it, he recommends the following invention of his own:--

“In my endeavours to remedy the evils which have been so often and justly complained of, I attempted the construction of several bullets, particularly with the view of solving the question--can a cylindro-conoidal bullet be contrived, which will have a flat surface for its base, and the centre of gravity in the fore part? In my attempts from time to time I met with less or more success until I arrived at my last improvement, the principle of which has afforded me so much satisfaction, that I fancy I have only to describe it, to enable any intelligent marksman to perceive at once the utility of the contrivance.

“In the end of the bullet, which is a fair cylinder for half its length, I formed a cavity of a conical form, similar to the inside of a small thimble, which stretches forward somewhat more than half the length of the bullet, and which is wide enough to reduce sufficiently the weight of the hinder end, so as to throw the centre of gravity into the fore part, even after the explosion of the charge takes place. On the edge of the cavity I made an indentation, or shoulder, about a twelfth of an inch in depth, and upon this I placed an iron disc of the same thickness, which closes up the cavity even with the end of the bullet, making a flat surface of that part; so that it may be called a hollow flat-ended bullet, though to all appearance solid.”

The adoption of the disc, and the closing of the orifice at the bottom of the bullet, is merely the production of an elongated plug with weak sides, which must necessarily be driven in upon themselves, and thus shortened; and in so doing they expand. The disc prevents the possibility of the explosive gases acting upon the centre of gravity or the head, and thus the advantage of that being the primary motion is lost; and which ensures the absence of “wobbling,” a principle inherent in all plug bullets after leaving the muzzle: and a defect which it was the main object of my invention to avoid. The idea is evidently that of Captain Norton, as evinced in his rifle shell, and consequently is a plagiarism, either deliberate or accidental.

The Swiss bullet has obtained to some extent a reputation, admitting, like the Lancaster elliptical bullet, of being put into higher velocity. Its range, however, is limited, from the very great friction it undergoes in passing up the barrel: it is driven in upon itself until it becomes a mere plug of lead with a hemispherical head; and the centre of gravity being behind, ensures its flight frequently terminating by turning “topsy turvy.” Moreover, it cannot be used on a large scale, except by the addition of a hard metal point, as in General Jacob’s bullet.

The wisdom displayed in rifling barrels with the gathering or deepening groove may be doubted; it admits of serious consideration, whether or not it tends to increase the friction of the bullet passing outward. It is evident that did the bullet expand all at once it would do so; but as this is well known not to be the case, the question arises what is the advantage gained? for it is asserted on high authority that it improves the shooting. The mere deepening of the grooves at the breech end can have but little effect; and the question is, does the shallowing of the grooves as the bullet approaches the muzzle, produce the effect? We think it does. In the process of rifling these barrels, the rifling tool, by a very ingenious arrangement of screws, is caused gradually to cut deeper as it travels from the muzzle to the breech, so that when finished the depth of grooves at the muzzle is ·005 of an inch; half-way down the barrel it is ·010, and at the breech end ·015: thus gradually deepening 10/1000 of an inch, whereas the usual method of rifling is to have one uniform depth of ·010 inches. From the contraction of the protuberances on the bullet from 1/10 to 1/5000 of an inch in passing up the barrel, results the apparent benefit: such a reduction would surely allow of the bullet continuing its flight with less friction on the atmosphere; for it cannot be too often repeated that perfect smoothness, even to a polished surface, is essential to the easy passage of all bullets through the air.

There are some rather curious deductions obtained by practice alone, which to ordinary minds appear of trifling importance; but they clearly show that correct rifle-shooting can only be obtained by the most perfect arrangement in the rifling and scientific construction of the barrels.

The Government have lately adopted a highly finished and costly rifle arm, with sword bayonet attached to the usual form of bar soldered to the end of the barrels on the right side. When these barrels were first constructed, they were made lighter than experience subsequently showed they ought to be; for it was found that the barrel not expanding equally with the other portions at this necessarily rigid point, influenced the shooting of the gun to a considerable extent; so that an increase of metal was found necessary.

The difficulty of obtaining good shooting with double rifles, one side of each barrel being held rigid whilst the other is yielding, explains the difficulty, and points to the remedy: an increase of metal, or, what would be more convenient, the adoption of the most perfect laminated steel for all double rifles; it being self-evident that soft barrels and correct rifle-shooting are to a certain extent incompatible.

Double rifles have nearly superseded single ones; for few who can afford the additional price will use the latter, when in the same weight he can have two useful weapons. The one great end generally sought in a rifle is sufficient weight to neutralise the force of the explosion or recoil; and the additional barrel answers this as effectually as additional thickness of iron in the single. But there is one objection which I have never been able to master in the construction of double rifle barrels, and I much doubt the possibility of effectually overcoming it--another proof that mathematical demonstrations are frequently wrong in practice, however correct in theory. Many hold it to be essential that double rifle barrels should be put together perfectly parallel. I followed this rule, and was at considerable cost in perfecting tools for the purpose; yet, strange to say, in trial I found invariably that the right barrel threw the ball slightly to the right, and the left to the left. This I have been at enormous trouble to ascertain, and am enabled positively to declare it is an indisputable fact. The cause of it is evidently the recoil not striking the stock in the centre, but on one side; which causes the gun to swerve to that side. However small or unapparent the recoil may be, still there is a recoil; and hence its effect. To remedy this it is necessary to incline the barrels in, towards the muzzle, to counteract that tendency; but in doing this another evil is created, for you can only do this to suit a given distance, either 100, 150, or 200 yards, as may be determined. Thus it will be perceived a deficiency must exist at all times; and it shows clearly the necessity for motion being resisted centrically, if truth is to be maintained. This defect in the double rifle will always be a drawback to the “_most correct_ shooting;” yet under ordinary circumstances it may not be a matter of vital importance, neither does there exist any means of sighting to overcome the difficulty. The only way to obtain a double rifle perfectly true--perfectly parallel, is to construct the barrels one above the other, as double pistols are now constructed. The only objection to them is the difficulty attending the arrangement of the locks, as one cock must strike the nipple the thickness of the barrel below the other, and is an unsightly matter at best. These facts lead to another, namely, the necessity of all rifles being stocked as straight as possible, avoiding in all cases any casting off in the butt; as it is evident that these matters have considerable influence on the correctness of shooting.

One great drawback to correct shooting is produced from the stock being thrown off at the butt end; and, in other cases, from imperfections in the stocking of the gun--all truth depending on the barrel or barrels being both stocked and held perfectly level in the act of using. It must be quite clear, that in case the right barrel of a pair be depressed but the 32nd part of an inch, the angle of the sight on the top, instead of giving elevation, will cause the line of flight of ball to be to the left, and “_vice versâ_.” Therefore, first of all be sure the gun is held square; and great advantage will be found in pointing the muzzle in all cases a few feet below the object, and raising it in a perfect line upwards to the bull’s eye. If this can be done well, in addition to the gun being held square, the better half of the difficulty is overcome; further practice will make perfect.

The point next in importance, is to take off the weight of the pull in the trigger, during the upward motion; overcoming the last atom of weight as the muzzle sight covers the bull’s eye. It must be done so gradually, that no jerk or pull can move the gun, be it ever so triflingly: in fact, all good shots fire thus while the gun is in motion. If the sight cannot be correctly obtained during the movement, always take the rifle down from the shoulder, and raise it again; for depend upon it, rifle shooting can never be acquired perfectly, where the habit is practised of holding the gun at the shoulder, “poking” the muzzle about and seeking the bull’s eye. All good shooting is produced from the shoulder; an absence of pulsation in the body which is induced by holding a weight. The shoulder rests are found to be the cause of vibration; resting one part of the body and straining another begets it instantly, and where rests are used they should be merely supports for the muzzle, and not for the centre of the gun. If the centre is placed upon it, the action of recoil is almost sure to jump the gun upwards. The best shooting can be accomplished from the shoulder, if the above instructions be carefully followed. Avoid in all cases gripping a rifle tightly, or you will most assuredly communicate the pulsation of the body to the rifle.

During the Crimean war many of the Enfield rifles expanded so much with the Pritchett plug bullet as not only to loosen all the bands on the stock, but also to produce a visible effect on the barrel; and to remedy this the Government adopted my expanding screw bands, which admit of being tightened by the screw when necessary.

The production of a perfect breech-loading small arm is as difficult as the production of a perfect breech-loading cannon, and that is so problematical as to amount, in my humble opinion, to nearly an impossibility. All experience teaches that a perfectly sound base of projection in the gun is indispensable, if good direction and velocity are required; without which there can be no good shooting. If this be a law, how can it be obtained where soundness is absent? Joints, slides, and their attendants, are all incompatible with soundness: the two cannot exist together; and hence no breech-loader can give the same results as a solid constructed gun barrel, unsoundness and absorption of power being always found to go hand in hand together.

I have had considerable experience in breech-loading guns, having obtained one or two patents; and very careful attention to the subject has satisfied me that the question was sufficiently ventilated soon after the adoption of gunnery, and that it was exhausted by many hundreds of inventors as ingenious as those of the present day; the result being in all cases a total failure.

One of the best breech-loading carbines of the present day is undoubtedly that of Mr. F. W. Prince, and those to whom they are unobjectionable will certainly find in this the simplest and a most effective weapon of the kind: Mr. Prince has certainly made the most of the practical knowledge he has brought to bear upon the invention.

Revolving rifles are, like revolving pistols, complicated weapons, useful only for certain purposes; requiring, as they do, very great care and cleanliness, to insure at best their limited services. Long barrels are useless, because all the velocity that can be given to the projectile has to be generated in the revolving chambers; all the superfluous force escaping at the joint of breeches and barrels. For any useful purpose, a nine-inch would be better than a longer barrel, allowing the bullet to leave the muzzle at a much higher velocity than it would do after passing through a barrel of thirty inches. It is evident, indeed, that a revolving pistol and a revolving rifle are possessed of power in inverse ratio to their lengths.

The French Government are making great efforts to improve their military system, in imparting to every soldier as much information relative to his weapons and the best method of using them, as is compatible with his limited education. Their institution of a normal-school for the instruction of the whole army in all that relates to guns, shooting, and natural “trigonometry,” is proof of this. A detachment from every infantry regiment in the service arrives at “Vincennes” early in the spring, and the men undergo a complete course of instruction during the whole of the summer and autumn months, or until by ability they acquire all that is to be taught. The first and a very essential part of the duty is to teach them to judge of distance; for this purpose a soldier takes a target, and runs straight ahead as far as he pleases. Having planted it, each man is called upon to judge the distance, which is recorded in a report of the day. This exercise is carried on to a great extent, until each becomes well able to judge correctly; then commences the instruction in shooting, each soldier using an elevation according to the distance he calculates he is from the target; and this is practised at all distances, from 500 to 1,000 paces. The greatest degree of perfection attained by the instructed is rewarded, by promotion or otherwise; and such skill in shooting is displayed by these various detachments as would truly astonish our military officers.

The accomplishment of a school of instruction for teachers of rifle shooting to the British army is now an established fact; the results, most flattering to the projectors, more than verifying their anticipations. The degree of perfection attained by some before leaving Hythe is so extraordinary, that I will leave the reality to be imagined or witnessed; and it will well repay the journey. The standing order lately issued, awarding substantial benefits to the adept in shooting, is sure to bear its fruits, and is only the first step to many others of no less importance.

Double rifled carbines can be constructed of so light a weight that their exclusive use for cavalry purposes is not far distant, 5-1/2 pounds being sufficient weight to ensure perfect safety. A carbine of this description, from 18 to 20 inches in the barrel, could give a practical range of from 600 to 700 yards, with an extreme range of 1,000 to 1,100. A cavalry soldier armed with two of these would be equal to four of the present day, for they would be no greater encumbrance than the late carbine used by the Guards, which approaches 10 lbs. in weight; and a pair of double carbines could easily be carried at the saddle bow, their length being no obstacle.

Revolvers have not yet been, and I fear they never can be, made sufficiently durable to become a useful cavalry appendage. The fact may be concealed, but it is true, nevertheless, that their fragile nature, independently of their great cost, will always confine their use to an exclusive few: indeed, revolving and breech-loading weapons are among the doubtful class of arms, not fully developed as yet, even if they ever can be.

The adoption of double carbines will eventually throw all other small arms for cavalry purposes into the back ground; a range of 1,000 yards with a toy 5-1/2 lbs. in weight is one of the greatest wonders of this wonderful age, showing the astonishing change which has been effected in gunnery: for a deadly power now exists in the most Lilliputian toy as well as in the Brobdignagian monster; and that, too, at immense distances. In proof of this, I will just quote a letter from that gallant officer, Lieutenant William A. Kerr, Southern Mahratta Irregular Horse.

“_Camp, Bejapore, May 29th, 1858._

“SIR,

“I have received the Enfield carbine, and am much pleased with it in
every respect. It cannot, I consider, be improved on, and is by far
the best weapon for the mounted service I have ever handled. It is but
due to you that I should mention, that your work, as put into the
carbine, is far beyond what I expected at the money. I hope to be in a
position, at no very distant date, to give you a heavy commission, and
will certainly recommend you in every way I can. I have knocked over a
deer at 400 yards with the carbine, and make very good practice up to
800 yards, by firing with two drachms of fine rifle powder. I have
given it, and Prince’s breech-loader, a fair trial; the latter cannot
be compared to the former; it has not the same range, power of
projection, or of shooting; it moreover fouls in the proportion of at
least 3 to 1 more. Had I had such carbines at Kolapore, I would have
destroyed the 27th Native Infantry in an hour.

“I am, sir, yours, &c.,

“WILLIAM A. KERR.”

The weight of this single carbine is only 5-1/4 lbs., and it is 20 inches in the barrel. The great power of shooting would justify a reduction of length to 15 inches, thus reducing the weight to a little over 4-1/4 lbs.; and yet this carbine would be more certain in its effects at 600 yards, than old Brown Bess at 150. The complaint that carbines are found to be an encumbrance in the service is no longer valid: they may be made to form merely a portion of the saddle with the same facility of handling as a pistol, and with a hundredfold greater accuracy of range.

The hybrid affair, adopted by the Government, of a pistol made to serve as a carbine by the introduction of a loose butt, is of doubtful utility: if valuable as a carbine, it will never be used as a pistol; hence it had been much better to make it a carbine at once, thus rendering it at the same time more durable and less costly: even a double carbine might be constructed at about twice the price paid for the socket joint alone. But there is still a want in the Government establishment of “designers” of ability; all that has been effected by way of improvement has been done by feeling the way: a kind of progressional experiment, with a total absence of mind to grasp good ideas, and to hold them fast. The arms used by the corps of Guides who have distinguished themselves so much in India are now seven years old, and they will bear comparison with the best arms our Government are only just now producing: in fact, the irregular cavalry in India have always been armed with weapons in advance of those of the Government troops; and the explanation of this is very suggestive, they provide arms for themselves, and are more alive than the Government officials to the importance of having good ones.

The adoption of greased cartridges in India by some irregular corps, took place in carbines supplied by me eight or nine years ago; and the origin of the idea was this:--

The principal objection urged against the adoption of the rifle, is that of loading. I know not how quickly it is possible to load a musket; but with cartridges properly made, I think I could load and fire a rifle four times in a minute. But then it will be said, at the conclusion of so many shots, the rifle gets so foul, that it will be difficult to get the ball down. Not difficult at all. Have your cartridges made with a saturated cover, to surround the ball, and fit properly the grooves of the rifle.

It would clean the barrel so much, as to allow forty shots to be fired with as much ease as you now fire twenty. Or let a steel-wire brush be attached to the rifle; and by screwing it to the end of the rod, you can, by two or three times rubbing up and down, remove any accumulation of dirt from the powder. If, however, the covering I have mentioned were used with a weighty rod to the rifle, there would be no occasion for cleaning, short of fifty shots.

Experience leaves no room for doubt that a few grooves are better than many, in all expansive-principled rifles: the nearer the approach to a smooth surface the better, and the three divisions of grooves and projections adopted by the British Government is the best to meet all requirements. They will shoot as well as poly-grooved rifles; and if three grooves give the same result, more are unnecessary and useless. The advantage of the atmosphere acting to keep the bullet steady by its current down the grooving on the bullet seems to meet with no confirmation; improved shooting accruing by the grooves being reduced, as in the case of the gathering-grooved rifle experiments. In all cases of wild animal shooting at short distances with small charges, the many grooves will be an advantage: the same as those formerly adopted, and which are shown in the cut.

Expansive bullets may be effectually used; but in varying charges, incidental to game shooting, the same form of cavity in the bullet as is observed in the Enfield would not act, therefore a large cavity would be preferable to enable the less charge to act in expanding the lead into the grooving.