Chapter IV: Part II (2)

"The next day, the party set out at an early hour, in hopes of reaching the summit, but it began to rain violently, in consequence of which they took shelter in a large cave, at an altitude of eight thousand and ninety feet. Here many interesting plants were found, among which were two species of Pelargonium, one with dark crimson, the other with lilac flowers; the Argyroziphium began to disappear as they ascended, and its place was taken up by the silky species, which is only found at high altitudes. From the cave to the summit they found shrubby plants, consisting of Epacris, Vaccinium, Edwardsia, Compositae, and various rubiaceous plants.

"On their arrival at the edge of the crater, on the summit, the clouds were driving with great velocity through it, and completely concealed its extent. The height, as ascertained by the barometer, was ten thousand two hundred feet. The driving of the sleet before the strong gale soon affected the missionaries and native students, the latter of whom for the first time, felt the effects of cold. The limit-line of woods was ascertained to be at six thousand five hundred feet.

"Some sandalwood bushes were noticed about five hundred feet above the cave. Above the cave the ground assumed a more stony appearance, and the rock became now and then more visible, which had not before been the case. Where the rock was exposed it was found to be lava more or less vesicular, but no regular stream was observed. The surface of the lava appeared to be more thickly covered with earth than that of Mauna Kea, and consequently a greater proportion of soil existed, as well as a thick coating of gravel. Near the summit, bullock-tracks were observed, and likewise those of wild dogs, but no other animals were seen except a few goats.

"The crater of Haleakala, if so it may be called, is a deep gorge, open at the north and east, forming a kind of elbow: the bottom of it, as ascertained by the barometer, was two thousand seven hundred and eighty-three feet below the summit peak, and two thousand and ninety-three feet below the wall. Although its sides are steep, yet a descent is practicable at almost any part of it. The inside of the crater was entirely bare of vegetation, and from its bottom arose some large hills of scoria and sand: some of the latter are of an ochre-red colour at the summit, with small craters in the centre. All bore the appearance of volcanic action, but the natives have no tradition of an eruption. It was said, however, that in former times the dread goddess Pele had her habitation here, but was driven out by the sea, and then took up her abode on Hawaii, where she has ever since remained. Can this legend refer to a time when the volcanoes of Maui were in activity?

"The gravel that occurred on the top was composed of small angular pieces of cellular lava, resembling comminuted mineral coal. The rock was of the same character as that seen below, containing irregular cavities rather than vesicles. Sometimes grains of chrysolite and horn-blende were disseminated. In some spots the rock was observed to be compact, and had the appearance of argillite or slate: this variety occurred here chiefly in blocks, but was also seen in situ. It affords the whetstones of the natives, and marks were seen which they had left in procuring them.

"Of the origin of the name Mauna Haleakala, or the House of the Sun, I could not obtain any information. Some of the residents thought it might be derived from the sun rising from over it to the people of West Maui, which it does at some seasons of the year.

"Having passed the night at the cave, Mr. Baily (_sic_) and young Andrews preferred returning to the coast, rather than longer to endure the cold and stormy weather on the mountain.

"Our gentlemen made excursions to the crater, and descended into it. The break to the north appears to have been occasioned by the violence of volcanic action within. There does not appear any true lava stream on the north, but there is a cleft or valley which has a steep descent: here the soil was found to be of a spongy nature, and many interesting plants were found, among the most remarkable of which was the arborescent Geranium.

"The floor of the crater, in the north branch, is extremely rough and about two miles wide at the apex, which extends to the sea. In the ravines there is much compact argillaceous rock, similar to what had been observed on Mauna Kea, retaining, like it, pools of water. The rock, in general, was much less absorbent than on the mountains of Hawaii.

"Mr. Drayton made an accurate drawing or plan of the crater, the distances on which are estimated, but the many cross bearings serve to make its relative proportions correct. Perhaps the best idea that can be given of the size of this cavity, is by the time requisite to make a descent into it being one hour, although the depth is only two thousand feet. The distance from the middle to either opening was upwards of five miles; that to the eastward was filled with a line of hills of scoria, some of them five or six hundred feet high; under them was lying a lava stream, that, to appearance, was nearly horizontal, so gradual was its fall. The eastern opening takes a short turn to the southeast, and then descends rapidly to the coast.

"At the bottom were found beds of hard gravel, and among it what appeared to be carbonate of lime, and detached black crystals like augite, but chrysolite was absent.

"From the summit of the mountain the direction of the lava stream could be perceived, appearing, as it approached the sea, to assume more the shape of a delta.

"From the summit the whole cleft or crater is seen, and could be traced from the highest point between the two coasts, flowing both to the northward and eastward. Volcanic action seems also to have occurred on the southwest side, for a line of scoria hills extends all the way down the mountain, and a lava stream is said to have burst forth about a century ago, which still retains its freshness. The scoria hills on the top very much resemble those of Mauna Kea, but the mountain itself appears wholly unlike either of the two in Hawaii, and sinks into insignificance when compared with them.

"Although I have mentioned lava streams on this mountain, yet they are not to be understood as composed of true lava, as on Mauna Loa; none of the latter were seen except that spoken of on the southwest side, and none other is believed to exist. No pumice or capillary glass was at any time seen, nor are they known to exist on this island. On the wall of the crater, in places, the compass was so much affected by local attraction as to become useless.

"Near the summit is a small cave, where they observed the silkworm eggs of Mr. Richards, which were kept here in order to prevent them from hatching at an improper season. The thermometer in the cave stood at 44°; the temperature at the highest point was 36°, and in the crater 71°. After three days' stay, the party returned to the establishment of Messrs. Lane and Minor, and thence to Wailuku. They were much gratified with their tour."

The name Haleakala can thus be regarded as having been formally introduced by members of the Wilkes Expedition. As the fame of the beauties and wonders of the mountain spread, visitors from all parts of the globe came to make the arduous climb to the summit. Most found shelter from the elements in natural caves. Big Flea and Little Flea caves, a quarter of a mile from the summit, are often mentioned in early accounts. That their accommodation was not highly relished can be seen from a description by Damon in 1847: "... which did not hold out many attractions, and I have good reasons for believing it already possessed tenants that would sharply contend for occupancy with any way-faring and luckless wight."[8] In tales of early visits, literature--especially the Bible--was gleaned for phraseology that might help portray emotions felt; fantastic similes and metaphors were drawn to transmit comprehension of the scene. On a visit in 1853, G. W. Bates mentioned: "From the point where I stood a huge pit, capable of burying three cities as large as New York--opened before me."[9] True, New York then lacked its present colossal stature, but a milder expression, "could hold the whole of New York City" still is in use today. For information, the following areas are given from _Thrum's Annual_ and the _World Almanac_: area of Haleakala "crater," 19.0 sq. mi.; area of Maui, 728 sq. mi.; area of Manhattan borough, 31.2 sq. mi.; area of New York City, 381 sq. mi. Discomforts, silversword, sandalwood, wild dogs, cattle, goats, the weather, and personal impressions form much of the subject matter of early essays.

The early residents of Maui recognized the value of the mountain as a scenic feature and tourist attraction. Their first move was for better overnight shelter on the mountain. C. W. Dickey in 1894 raised $850 by popular subscription for material with which to build a simple shelter at Kalahaku Lookout. H. P. Baldwin and the sugar plantations furnished labor and pack animals. The long trip of 25 miles to the location had to be made on foot or by saddle, and required a full, tiring day; all building material except rock had to be transported by pack stock. In painfully characteristic manner, many of those for whose benefit the sweat and toil were expended proved unworthy since they roughly abused the structure. Windows were broken, timber in the floor and walls was ripped out and used for firewood, and garbage and filth accumulated. A tropical storm added to the damage by unroofing the house; Worth Aiken raised $1,500 for its renovation and repair. In 1914-15, the cabin was improved with a concrete floor, metal doors, and metal shutters. Two additional dormitories were added in 1924-25 at a cost of $11,000 and operation of the building was turned over to E. J. Walsh, manager of the Grand Hotel, Wailuku. Usefulness dropped with the opening of the Haleakala Road, so that on September 24, 1934 its custodian, the Maui Chamber of Commerce, transferred ownership to the National Park Service. The structures were razed in 1957, but plans are underway to replace them with a modern observatory in which people may look at the scene in glass-enclosed comfort.

In the movement to create a National Park in Hawaii in the early part of the 20th century, the idea developed that it should consist of the craters of Kilauea, Mauna Loa, and Haleakala. The citizens of Maui gave full approval for including their beloved mountain. Hawaii National Park, composed of these three sections, was established by Act of Congress on August 1, 1916, but formal dedication was delayed until 1921. Following improvement of Halemauu Trail in 1929, a permanent ranger position was set up for continuous attention to the area. Today it is administered by an assistant superintendent who has a staff of two rangers and a naturalist.

The building of a road to the summit was fulfillment of a promise to the people of Maui when the park was created. The first step had to be construction by the Territory of a highway from Pukalani Junction to the park boundary near Puu Nianiau. This was completed at a cost of $504,000 in April 1933 after 39 months of work. As with similar projects elsewhere in Hawaii, superstitions of long-ago reappeared. Although not antagonistic to progress, Hawaiians raised a cry that all effort was futile; the chicken god, Kalau-heli-moa, would conspire and never permit the project to be completed. Every mishap was attributed to this nemesis.

The Park Service completed its commitment soon afterwards at the cost of $376,000. The road was armor-surfaced in the fall of 1935. Extensive, appropriate dedication ceremonies were held for the opening.

With the establishment of a Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camp in Kilauea, a strip camp of 25 men was set up near Puu Nianiau cinder cone. Part of the time, a tent camp was also established within the crater. Many improvements became possible through this undertaking. The observatory building on the summit was constructed in 1936; the three shelters within the crater, Kapalaoa, Paliku, and Holua, were built a year later. Prior to their completion, overnight shelter was sought in caves, the best known being Bubble Cave (see Numbered Points of Interest, topic 15) and Holua Cave which is in the pali wall behind the cabin.

The CCC camp was abandoned in April 1941, and its structures were turned over to the Army that greatly improved them. During the period of its occupancy, the Army constructed for radar installation the ugly concrete block house that still protrudes on the summit of Red Hill. With evacuation of the military, the CCC quarters were adapted for the service of a concessioner to supply meals and lodging within the park.

Normal travel to Haleakala was interrupted for a year when the section was closed following the attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941. Annual travel had passed the 25,000 mark in 1939. Travel for the year 1958 reached a high of 56,940 visitors.

The summit of Haleakala attracted early consideration as a site for various scientific studies. It is a prime target for many scientific planners, because the high mountain is situated in the middle of a broad ocean, yet the summit is readily accessible by road. Often this eagerness has obscured possible use of other suitable sites and has clashed with the basic purpose of the area as a National Park. The National Park Service strives to keep the scene as primitive as possible, assiduously blending buildings and structures into the landscape, whereas the non-conformist gives no thought to this but follows the easiest way. Too often economy of construction and operation, together with careless housekeeping, invert an attraction to a repulsion which even the splendor of the scene cannot offset. Skyline buildings, obtrusively strung wires, thoughtlessly gouged land, and abandoned debris are not conducive to aesthetic experience, whatever their purpose or whoever the offender.

The earliest scientific study associated with the mountain concerned weather. It is said that the Hawaiian Islands are situated near a critical area in the Pacific which is a birthplace of weather. The summit offers an ideal place for detection and observance of the formation of high clouds. Much additional research is needed to provide a steady flow of data for successful and safe operation of air transportation. Many crashes have been blamed on lack of weather data. The task is not always simple, as statistical readings may be confusing. Those made on Red Hill, for example, are influenced by local circulation set up by the heating of several square miles of black, barren lava and cinders.

The Federal Aeronautics Administration maintains a station a mile beyond Red Hill. In the earlier fifties cosmic radiation was studied with a huge revolving truss located back of Red Hill. The military has set up apparatus and teams from time to time for experiments with radio, radar, and radiation. Finally, for the International Geophysical Year, Haleakala summit was chosen for one of the important satellite tracking stations supervised by the Smithsonian Institution of Washington.

IMPORTANT DATES

500 A. D., ca.--Hawaii discovered by Hawaii-loa, Polynesian
fisherman-navigator who, tradition says, came from Kahiki
(Tahiti?), an island to the south. He made several round trips,
bringing with him a large company of retainers.

1100 ca.--After a wave of navigation, intercourse with Tahiti ended.

1300 ca.--According to an ancient chant, _mele_, Kalaunuiohua, _moi_ of
Hawaii, conquered Maui. _Moi_, in 19th century Hawaiian, signifies
the supreme ruler or head chief, now usually termed _king_.

1500--Piilani, king of Maui. He was succeeded by Lonoapii who in turn
was overthrown by his brother Kihapiilani and his brother-in-law,
King Umi of the Big Island. Bloody battles stretched from Kauiki
to the sands of Waihee.

1555--Possible discovery of Hawaii by Juan Gaetano, Spanish navigator.
He prepared a manuscript chart now in the Spanish archives which
contains a group of islands in the latitude of Hawaii but whose
longitude is 10 degrees too far to the east. What corresponds to
Maui is called _La Desgradiada_, the unfortunate. The largest,
most southerly island, which should be the present Hawaii is
labelled _La Mesa_, the table. Three other islands, appearing to
be Kahoolawe, Lanai, and Molokai, are called _Los Monjes_, the
monks.

1736--King Kekaulike died and was succeeded by Kamehamehanui.

1737--Alapainui, _moi_ of Hawaii, invaded Maui via Kaupo. He took with
him two young princely half-brothers, Kalaniopuu and Keoua. Keoua
was father of Kamehameha I. Since Alapainui found his adversary,
Kekaulike, dead, he made peace with the nephew, Kamehamehanui. The
two joined forces to repel the invader, Kapiiohokalani of Oahu, in
bloody, obstinate battles that ended in the rout of the Oahu army
at Kawela, Molokai.

1738--At Keawawa, West Maui, Alapanainui and Kamehamehanui decisively
defeated Kauhi, the latter's brother and usurper of power.

1750 ca.--The calculated date of the most recent activity of Haleakala,
the Keoneoio flow above La Perouse Bay. The flow originated at
Kaluaolapa at an elevation of 575 feet, and from vents one mile
further northeast at an elevation of 1,550 feet. The method of
dating is interesting. In 1841, Rev. Edward Bailey of Wailuku
inquired about the eruption and was informed by Hawaiians that it
happened at the time of their grandfathers. In 1906, Lorrin A.
Thurston was told by a Chinese-Hawaiian cowboy, Charles Ako, that
his father-in-law's grandfather at the time of the event was just
old enough to carry "two" coconuts 4 or 5 miles from the sea to
the upper road at an elevation of 2,000 feet. Since Hawaiians
counted coconuts by fours, "two" probably refers to a total of
eight nuts. Mr. Bailey was told that a woman and child were
trapped by the flow but escaped after it cooled. By 1922, 80 years
later, this tale had grown into a neo-myth about a husband and
wife with their two children. The mother and her young daughter
fled _mauka_, but were seized by Pele, and turned into the two
lava columns that stand beside the vent at Kaluaolapa. The father
and son, plunged into the sea and started swimming toward
Kahoolawe. Pele cast rocks after them and turned the two to stone.
The two rocks, a big and a little one, can be seen today rising
out of the sea several hundred feet out from shore as proof of the
tale. Mr. Thurston's estimate of the date of the eruption is 1750
while J. F. G. Stokes, Hawaiian ethnologist, favors a later date,
possibly 1770.

1754--Kalaniopuu, warlike king of Hawaii, captured the fortress Kauiki
and held it successfully for more than 20 years.

1765--Kamehamehanui died and was succeeded by his brother, Kahekili.

1768--Queen Kaahumanu was born at Kauiki. She became the favorite wife
of Kamehameha I.

1775--Kalaniopuu was defeated by Kahekili at Kaupo.

1776--Kalaniopuu invaded Maui at Maalaea; his army was annihilated on
the sand hills near Wailuku.

1777--Kalaniopuu took Lanai but again was repelled when he tried to
invade Maui.

1778, November 26--Captain James Cook, Royal British Navy, discovered
Maui.

1781--Kahekili reconquered East Maui. He recaptured the fort at Kauiki
by cutting off the water supply. To show contempt, he baked the
bodies of the defenders in earth ovens.

1786--Kamehameha I sent an expedition to recapture East Maui. It was
defeated at Kipahulu by Kalanikapule, the son of King Kahekili.

1786, May 28--La Perouse visited Maui and camped on Keoneoio lava flow.

1790--Olowalu massacre. The snow, _Eleanor_, under Captain Simon
Metcalf, treacherously opened fire on native boats following a
truce made after one white sailor had been murdered. More than a
hundred natives were slaughtered.

1790--Conquest of Maui by Kamehameha I after landing at Hana. He
decisively defeated Kalanikapule, in the Battle of Iao Valley or
Kepaniwai.

1793--Vancouver visited Maui on his second expedition. He tried to bring
about an end to the wars and to establish a lasting peace between
Maui and Hawaii.

1795--Maui was subdued by Kamehameha I without a battle.

1819--Kamehameha I, king of all Hawaii, died. Abolition of the _kapu_
system by Kamehameha II, incited by his guardian, Queen Kaahumanu.

1823--The Christian mission at Lahaina was founded by Rev. William
Richards and A. S. Stewart. On September 16, Queen Keopuolani, a
wife of Kamehameha I and a devout Christian, died at Lahaina. She
was buried with services by Rev. William Ellis.

1824--At Lahaina, Queen Regent Kaahumanu orally proclaimed a law
forbidding desecration of the Sabbath, fighting, murder, and
theft.

1825--The English frigate _The Blonde_ anchored off Lahaina with the
bodies of King Liholiho (Kamehameha II) and his queen, Kamamalu.
They had died from measles while on a visit to London.

1825--The crew from the Whaler _Daniel_ attempted to demolish the home
of Rev. Richards, Lahaina.

1826--Mosquitoes from Mexico were introduced at Lahaina by the SS
_Wellington_.

1827--The Whaler _John Palmer_ fired on the home of Rev. Richards.

1829--Ascent of Haleakala by a missionary party.

1834--First Hawaiian newspaper _Lama Hawaii_ was published at
Lahainaluna Mission School.

1839--An Hawaiian "Bill of Rights" was signed at Lahaina by Kamehameha
III. It afforded protection to all people and their property while
they conformed to the laws of the kingdom.

1841--Haleakala Crater was visited by Pickering and Breckenridge of the
United States Exploring Expedition under Captain John Wilkes, U.
S. Navy.

1841-1849--Peak of whaling industry in Hawaii. Lahaina was visited by
596 Whalers in 1846.

1850--David Malo, Hawaiian antiquarian and teacher at Lahainaluna
School, Lahaina, conducted Rev. William P. Alexander and Curtis
Lyons from Kaupo through Haleakala Crater, to Makawao, "a trip
never before undertaken by white men."

1876--S. F. Alexander and H. P. Baldwin started construction of the
Hamakua Ditch, first big irrigation project in Hawaii.

1890--First pineapples were planted at Haiku.

1893--Overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of the Republic of
Hawaii. Queen Liliuokalani was the last reigning sovereign.

1898, August 12--Hawaii was annexed to United States by joint
legislation of Congress. President Dole was appointed first
governor.

1916--Hawaii National Park was established by Act of Congress on August
1 with Haleakala Crater forming the Section on Maui.

1921--Hawaii National Park was formally opened.

1929, November 11--Establishment of commercial air service between the
islands.

1930--First permanent park position (ranger) was established to give
continuous service at Haleakala.

1931--First permanent park naturalist was appointed for Hawaii National
Park, although temporary, summer interpretive services were
started in the late twenties by the employment of Otto Degener,
formerly botanist at the University of Hawaii. Dr. Degener,
presently writing Book 6 of his "_Flora Hawaiiensis_," kindly
supplied many of the scientific plant names for this guide.

1935 February 23--Dedication ceremonies of Haleakala Road in Hawaii
National Park.

1937--Kapalaoa, Paliku, and Holua cabins were constructed.

1941--Haleakala closed to travel for military reasons.

1952-3--Present exhibits were installed in Summit Observation Station.

1958--Permanent naturalist position established for Haleakala.

1959--Hawaii becomes the 50th state in the Union.

GEOLOGY

THE ORIGIN OF THE SCENIC FEATURES

_The Island of Maui_ was built by two volcanoes. That forming West Maui is deeply dissected into several high peaks. The old summit crater now is encompassed by the head of Iao Valley. Mt. Kukui, the highest point, has an elevation of 5,788 feet.

East Maui is built of three series of lava products from Haleakala Volcano whose flows extended westward across the present isthmus to come to rest against the base of West Maui Volcano. These represent three great periods of activity, the latter two being separated by a long interval of quiescence that was characterized by intense erosion and mild, if any, eruptions. Geologists designate these three periods by the names Honomanu, Kula, and Hana. The mountain was built over three rifts, northerly, easterly, and southwesterly, each extending about fifteen miles.

In earliest (Honomanu) time, about the beginning of the Ice Ages, a symmetrical shield like Mauna Loa was built of pahoehoe and aa basalts 8,500 feet above present sea-level. During the next (Kula) cycle, eruptions were more explosive in nature; flows were composed of more viscous andesite between which layers of ash and soil accumulated. Big cinder cones and extensive ash beds were formed at this time. Like Mauna Kea today, the Honomanu dome was capped by a craterless mound of cinders, 2,500 feet high, that was studded with many lesser cones. The summit was a mile east of the present top on Red Hill and a thousand feet higher than it is today.

As Kula eruptions declined and grew less frequent, running water cut deeply into the sides of the mountain and excavated four great valleys, Keanae, Kaupo, Kipahulu, and Waihoi, that had broad heads, thousands of feet deep. Numerous lesser valleys were later to be buried more or less by lava flows. Most of the eastern summit ridge was worn away; Kaupo and Keanae Valleys met near the summit and fused into a great depression like that near the head of Iao Valley today. At one time, a great flow of mud, probably triggered by an earthquake, swept all before it as it moved down Kaupo Valley into the sea. Its remnants today are 350 feet deep at Puu Maneoneo near the coastal road. A similar mass movement of rock on soft mud was started by an earthquake on April 2, 1868 at Wood Valley, west of the Kilauea Section of Hawaii National Park; the flow, in its precipitous descent, buried a village with 31 people and more than 500 head of stock.

In recent times, volcanism again quickened at Haleakala, giving the third (Hana) series of volcanics. This veneered the east and west slopes of the volcano, covered the floor of the depression, and pushed great lava flows through Koolau and Kaupo Gaps to the sea. Large flows and cones mask the divide that delimited the two great valleys. During Hana time, the northern rift alone remained inactive. The most recent activity, dated by Hawaiian legend as 1750, is represented by two bare, black flows above La Perouse Bay, the southwest corner of the island.

Haleakala Crater, 7 miles long and 2½ miles wide, is locally proclaimed the largest extinct crater on earth, but the claim like the name is inaccurate. Nevertheless, it possesses a most unusual geological origin and beauty that give it a worthy place among the National Parks.

NUMBERED POINTS
1. PARK ENTRANCE; SILVERSWORD INN
2. HOSMER GROVE CAMPGROUND AND PICNIC AREA
3. ADMINISTRATION BUILDING, HAWAII NATIONAL PARK, HALEAKALA SECTION
4. KALAHAKU OVERLOOK; SILVERSWORD PLANTS
5. OBSERVATORY
6. WHITE HILL, START OF SLIDING SANDS TRAIL
7. RED HILL; SUMMIT OF HALEAKALA
8. SKYLINE DRIVE
9. START OF HALEMAUU TRAIL
10. HOLUA CABIN
11. SILVERSWORD LOOP
12. ANCIENT HAWAIIAN TRAIL
13. BOTTOMLESS PIT
14. KA MOA O PELE TRAIL
15. BUBBLE CAVE
16. WAIKAU CABIN
17. VOLCANIC DIKES; ANCIENT DIVIDE BETWEEN KOOLAU AND KAUPO RIVER
VALLEYS
18. LAUULU TRAIL
19. PALIKU CABIN
20. KIPAHULU VALLEY
21. KAUPO TRAIL
KIPAHULU FOREST RESERVE
KOOLAU FOREST RESERVE
HALEAKALA RANCH

THE GEOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION

The summit depression of Haleakala stimulates speculation, and competent geologists have come up with widely differing hypotheses regarding its origin. In the account of their visit (see The Historical Background, p. 29), the first foreign visitors naturally used the term "crater," which has been in vogue ever since. Pickering and Drayton of the Wilkes Expedition remark, "The crater of Haleakala, if so it may be called, is a deep gorge."[10]

Drayton's sketch was the first published map of the crater. James Dana, the great geologist with the Expedition, sailed past the mountain and later wrote a physiographic description based on notes made by Pickering and Drayton. In the official report, he expressed the idea, suggested by the crude map, that the mountain has been ripped apart by mighty convulsions that attended the most recent activity, so that the northeastern (Hana) part was separated along a zigzag crack from the rest of the mountain by the width of Keanae and Kaupo Valleys.[11] During the great eruptions that attended the rending, lava covered the floor and poured in great floods through Koolau and Kaupo Gaps.

W. D. Alexander, who surveyed the crater in 1869, believed: "... this is a real terminal crater, and not merely 'a deep gorge open at the north and east' or a caldera. I have indeed heard the theory proposed that the mountain is but a wreck of a complete dome with a small terminal crater, the whole top of which has fallen in and been carried away, as is supposed to have been the case with some of the volcanoes of Java, and the caldera of Palma."[12]

C. E. Dutton, volcanologist of the United States Geological Survey, objected to Dana's explanation and wrote that the depression is "strictly homologous" to Kilauea Crater, that is, a collapsed caldera.[13] He assumed that this had been tapped by the upper ends of Keanae and Kaupo drainages. In 1887, Dana had opportunity to make a quick trip through the crater and down Kaupo Valley, so that he tempered his earlier opinion and decided that Keanae and Kaupo valleys might be graben.[14] Reginald Daly of Harvard rejected the hypothesis that the depression was like Kilauea Crater, since arcuate faults so prominent at Kilauea are apparently absent at Haleakala.[15] In his paper on petrography, Whitman Cross stated, "What is commonly called the crater of Haleakala appears to me to be, in some part at least, a result of erosion."[16] At about the same time, Sidney Powers stated his belief that Kipahulu and Waihoi Valleys are graben, but he based his opinion on "authentic reports" and does not claim that he saw the valleys.[17]

H. T. Stearns analyzed carefully all the supporting evidence and objections to the various viewpoints.[18] Of all of his profession, he made the most thorough field surveys, with the conclusion that the "crater" is chiefly erosional, affected by the recession of two great amphitheater-headed valleys, instead of by collapse, sliding away of the side of a cone, or explosion. Small craters may have existed at the time, but not a large one resembling the present depression. He believed that the big size results from the fact that the heads were offset and not in a straight line. The shape of the depression is what would result upon the fusion of two amphitheater heads similar to those of Waikoi, Kipahulu, and Manawainui valleys of today. Each of these is a typical Hawaiian valley, narrow at the base, but with a broad amphitheater at the head. Kipahulu is separated from Waihoi and from Kaupo Valleys by narrow divides. It can be assumed that a similar divide once separated the amphitheaters at the heads of the early Kaupo and Keanae drainages. Stearns further believes that once the rift zone was reached, stream erosion was greatly accelerated because of the loosely knit structure, the presence of many weak cinder cones, and the dike complex. This complex, as in other places in Hawaii, must have yielded perennial spring water to accelerate erosion. His summary is as follows:

"No stratigraphic or constructural evidence was found to support the hypothesis that Haleakala Crater is a true caldera, that it was formed by renting, or that Keanae and Kaupo valleys tapping this depression are grabens. Instead, detailed mapping and the examination of water tunnels show that Haleakala dome has been eroded by a number of great valleys. The hypothesis is presented that the so-called "crater" of Haleakala is chiefly, if not entirely, the result of the coalescence of the amphitheater heads of Kaupo and Keanae valleys and that renewed volcanic activity has partly masked their former divide and partly filled these valleys with lava flows."

HALEAKALA PLANTS

Haleakala rises above the belt of warm trade winds into the cold, dry climate of the Alpine Zone. Temperatures at night may drop below freezing even in the warmer part of the year; the growing season is short and life is severe. The sparse plants that can live here crouch closely to the ground, diffusing or forming compact rosettes. All they have in which to grow are porous rocks and loose cinders that cannot hold moisture, lack organic matter, and do not yield a firm base for rooting. Species extending to lower elevations are here depauperate from wind and cold, although elsewhere they may attain a sturdy stature, even tree-size. Few seedlings are seen; individuals whose life span has finished remain conspicuous in death. Neither trees nor mats of shrubs are seen, but mosses and lichens find this Alpine desert to their liking. Oddly enough, one looks in vain for brilliant blossoms, such as one has come to expect in the high Sierra and the Rockies. The summit is a biological island on an oceanic island which, geological evidence indicates, never was part of a continent. The Hawaiian Chain was never near land of appreciable height and size.

How the Alpine plants came to Hawaii is uncertain since they have descended from ancestors so remote that past relationships are vague. The great Swedish botanist, Carl Skottsberg, believes that they are derived from a flora that grew on summits higher than any that exist today. Such assumption adds to the problem, as little else leads one to believe that elevations ever significantly exceeded 14,000 feet, i.e., the highest that exist today. In a report for the Fifth International Botanical Congress (Proceedings, pp. 91-97, Cambridge, 1931), Skottsberg listed 13 species found exclusively in the Alpine Zone, all of which are endemic, native to no other place than Hawaii's highest volcanoes. Three other species listed as occurring in the Alpine Zone extend their range downward into the next lower Subalpine Zone, for which he has listed a total of 23 species, 20 of which he labels endemic. These adjoining zones are not sharply delimited, but blend into each other at 9,000 feet.

As elevation decreases and conditions for growth become better, the number of plant species increases. The Subalpine Zone with lower limits just above the park entrance has some of the most interesting plants found in the islands. Trees are absent but some of its shrubs extend their range to lower elevations and grow big, sometimes even to tree-size. Most Subalpine plants have small leaves or leaflets, indicating that lasting moisture is still scant. Occasional snowfall seldom remains long and never piles into drifts, which would conserve moisture.

Most of the interior of the crater is bare or thinly covered with vegetation. The uncongenial climate of the summit spills into it and extends throughout its length, though the elevation is much lower. Extensive aa flows, ash, and cinder cones cover the floor. Yet the crater has perhaps become best known through the presence of one of its plants, the silversword. Also, the lips of Koolau and Kaupo Gaps are botanically distinctive in contrast to the barreness elsewhere. This results from the fog and rain that sweep through them in late morning, only to dissolve upon mixing with the warmer air inside. As the day progresses, clouds push further and further inward, until, rarely, the whole depression may become filled. Koolau especially is a treasure-trove for the plant-lover. Below 6,000 feet, quite outside the park, it becomes impenetrable jungle surpassed only by that in Kipahulu Valley, a few miles east. Kaupo Cap is comparatively dry, but it supports a sparse scrub cover of great interest. The lower parts of Kaupo Valley are grazing land. Paliku is the only place within the park in which vegetation is lush. As it climbs Leleiwi Pali, Halemauu Trail is bordered by OHELO and ferns, among them AMAUMAU which is pleasing to the weary hiker's eye.

In the northwestern angle of the park not far from the inn, Nianiau Crater has had a renowned floral character and history. Today it is overgrazed and drab. Dr. Joseph Rock, Hawaii's famed dendrologist, discovered a curious tree _lobelia_, _Clermontia haleakalensis_, growing within it. He happily described the plant as "antediluvian in appearance." This most primitive member of a distinctive Hawaiian floral group had a robust trunk from which clumsy, stubby branches shot off, each crowned with a feather-duster of long, thick, strap-shaped leaves like some pompous dictator's headdress. MAMANE and AKALA grew thickly around it; rarer associates included tree geraniums, _Neurophyllodes sp._, with flowers like violets, tree _Railliardia_, shrubby Hawaiian buttercups, and greensword, _Argyroxiphium virescens_, that is threatened with extermination by grazing to an extent greater than of its relative, the silversword.

Even though they are outside the park, some plant communities on the outer slopes of the mountain should be mentioned, because they are related to park forms and carry a compelling interest. The trail from Olinda to Waikamoi is through a transition forest between the wet and the dry that once drew botanists from many parts of the globe. It is now overgrown with foreign weeds, so that native shrubs survive only here and there. The mountain forests above Olinda have all been destroyed and are replaced by plants from faraway lands.

Although it now lies devastated by change, one of the richest botanical regions in Hawaii comprises the forbidding lava fields of Auwahi on the southwest slope of Haleakala. Fifty species of native trees once thrived in its fabulous mixed forests. The only known specimen of Maui hibiscadelphus, _H. wilderianus_, a relative of the hibiscus, was found here. It had a curved corolla that opened only slightly at the top. Its congener, _H. giffardianus_, once equally rare, still survives in Kipuka Puaulu at Kilauea, where a few vigorous plants, started by air-layering, receive tender care from the National Park. The last known Maui specimen of MAHOE, _Alectryon macrococcus_, grows in an Auwahi gulch. This tree has large double fruits (_mahoe_ means _twins_) that split open to expose a shiny, chestnut-brown seed clasped in a brilliant scarlet aril. The ALANI, _Pelea multiflora_, of the lava fields is festooned with a lichen, _Usnea australis_, that appears to prefer it to all other trees. Haleakala sandalwood, _Santalum haleakalae_, with attractive red flowers grows to be a tree 25 feet tall. Other famous native trees include 'OHE'OHE, _Tetraplasandra kauaiensis_; 'OHE, _Tetraplasandra meiandra_; A'E, _Fagara_ sp.; 'ALA'A, _Planchonella auahiensis_, with golden fruits; HO'AWA, _Pittosporum terminalioides_; OLOPUA, _Nestegis sandwicensis_; A'IA'I, _Pseudomorus sandwicensis_; MEHANE, _Antidesma pulvinatum_; and KAUILA, _Alphitonia ponderosa_, whose hard and durable timber was used in sacred structures.

Many unusual plants occur in the steep valleys to the north and east outside the park. Since the dense jungles in which they grow are inaccessible except to hardiest botanists, they are seldom seen. Here grow 'APE'APE, _Gunnera petaloidea_, a plant with geranium-like leaves three or more feet in diameter; a delicate, rare, native begonia, _Hillebrandia sandwicensis_; several exquisitely flowering lobelias. The summit bogs on Kukui and Mt. Eke in West Maui have a curious, distinctive flora that includes three species with origins ascribed to the Antarctic: _Orebolus furcatus_, a sedge; _Acaena exigua_ of the Rose Family; and _Lagenophora mauiensis_, a composite.

The Haleakala road is the easiest way to reach elevations above 7,000 feet in Hawaii. The lower mountain slopes up which it winds were once clothed with fern jungles that yielded with altitude to dry forest. All is now altered. Extensive grasslands and eucalyptus groves today leave the lasting impression on the visitor. Even on the heights, cattle, goats, introduced plants, insects, and other agents have wrought permanent change. Rare and interesting forms of native life have been exterminated or are well on the way to extinction. The National Park is trying hard to save what is left of the native cover within its boundaries and to restore the former scene wherever it is possible to do so.

Plants of the distinctive Haleakala environment show differences, some slight, some considerable, from close relatives elsewhere. Examples are the OLAPA at Paliku, the silversword, and the KUPAOA. The differences have been fashioned by combinations of factors. The unstable, permeable ash and cinders have scant soil and little available mineral matter. They cannot hold water nor do they yield secure anchorage. The effects of winds, isolation, exposure, and nature of terrain are reflected by the distorted shapes. Silversword, _Artemisia_, _Bidens_, and many other plants well show adaptation to peculiar environment. Why are some species found nowhere else? How did the plants get here in the first place and how have they changed with the passing of time? What has been the impact of exotics? What use did the Hawaiians make of the plants? To the hurried and casual visitor, the flora of Haleakala may appear drab and uninteresting. With better acquaintance, it becomes a stimulating study indeed.

PLANT NOTES

THE FERNS. The Sliding Sands Trail drops from White Hill on bare slopes of red and gray Cinders. As it levels below Puu o Pele, a lush, green carpet spreads along the south wall of the crater. It is a surprise to discover that ferns compose the verdure, for several kinds find the shelter of the cliffs agreeable. Haleakala's KA'UPU, _Polystichum haleakalense_ Brack., a rather coarse, low plant with scaly stems, grows among the shrubs. The pellucid polypody, 'AE, _Polypodium pellucidum_ Kaulf., and the maidenhair spleenwort, 'IWA'IWA, _Asplenium adiantum-nigrum_ L., grow here, but they are common elsewhere as well. Iwaiwa is a small plant with shiny, slender stems and stiff, triangular fronds that thrives in the brush. On Leleiwi Pali it is a tiny thing, clinging to the rocks. This fern is known in mountainous regions in many countries. Another maidenhair spleenwort, 'OWALI'I, _Asplenium trichomanes_ L., makes its home on barren lava above 5,000 feet on the inner slopes of the crater. Its small, opposite, rounded or ovate frond segments, _pinnae_, grow on wiry stems that form dense clumps. Look for it along Halemauu Trail on Leleiwi Pali. It is found in the temperate zones and on high mountains in many parts of the world.

Bracken, KILAU, _Pteridium aquilinum_ var. _decompositum_ (Gaud.) Tryon, a stiff cosmopolitan, is among the best-known ferns. It grows in grassy spots inside and outside the crater. Foraging pigs, seeking its tasty rootstocks, often uproot it in the forests. The young leaves of AMA'UMA'U, _Sadleria cyatheoides_ Kaulf., add a touch of red along Halemauu Trail on Leleiwi Pali. At Paliku, several moisture-loving ferns grow on logs, rocks, and moss-covered trees. Large, dense ae are quite unlike the frail specimens on Leleiwi Pali. The following can be seen in damp spots and on tree trunks: Maui's paddle, 'EKAHA, _Elaphoglossum reticulatum_ (Kaulf.) Gaud., with paddle-shaped blades 6-12 inches long; 'EKAHA-'AKOLEA, _Pleopeltis thunbergiana_ Kaulf., a small fern with tough, pale, elliptico-oblong (paddle-shaped) fronds; and MOA, _Psilotum complanatum_ Sw., belonging to a small group of tropical plants, PSILOTALES, which reproduce by spores, but are distinct from true ferns, clubmosses, and the better-known orders.

Swordfern, NI'ANI'AU or 'OKUPUKUPU, _Nephrolepis exaltata_ (L.) Schott., is widely distributed at Haleakala as it is elsewhere in Hawaii. Cliffbrake, KALAMOHO LAULI'I, _Pellaea ternifolia_ (Cav.) Link, grows among rocks in dry, sunny locations at higher elevations above the park entrance and inside the crater. It is common. The bluish-green pinnae of this short, slender fern grow on opposite sides of the dark, wiry stems. They are cleft into three linear segments.

THE NATIVE GRASSES. Several native grasses grow above the park entrance: _Trisetum glomeratum_ (Kunth) Trin., _Deschampsia australis_ forma _haleakalensis_ Skottsb., and _Agrostis sandwicensis_ Hillebr. The _Trisetum_, also common inside the crater, is called mountain pili, PILI being the lowland grass known in many tropical regions and used for thatching houses in Hawaii. The Hawaiian name for _T. glomeratum_ is PILIUKA, upland pili. In some places it is also called HE'U PUEO, the hoot of an owl.

All three grasses are tufted, i.e., bunch grasses. The _Deschampsia_ has tough, wiry blades (leaves) with shiny, open panicles of flowers and seeds. The _Agrostis_ has stiffly upright blades and culms (jointed stems) with spike-like panicles. The pili has flat blades usually covered with soft hairs. The panicles are contracted or spike-like.

THE SEDGES. Fig. 1. Sedges are generally grasslike wind-pollinated herbs that grow in tufts or bunches. They are often the dominant plants in cold marshes, especially in the Arctic. They have little economic value and grazing animals find them unpalatable. Some have tough, pliable stems that are woven into mats and baskets; some have fruiting spikes that are attractive in dry bouquets. Most have 3-angled stems around which the blades are ranked. The inconspicuous, green flowers are crowded in tight, flattened spikes, often grouped on top of a slender, grasslike stem. Hawaii has a dozen or more native genera with many of its species widespread in the world.

The species common on the upper slopes of Haleakala and on the crater floor, _Gahnia gaudichaudii_ Steud., bears shiny, ebony fruits. These can dangle, suspended by the wilted, threadlike stamens for more than a year from the fruiting stalk. Another sedge, _Carex macloviana subfusca_ (W. Boott) Kukenth., grows in clumps along the south wall. The fruiting stalks bear cylindrical or ovoid clusters of 4-9 spikelets, each ½-1 inch long. This sedge grows from Lapland and Greenland to northern South America, but in Hawaii it has been found only on Haleakala and Kohala Mountains above 4,000 feet. The Hawaiian variety was first described from a specimen collected at Lake Tahoe, California. The interesting _Oreobolus furcatus_ H. Mann, mentioned as occurring on West Maui, also grows in Koolau Gap.

RUSH, _Luzula hawaiiensis_ (O. Ktze.) Buch. A visitor brought me a small tufted plant with grass-like leaves covered with soft, silky hairs. He was all excited, believing he had found a young silversword on the cinder flats near the summit of Mt. Hualalai. The plant was the endemic rush that lives in wet places above 3,000 feet in the mountains of Maui, Hawaii, and Kauai. In Haleakala Crater, I found it on Leleiwi Pali and near Paliku, where others might mistake it for an immature silversword or greensword. The Hawaiian general name for grasses, sedges, and rushes is MAU'U.

PAINIU, _Astelia degeneri_ Skottsb. This plant is reported by Degener to be growing within the crater.[19]

MAU'U-LA'ILI, _Sisyrinchium acre_ H. Mann. A native member of the Iris Family with grass-like leaves that grows on old lava flows between altitudes of 3,500 and 7,500 feet on Maui and Hawaii. It is an attractive plant that rarely exceeds 12 inches high. In July and August it bears yellow flowers ¾ inch across that last only a few hours. In the crater it may be found in Koolau and Kaupo Gaps. The leaves, bound tightly around the wrists and ankles, stain the skin a blue color that lasts several days. This stain was regarded as proof that a person had been to the crater. A number of other species of the genus are mainland wildflowers commonly called blue-eyed grass.

ORCHIDS. Fig. 2. The Orchid Family of over 15,000 species is second only to the Composite Family in size, yet only three species of three genera are native in Hawaii, a land connected in thought with an exuberance of gay orchids. Moreover, the three endemic species are characterized by small size, relative rarity, and inconspicuous flowers. Twayblade, _Liparis hawaiiensis_ H. Mann, grows in open woods on the ground and on moss-covered trees on the flanks of the volcano and at Paliku. The rarest of the three natives, _Habenaria holochila_ Hillebr., has been found growing 1-2½ feet high in deep moss in fog-swept Koolau Gap. It bears its dull-greenish, inconspicuous orchids on a tall, many-flowered spike.

'ALA 'ALAWAINUI, _Peperomia sp._ A small herb with succulent leaves found at Paliku. It is a member of the Pepper Family, _Piperaceae_, to which AWA, _Piper methysticum_, belongs. There are many Peperomias native to Hawaiian forests. Some have leaves with gay red undersides.

SANDALWOOD, 'ILIAHI, _Santalum haleakalae_ Hillebr. Fig. 3. A small but striking tree found above the park entrance, in Koolau Gap, and along the Kaupo Trail below Paliku. It has leathery, dark green leaves so that it stands out in the vegetation and is readily distinguished from afar. In mid-summer, corymbs of four-pointed, deep-red or vermillion flowers appear on the ends of branches. The dry heartwood has the fragrance which is associated with the name sandalwood. Degener tells the detailed story of sandalwood trade that flourished in the islands for fifty years beginning in 1790.[20]

SHEEP SORREL, _Rumex acetosella_ L., an abundant, well-known, introduced weed found both inside the crater and out. A native species called PAWALE, _Rumex gigantius_ Ait., is more interesting. It grows as a stocky undershrub on barren lava flows and in rock crevices inside the crater. In Koolau Gap, it becomes a sprawling vine. It is said that a mixture of an extraction from the boiled bark and AWA was used by Hawaiians for skin diseases. This was tried in vain as a cure for leprosy when the disease first appeared in the islands in 1840.

HAWAIIAN BUTTERCUP, MAKOU, _Ranunculus hawaiiensis_ A. Gray. Like the native violets and geraniums, members of this genus, well-known on the mainland, either become bushy or spread as a woody vine in Hawaii. Two native species occur on Haleakala, but the yellow-flowered, sprawling _R. mauiensis_ A. Gray is reported only outside the park. The larger flowered, erect Hawaiian buttercup, however, was reported by J. F. Rock to be abundant formerly in Puu Nianiau Crater. It is a coarse, hollow-stemmed, hairy herb with compound leaves divided into three sharply-toothed, irregular leaflets. Within Haleakala Crater it grows on moist, grassy slopes in Koolau Gap.

HO'AWA, _Pittosporum confertiflorum_ A. Gray. A small tree, sometimes becoming 25 feet tall. The large leaves, shiny green on top, brown hairy underneath, are crowded like whorls on the ends of the branches. In the centers of these, dense clusters of fleshy, cream-colored flowers appear in late summer. Wrinkled fruits, resembling English walnuts, hang on the trees throughout the year. Very few trees grow in the crater, but they are more numerous above 4,000 feet along the Kaupo Trail and at Ulupalakua. The genus of some 200 species is widespread; it has many species native to Hawaii. Some kinds are well-known garden plants. _Pittosporum tobira_ (Thunb.) Ait., a native of China and Japan, is a favorite shrub in California.

HAWAIIAN HAWTHORN, 'ULEI, _Osteomeles anthyllidifolia_ Smith (Lindl). A spreading shrub with compound leaves and fragrant, small, white flowers, like apple blossoms, that may appear throughout the year. The fruit is white and contains five stony seeds. Plants growing on ash flats are very small. The strong but pliable wood of ulei was used for digging sticks, fish spears, and hoops to keep the mouths of fishing nets open.

HAWAIIAN RASPBERRY, 'AKALA, _Rubus hawaiiensis_ A. Gray. Fig. 5. A shrub with attractive pink flowers abundant at Paliku. It is found also in Koolau Gap at the foot of Leleiwi Pali and elsewhere. The fruit, agreeable but somewhat bitter, is remarkable for its large size. It ripens about the Fourth of July or later. A trailing native, _R. macraei_ A. Gray, sprawls in foggy Koolau Gap. Its large, dark fruits are bitter.

MAMANE, _Sophora chrysophylla_ Salisb. Fig. 4. A common native shrub or small tree of the Bean Family both inside and outside the crater up to tree line. It is recognized by more or less downy, narrow, compound leaves, racemes of yellow flowers, and twisted pods that have four wings and are constricted between the seeds. Goats eat it greedily and quickly exterminate it in an area. The hard, durable wood was used by Hawaiians in many ways; today it is a principal firewood for the crater cabins. A tree in full bloom is a beautiful object. The height of the flowering season is mid-spring.

GERANIUM, NOHOANU, HINAHINA. Fig. 6, 7. _Neurophyllodes tridens_ (Hillebr.) Degener & Greenwell is common above the park entrance and on the south wall within the crater. It sometimes becomes three feet tall and is readily identified by its silvery leaves, each of which has three small teeth on the end. The white flowers have purplish veins especially toward their centers. The blooming season is July to October. The silvery aspect of the plant, like the silversword, is imparted by a mesh of fine white hair that reflects the light of a passing car as effectively as the glass-beaded paint of directional signs.

Two native geranium relatives grow in Koolau Gap, _N. ovatifolium_ (A. Gray) Degener & Greenwell and its variety _superbum_. The latter is common on the trail to Waikau not far from the foot of Leleiwi Pali.

One of the common plants growing on the crater floor is the exotic pink-flowered _G. carolinianum_ var. _australi_ (Benth.) Fosberg whose pointed fruiting bodies give it the common name, _cranesbill_.

HAWAIIAN HOLLY, KAWA'U, _Ilex anomala_ Hook and Arn. The forest growing on the talus behind the Paliku cabins is the finest within the crater. A striking tree of this association is the Hawaiian holly that has dark, shiny, oval leaves with conspicuous networks of slightly depressed veins that make identification easy. Dense panicles of small, white flowers are followed by shiny, black drupes, like Christmas holly "berries." The genus is that of the English holly. Curiously, the scientific name has been locally corrupted to _ileck_.

OLOMEA, _Perrottetia sandwicensis_ A. Gray. A native shrub or small tree belonging to the same family as the bittersweet of the continent. The numerous tiny, round, red fruits, borne in panicles, suggest the relationship. The bright red venation of leaves and petioles make the plant easily recognized. I know of no plants within the park, but found many trees a thousand feet below the park boundary in Keanae Valley.