Chapter I: Part 1

Transcriber’s Note

Words in italics are marked with _underscores_.

Words in small capitals are shown in UPPER CASE.

Variant spelling, inconsistant hyphenation and inconsistant use of ligatures, have been retained.

One missing full stop has been added, a duplicate word has been deleted, but otherwise the book is as printed.

Descriptions of the diagrams, have been added by the transcriber, and are enclosed in {braces}.

Other transcription changes are described in the note at the end of this book.

_George Philip & Son, Ltd. The London Geographical Institute._
]

CAMBRIDGE COUNTY GEOGRAPHIES
General Editor: F. H. H. GUILLEMARD, M.A., M.D.

HERTFORDSHIRE

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
London: FETTER LANE, E.C.
C. F. CLAY, MANAGER.

Edinburgh: 100, PRINCES STREET.
Berlin: A. ASHER AND CO.
Leipzig: F. A. BROCKHAUS.
New York: G. P. PUTNAM’S SONS.
Bombay and Calcutta: MACMILLAN AND CO., LTD.

[_All Rights reserved._]

_Cambridge County Geographies_

HERTFORDSHIRE

by

R. LYDEKKER

With Maps, Diagrams and Illustrations

Cambridge:
at the University Press
1909

Cambridge:
PRINTED BY JOHN CLAY, M.A.
AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS

CONTENTS

PAGE

1. County and Shire. The Name _Hertfordshire_. Its
Origin and Meaning 1

2. General Characteristics of the County 4

3. Size. Shape. Boundaries 8

4. Surface and General Features 10

5. Watershed. Rivers 16

6. Geology and Soil 25

7. Natural History 38

8. Climate and Rainfall 50

9. People--Race, Dialect, Settlements, Population 57

10. Agriculture--Main Cultivations, Woodlands, Stock 62

11. Special Cultivations 67

12. Industries and Manufactures 70

13. Minerals--An Exhausted Industry 74

14. History of Hertfordshire 76

15. Antiquities--Prehistoric, Roman, Saxon 87

16. Architecture. (_a_) Ecclesiastical--Abbeys and Churches 97

17. Architecture. (_b_) Military--Castles 109

18. Architecture. (_c_) Domestic--Famous Seats, Manor
Houses, Cottages 114

19. Communications--Past and Present. Roads, Railways,
Canals 125

20. Administration and Divisions--Ancient and Modern 135

21. The Roll of Honour of the County 141

22. The Chief Towns and Villages of Hertfordshire 151

ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Modern Hertfordshire: Station Road, Letchworth 4

Ancient Hertfordshire: Thatched Cottages, Harpenden 5

An Old Farm-House near Wheathampstead 7

A Typical Hertfordshire Village: Much Hadham 12

Bancroft, Hitchin 15

Netting the Gade, Cassiobury Park 21

Bishop’s Stortford 24

View on the Downs looking towards Wallington from
the Icknield Way 32

Six Hills, Stevenage (Danish Barrows) 39

Tring Park 46

French Row, St Albans 60

Ancient House at Welwyn, now the Police Station 62

A Hertfordshire Farm near Rickmansworth 64

A Lavender Field, Hitchin 69

Moor Park, near Rickmansworth 72

Canal and Lock, Rickmansworth 73

Monastery Gateway, St Albans 77

The Staircase, Hatfield House 83

Cassiobury 84

The Rye House: Portions of the Servants’ Quarters 86

Palaeolithic Flint Implement 89

Neolithic Celt of Greenstone 89

The Devil’s Dyke, Marford 92

Ancient Causeway, Verulam (St Albans) 93

Roman Wall in St Germans’ Meadow, Verulam 94

St Albans’ Abbey from the south side 95

St Peter’s, Tewin 99

St Mary’s, Cheshunt 100

St Helen’s, Wheathampstead 101

St Mary’s, Hemel Hempstead 102

St Albans’ Abbey 103

Ruins of Sopwell Nunnery, St Albans 106

The Priory, Hitchin 107

Courtyard in the Biggin Almshouses, Hitchin 108

The Priory, King’s Langley 109

Hatfield House, South Front 116

Knebworth House 117

Water End Farm near Wheathampstead 118

Christ’s Hospital School, Hertford 119

The Grammar School, Hitchin 120

An Old Malting House, Baldock 121

Chequer’s Yard, Watford 122

The “Fighting Cocks,” St Albans 123

Waltham Cross 124

The Ermine Street at Hertford Heath 126

The Icknield Way, showing a Ford between Ickleford and
Wilbury Hill 127

High Street, Stevenage 129

View on the Great North Road, Codicote Village 130

Watford 131

The Grand Junction Canal near Hemel Hempstead 133

Haileybury College 134

The Shire Hall, Hertford 139

The Salisbury Statue, Hatfield 143

Cecil Rhodes’s Birth-place, Bishop’s Stortford 144

Ruins of Verulam House, the Residence of Francis,
Viscount St Albans 145

Francis Bacon, Viscount St Albans 146

Charles Lamb 148

William Cowper 149

Bishop’s Stortford and the River Stort 155

The College Chapel, Haileybury 157

Letchworth, Open Air School 162

Shrine of St Amphibalus, St Albans’ Abbey 165

Diagrams 170

MAPS

Hertfordshire, Topographical _Front Cover_

” Geological _Back Cover_

England and Wales, showing Annual Rainfall 55

The illustrations on pp. 7, 32, 60, 62, 64, 83, 86, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100, 101, 102, 106, 108, 109, 116, 118, 119, 121, 122, 123, 124, 126, 127, 130, 133, 139, and 143 are reproduced from photographs by The Homeland Association, Ltd.; and those on pp. 4, 12, 15, 24, 39, 46, 69, 72, 73, 77, 99, 103, 107, 117, 120, 129, 144, 145, 155, 161, and 165 are from photographs by Messrs F. Frith & Co., Ltd., Reigate. Messrs H. W. Taunt & Co., of Oxford, supplied the views on pp. 21, 84 and 131; Mr A. Elsden, of Hertford, those on pp. 134 and 157; and Mr H. Valentine, of Harpenden, the one on p. 5.

1. County and Shire. The Name _Hertfordshire_. Its Origin and Meaning.

The only true and right way of learning geography (which in its widest sense comprehends almost everything connected with the earth) is to become acquainted with the geography--or, strictly speaking, the topography--and history of the district in which we live. Modern England is split up into a number of main divisions known as _counties_, and in some instances also as _shires_; the word _shire_, when it is used, being added at the end of the county name. Thus we have the county of Essex or the county of Hertford; but whereas in the former case the word _shire_ is never added, it may be in the case of the latter. We then have either the county of Hertford, or Hertfordshire, as the full designation of the territorial unit in which we dwell. In official documents our area is always mentioned under the title of the “County of Hertford”; but imperfectly educated persons when filling in such documents frequently write the “County of Hertfordshire.” This is wrong and superfluous; shire being equivalent to county.

The word _county_ signifies an area of which a _count_ or _earl_ is the titular head. Here it may be incidentally mentioned that the title “Earl” is of Saxon origin, which it was attempted to replace after the Conquest by the Norman-French “Count”; the attempt being successful only in the case of an Earl’s consort, who is still known as “Countess.” It also obtained in the case of “County,” which is thus practically equivalent to “Earldom.”

It now remains to enquire why some counties are also known as shires, while others are not thus designated. In Anglo-Saxon times England, in place of being one great kingdom, was split up into a number of petty kingdoms, each ruled by a separate sovereign. Essex was then a kingdom by itself, situated in the east of the country; while Wessex was a western kingdom, and Mercia a sovereignty more in the heart of the country. Essex and Sussex, being small kingdoms, were constituted counties by themselves when the country came under a single dominion, and their names have consequently remained without addition or alteration from Anglo-Saxon times to our own day. The larger kingdoms, such as Wessex and Mercia, were, on the other hand, split up into _shares_, or _shires_,--i.e. that which is shorn or cut off--and their names have disappeared except as items in history. Hertfordshire, then, is in great part a _share_ of the ancient kingdom of Mercia, of which, indeed, it seems to have formed a centre, as the Mercian kings spent at least a portion of their time at Berghamstedt (Berkhampstead). It is however only the larger western portion of the county that belonged to Mercia, a smaller area on the eastern side originally being included in the kingdom of Essex.

As to the meaning of the name Hertford, there has been some difference of opinion among archaeologists. In that extremely ancient chronicle, “Domesday Book,” the name, it appears, is spelt Herudsford, which is interpreted as meaning “the red ford.” The more general and obvious interpretation is, however, that of “hart’s-ford,” from the Anglo-Saxon _heort_, a hart, or stag; and this explanation is supported by the occurrence in other parts of the country of such names as Oxford, Horseford, Gatford (= goat’s-ford), Fairford (= sheep’s-ford), and Swinford. Writing on this subject in a paper on Hertfordshire place-names published in 1859, the Rev. Henry Hall, after alluding to the custom of naming fords after animals, concluded as follows:--“At all events, the custom is so prevalent, and the word hart so common for Anglo-Saxon localities, as Hart’s-bath, Hartlepool (the Hart’s pool), Hartly--that though several other derivations have been given for the capital of the county, none seems so simple, or so satisfactory, as that which interprets it to mean the hart’s ford.”

This interpretation has been adopted by that division of His Majesty’s local forces formerly known as the H_a_rtfordshire Militia. Possibly it is supported by the title of a neighbouring village, Hertingfordbury, that is to say, the stronghold near Hertingford,--the ford at the hart’s meadow. Whether or not it has anything to do with the matter, it may be worthy of mention that red-deer antlers occur in considerable abundance buried in the peat of Walthamstow, lower down the Lea valley, in Essex.

2. General Characteristics of the County.

Hertford is an inland county, situated in the south-eastern portion of England, and cut off from the nearest sea by the whole width of Essex, which forms the greater portion of its eastern border. Neither has it any great river of its own communicating with the ocean; although the Lea, which is navigable below Hertford, and falls into the Thames at Barking in Essex, affords the means of transporting malt (the great output of Ware) and other products to London and elsewhere by water. As to canal communication, this will be discussed in a later section.

Originally Hertford was essentially an agricultural county, as it is to a great extent at the present day; its northern three-quarters being noted for its production of corn. The southern portion, on the other hand, was partly a hay-growing and grazing country. Nowadays, however, more especially on the great lines of railway, conditions have materially altered; and large areas have become residential districts, which in the more southern part are little more than suburbs of the metropolis. Printing-establishments and factories--moved from London for the sake of cheapness--have likewise been set up on the outskirts of many of the larger towns, such as St Albans and Watford, or even in some of the villages. On the other hand, the old-fashioned timbered and tiled or thatched cottages formerly so characteristic of the county are rapidly vanishing and giving place to the modern abominations in brick and slate. Gone, too, is the old-fashioned and picturesque smock-frock of the labourer and the shepherd, which was still much in evidence some five and forty years ago, or even later; its disappearance being accompanied by the loss of many characteristic local words and phrases, to some of which reference will be made in a later section. The gangs of Irish mowers and reapers which used to perambulate the county at hay and harvest time are likewise a feature of the past.

The scenery of the southern portion of the county differs--owing to its different geological formation--very markedly from that of the northern two-thirds; the latter area representing what may be called typical Hertfordshire. Although there is nothing grand or striking in the scenery of this part, for quiet and picturesque beauty--whether of the village with its ancient church nestling in the shelter of the well-wooded valley, or the winding and tall-hedged lanes (where they have been suffered to remain)--it would be hard to beat; and in many instances is fully equal in charm to the much-vaunted Devonshire scenery, although, it is true, the hedge-banks lack the abundant growth of ferns characteristic of those of the latter county. Very characteristic of this part of the county are its open gorse or heath commons, like those of Harpenden, Gustard Wood, Bower’s Heath, and Berkhampstead. From the higher chalk downs on the northern marches of the county extensive views may be obtained over the flats of Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire; while in like manner the southern range of chalk hills in the neighbourhood of Elstree presents a panoramic view over the low-lying clay plains of the southern portion of the county and Middlesex.

In former days, it may be mentioned in this place, the inhabitants of most, if not all, of the English counties had nicknames applied to them by their neighbours; “Hertfordshire Hedgehogs” being the designation applied to natives of this county, while their neighbours to the eastward were dubbed “Essex Calves.”

3. Size. Shape. Boundaries.

The maximum length of Hertfordshire, along a line running in a south-westerly and north-easterly direction, is about twenty-eight miles; while its greatest breadth, along a line passing near its centre from the neighbourhood of Tring to that of Bishop’s Stortford, is very nearly the same. Owing to its extremely irregular outline, the county has, for its size, a very large circumference, measuring approximately 130 miles. Here it should be stated that the ancient area of the county differs somewhat from that of what is now known as the administrative county. According to the census of 1901, the area of the ancient, or geographical county, included 406,157 acres, whereas that of the administrative county is only 404,518 acres[1], or about 630 square miles. The difference in these numbers is due to the fact that certain portions of the old county, such as that part of the parish of Caddington originally included in Hertfordshire, have been transferred to adjacent counties. The figures relating to population, etc. given in the sequel refer to the administrative county.

[1] In the _Report_ of the Board of Agriculture published in 1905 the number of acres is given as 402,856; and this is taken as the basis of calculation in section 10 and in the diagrams.

In size Hertford may be reckoned a medium county, its acreage being rather less than that of Surrey, and about half that of Essex.

To describe the shape of Hertfordshire is almost an impossibility, on account of its extremely irregular contour; but as its two maximum diameters are approximately equal, it may be said to lie in a square, of which the four angles have been cut away to a greater or less extent in a curiously irregular manner. The reason of this irregular outline, seeing that only the eastern border is formed to any great extent by a river-valley, is very difficult to guess. Where its south-eastern boundary leaves the Lea valley in the neighbourhood of Waltham Abbey, Middlesex gives off from Enfield Chase a kind of peninsula running in a north-westerly direction into Hertfordshire; while, in its turn, Hertfordshire, a short distance to the south, sends a better-marked and irregular peninsula (in which stands Chipping Barnet) jutting far into Middlesex. In consequence of this interlocking arrangement, a portion of Hertfordshire actually lies to the south of a part of Middlesex, although, as a whole, the former county is due north of the latter. Another, but narrower, projection runs from the south-western corner of the county in the neighbourhood of Rickmansworth so as to cut off the north-western corner of Middlesex from Buckinghamshire; while a third prominence, in which Tring is situated, is wedged into Buckinghamshire from the western side of the county. Other minor projections occur on the north-western and northern border, of which the most pronounced is the one north of Baldock, jutting in between Bedfordshire and Cambridgeshire.

As regards boundaries, Hertfordshire is bordered on the east by Essex, by Middlesex on the south, by Buckinghamshire on the south-west, by Bedfordshire on the north-west, and, to a small extent, by Cambridgeshire on the north. From a short distance below the Rye House to Waltham Abbey the boundary between Hertfordshire and Essex is a natural one, formed by the rivers Stort and Lea; but the other boundaries of our county are, for the most part at any rate, purely artificial.

It should be added that these boundaries at the present day do not everywhere accord with those of half a century ago. The parish of Caddington was, for instance, in former days partly in Hertfordshire and partly in Bedfordshire, but under the provisions of the Local Government Act of 1888, confirmed in 1897, the whole of it was included in the latter county. Certain other alterations were made about the same time in the boundary.

4. Surface and General Features.

The contours of a district depend almost entirely upon the nature of its geological formations, and the action of rain, rivers, and frost upon the rocks of which they are composed. These formations in the case of this county are briefly described in a later section. Here it must suffice to state that hard slaty rocks form jagged mountain ranges, while soft limestones like our Hertfordshire chalk weather into rounded dome-like hills and ridges, and heavy clays form flat plains. As the bed-rock, or, as we may say, foundation, of Hertfordshire, is constituted either by chalk or clay, it is the two latter types of scenery that mainly characterise this county. It is only, however, on the north-western and northern borders of the county, as at Ivinghoe in Bucks, or between Sandon and Pirton, that we find typical chalk scenery, where the downs forming the north-easterly continuation of the Chiltern Hills of Buckinghamshire enter our own area. Here we find the rounded downs and hollow combes characteristic of the South and North Downs of the south-eastern counties; and the same absence of woods, except where artificial foresting has been attempted. Some approach to true chalk scenery is likewise shown on the line of hills on the London side of Elstree, where they overlook the clay plain forming this part of northern Middlesex. There is, however, a difference in the scenery of this part as compared with that of the downs to the north in that these hills are partially covered with a capping of clay or gravel, while the beds or layers of which the chalk is composed slope towards the plains at the base of the ridge instead of in the opposite direction (see section on GEOLOGY).

Elsewhere the chalk is covered over to a greater or less degree, alike on the hills and in the valleys, with thick deposits of clay, sand, and gravel. These communicate to the hills and valleys a contour quite different from that of chalk downs; and in many parts of the county we have a series of more or less nearly parallel lines of low undulating hills separated by wide, open valleys. Examples of this type of scenery are conspicuous in walking from the valley of the Ver at Redbourn across the hill on which Rothamsted stands, then descending into the riverless valley of Harpenden, again crossing the hill to the east of the latter, and then descending into the valley of the Lea near the Great Northern railway station.

This capping of clay permits the growth of forest on the hills, as do the alluvial deposits in the valleys; so that in its well-wooded character the scenery of the greater part of the county is altogether different from that characterising the bare North and South Downs and the Chiltern Hills. Where the chalk comes near the surface there is a marked tendency to the growth of beech-trees, splendid examples of which may be seen in Beechwood Park. Elsewhere in the chalk districts the elm is the commonest timber-tree; although it should be said that this species of tree was originally introduced into England from abroad.

Reference has already been made to the numerous open commons dotted over the chalk area of Hertfordshire. These appear to have been left as open spaces at the time the country was enclosed, owing to the sterility of their soil, which is unsuited for growing good crops of either corn or grass. Many of these commons, as in the neighbourhood of Harpenden, were enclosed some time previous to the battle of Waterloo, when corn in this country was so dear, and every available piece of land capable of growing wheat consequently of great value. It may be presumed that the commons with the best soil were selected for enclosure; but most of such enclosed commons produce inferior crops, partly, it may be, owing to the plan on which they are cultivated. Till twenty years ago or thereabouts all such commons in the writer’s own neighbourhood were divided into a number of parallel strips, separated by grass “baulks”; these strips representing the respective shares of the copyholders of the district, who had the right of grazing on the original common. The absence of hedges rendered it necessary that the same kind of crop should be grown each year on every plot. This made it not worth the while of the occupiers to spend money on high cultivation. Of late years many of these enclosed commons have either been built over, or come under a single ownership, thereby obliterating one more interesting page in the history of the county.

To the south of the Elstree range of chalk hills the scenery suddenly changes, and on emerging into Middlesex from the tunnel through these hills on the Midland Railway we enter an extensive grassy plain, characterised by its abundance of oak trees, the scarcity of elms, and the total absence of ash. Parts of this plain, which is continued through Middlesex to London, form the great grass-growing and hay-producing district of Eastern Hertfordshire.

A plain very similar in character to that south of Elstree is entered upon to the northward of Baldock, just after leaving the line of chalk hills, although the greater portion of this northern plain is situated in Cambridgeshire and Bedfordshire. When travelling northward from London by the Great Northern Railway, observant persons, after passing through the tunnels traversing the chalk hills north of Hitchin, cannot fail to notice the general flatness of the country as this great plain is entered. Although so like the southern plain in general appearance, this northern plain, as is noticed in the section on Geology, is composed of much older rocks.

The heights of some portions of the chalk area above mean sea-level are, for this part of England, considerable. Thus Great Offley Church is 554 feet, St Peter’s Church, St Albans, 402 feet, Stevenage 306 feet, Hitchin Church 216 feet, while a hill near Therfield attains the height of 525 feet. Hastoe Hill near Tring is 709 feet.

5. Watershed. Rivers.

In commencing this section it will be well to devote a few lines to the proper meaning of the frequently misunderstood term “watershed.” It means the line of water-division, or water-parting; that is to say the line along a range of hills from which the streams flow in one direction on one side, and in the opposite direction on the other. The ridge-tiles on a roof form an excellent illustration of a watershed.

Every local stream is separated from the one nearest to it by a watershed; while a river-system, such as that of the Thames, is separated by a much more important watershed from the other river-systems which take their origin near its source. Such river-systems, each enclosed by a single watershed which it shares with its neighbours, are known as drainage-areas, or catchment-basins.

Practically the whole of Hertfordshire lies in the Thames drainage-area. At first sight it would be natural to suppose that the summit of the line of chalk downs forming the continuation of the Chiltern Hills in the neighbourhood of Tring and continuing thence to Dunstable would constitute the watershed between two river-systems. But this is not the case, for the Thames cuts through the Chiltern Hills between Wallingford and Pangbourne, and thus receives the drainage of both the northern and the southern flanks of that range. The watershed formed by the continuation of the Chilterns in the Tring district is therefore one of second-rate importance.

On the other hand, in the chalk hills near Hitchin we have a watershed of first class, or primary rank, for it divides the Thames catchment-area from that of the Great or Bedfordshire Ouse, which flows into the North Sea miles away from the estuary of the Thames. Only four comparatively small streams flowing into the Ouse basin lie for part or the whole of their course within the limits of the county. The first of these is the Pirre, or Purwell, a small brook which rises in the parish of Ippolits, and, after passing Much Wymondley, flows into the Hiz near Ickleford. The Hiz itself rises in a spring at Wellhead, a short distance southward of Hitchin (formerly also called Hiz), and after receiving the Purwell, flows to Ickleford, where it leaves the county, being joined in Bedfordshire by the Ivel, which rises not far from Baldock, passing Biggleswade to join the Ouse. Below Biggleswade it flows through Tempsford, where it unites with the Ouse. The last of the four streams belonging to the Ouse system is the Rhee (a Saxon term signifying a water-course or river), which springs strongly from the chalk a short distance west of Ashwell, and after passing Accrington Bridge and crossing the Ermine Street, eventually falls into the Cam.

The whole of the remaining rivers of the county belong to the Thames catchment-area. With the exception of the Thame, to be mentioned immediately in a separate paragraph, these form two main systems, namely that of the Colne draining the western and that of the Lea the northern and eastern part of the county; the watershed between these two systems running in a north-westerly and south-easterly direction between St Albans and Hatfield, and thence to the north of Chipping Barnet.

The Thame is almost entirely a Buckinghamshire river, but it rises in our county and runs on the north side of the great watershed formed by the continuation of the Chiltern Hills; this watershed constituting a broad, nearly waterless belt separating the catchment-area of the upper Thame from that of the Lea. The Thame itself springs from three heads in the parish of Tring; the first of these rising near the vicarage, the second at a spot called Dundell, and the third in a spring known as Bulbourne. The three become united at New Mill, whence, after passing through Puttenham, the Thame flows by Aylesbury, in Buckinghamshire, and from there continues its course till it eventually joins the Thames near the village of Dorchester, a considerable distance below Oxford.

Of the tributaries of the Colne system, the most important is the Ver (or Verlume), which rises some distance to the east of Cheverell’s Green, on the Watling Street, and passes through the village of Flamstead, and thence near the line of the high road to Redbourn, where it is joined by an intermittent stream, or “bourne,” known as the Wenmer, or Womer. The latter crosses the road from Harpenden to Redbourn at the foot of a steep descent; and in the old days its appearance as a running stream was believed to forbode a death, or “some extremity of dangerous import.” From Redbourn the Ver continues its course by way of Shafford Mill, at which place it crosses the high road, to St Albans, where it passes between the present city and the ruined walls of ancient Verulam, to which latter it is generally believed to have given its name. Thence its course is continued through the old nunnery of Sopwell (of which it supplied the extensive fish-ponds), and from that point it flows through Park Street to join the Colne near Colney Street; the latter stream giving the name to the united rivers, although the Ver is considerably the larger of the two constituents. The Colne itself rises in the neighbourhood of Tittenhanger, between St Albans and Hatfield, and passes through London Colney on its way to join the Ver. Near Watford the Colne receives an important tributary in the shape of the Gade, which issues from the chalk in the meadows of Great Gaddesden (to which and Gadebridge it gives the name), and after passing through Hemel Hempstead and Nash Mills, is joined at Two Waters by the Bulbourne. The latter rises at Tring very close to the Bulbourne source of the Thame (the watershed being here very narrow), and runs by way of the Frith, Dagnalls, Aldbury Meads, Dudswell Bottom, and North Church to the north-east side of Berkhampstead, where its volume is increased by two important springs, and thence to Two Waters. There is also an intermittent stream known as the Hertfordshire Bourne, which, when running, flows into the Bulbourne about halfway between Berkhampstead and Boxmoor. It is reported--and apparently correctly--to flow on the average once in every seven years; the point from which it flows may be higher up or lower down in the valley according to the amount of water discharged.

Below Two Waters the Gade (as the united stream is now called) passes through Kings Langley, Hunton Bridge, and Cassiobury Park to join the Colne between that park and Watford. After skirting the north side of Moor Park immediately below the last-named town, the Colne receives the Chess (giving the name to Chesham, in Buckinghamshire), which passes through Sarratt in our own county. The Colne then reaches Rickmansworth, where it forms the boundary between Buckinghamshire and Middlesex, and thence flowing by way of Uxbridge and Colnbrook, discharges itself into the Thames above Staines, after a course of about thirty-five miles.

We pass next to the basin of the Lea or Luy, the Logodunum or Logrodunum of the ancient Britons, and the largest river in the county. The Lea itself takes origin in a marsh at Leagrave, or Luigrave, a little north of Luton (= Lea-town), in Bedfordshire, and after passing through Luton Hoo, in that county, where it is expanded into a large artificial lake, enters Hertfordshire at East Hyde, in the valley north of Harpenden, and flows thence by way of Wheathampstead and Brocket (where it again expands into another artificial lake) to Hatfield, whence its course is continued by way of Essendon and the north side of Bayfordbury Park to Hertford. Just before entering the county town the Lea receives the Mimram, or Marran, which rises in the parish of Kings Walden, to the north-west of the Bury, and flows to the eastward of Kimpton Hoo, and thence by way of Codicote, Welwyn, Digswell (with added supplies from local springs), Tewin Water, and Hertingfordbury to its junction with the Lea close to Hertford. In the upper part of its course the Mimram receives the small brook known as the Kime, from which Kimpton and Kimpton Hoo take their names.

In Hertford the Lea is divided into two channels, one of which runs through the eastern portion of the town to cross Great Hertham common, while the other, which is navigable, passes along the western side to join its fellow at the aforesaid common.

At about one-third the distance between Hertford and Ware the Lea is largely augmented by the waters of the Beane (Benefician) and the Rib, which join close to their union with the main river. The Beane rises from a ditch in the parish of Ardeley (between Stevenage and Buntingford), and thence flows in a southward direction by way of Walkern, Aston, Frogmore, Watton, and Stapleford, passing on its way through Woodhall Park, at the entrance to which it is reinforced by several strong springs. Between Watton and Stapleford it also receives a small brook flowing from Bragbury End.

Starting in an easterly direction from Ardeley or Walkern, we shall cross the low watershed dividing the valley of the Beane from that of the Rib; which latter takes its rise near Reed, and after crossing the Ermine Street at the south end of Buntingford, flows by way of West Mill and New Bridge to Braughing, where it is joined by the Quin, which issues from a spring at Barkway, and passing by Hormead and Quinbury (to which it lends its name), reaches Braughing Priory. Below Braughing the Rib, as it is now called, flows by way of Hammels, Standon, Barwick, Thundridge, to cross the Ermine Street at Wade’s Mill, and thence _viâ_ Ware Westmill and Ware Park to join the Lea with the Beane.

From Luton to Hatfield the course of the Lea pursues a generally south-easterly direction; at Hatfield it becomes for a short distance due east, and then trends to the north-east through Hertford to Ware. Here it takes a sudden bend, so that the remainder of its course through the county and the adjacent portion of Essex is almost due south. A direct line from Luton to the Lea near Waltham Abbey measures about 40 miles; but, owing to its great north-easterly bend, the course of the Lea between these two points is something like 45 miles.

The last two rivers on our list are the Ash and the Stort, both of which in the upper part of their courses run from north to south nearly parallel with the Beane and the Quin. The Ash rises near Brent Pelham and thence flowing by Much Hadham and through the parish of Widford, falls into the Lea above Stanstead Abbots. The Stort, which is the most easterly tributary of the Lea in the county, is of Essex origin, taking its rise at the very border of the county, near Meesdon, and entering it again close to Bishop’s Stortford. Some distance above Stortford it receives one tributary from the Essex and a second from the Hertfordshire side, the latter forming for a short distance the boundary between the two counties. At Stortford the Stort is wholly within Hertfordshire, but a little below the town it forms the county boundary for a considerable distance, passing by way of Sawbridgeworth on the Hertfordshire, and Harlow on the Essex side, to join the Lea a short distance below the Rye House. From this point and Hoddesdon nearly to Waltham Abbey the Lea forms the boundary between Hertfordshire and Essex, finally leaving the former county near Waltham. The river now constitutes the line of division between Middlesex and Essex, finally joining the Thames below Bow Bridge, at Barking, after a course of 45 miles.

Here may conveniently be mentioned the celebrated Chadwell spring, near Hertford, which after supplying London with a large amount of water by way of the New River (of which more in a later chapter) for three hundred years, failed temporarily in 1897, so that water began to flow into, instead of out of its basin. Previous to this failure the amount of water discharged daily by the Chadwell spring was estimated at not less than 2,600,000 gallons. In addition to the temporary failure of Chadwell, a spring in Woolmers Park, near Hertford, has of late years completely dried up; both these failures being attributed mainly, if not entirely, to the tapping of the Hertfordshire water-supply by the deep borings in London.

6. Geology and Soil.

By Geology we mean the study of the rocks, and we must at the outset explain that the term _rock_ is used by the geologist without any reference to the hardness or compactness of the material to which the name is applied; thus he speaks of loose sand as a rock equally with a hard substance like granite.

Rocks are of two kinds, (1) those laid down mostly under water, (2) those due to the action of fire.

The first kind may be compared to sheets of paper one over the other. These sheets are called _beds_, and such beds are usually formed of sand (often containing pebbles), mud or clay, and limestone or mixtures of these materials. They are laid down as flat or nearly flat sheets, but may afterwards be tilted as the result of movement of the earth’s crust, just as you may tilt sheets of paper, folding them into arches and troughs, by pressing them at either end. Again, we may find the tops of the folds so produced worn away as the result of the wearing action of rivers, glaciers, and sea-waves upon them, as you might cut off the tops of the folds of the paper with a pair of shears. This has happened with the ancient beds forming parts of the earth’s crust, and we therefore often find them tilted, with the upper parts removed.

The other kinds of rocks are known as igneous rocks, which have been molten under the action of heat and become solid on cooling. When in the molten state they have been poured out at the surface as the lava of volcanoes, or have been forced into other rocks and cooled in the cracks and other places of weakness. Much material is also thrown out of volcanoes as volcanic ash and dust, and is piled up on the sides of the volcano. Such ashy material may be arranged in beds, so that it partakes to some extent of the qualities of the two great rock groups.

The relations of such beds are of great importance to geologists, for by means of these beds we can classify the rocks according to age. If we take two sheets of paper, and lay one on the top of the other on a table, the upper one has been laid down after the other. Similarly with two beds, the upper is also the newer, and the newer will remain on the top after earth-movements, save in very exceptional cases which need not be regarded here, and for general purposes we may look upon any bed or set of beds resting on any other in our own country as being the newer bed or set.

The movements which affect beds may occur at different times. One set of beds may be laid down flat, then thrown into folds by movement, the tops of the beds worn off, and another set of beds laid down upon the worn surface of the older beds, the edges of which will abut against the oldest of the new set of flatly deposited beds, which latter may in turn undergo disturbance and renewal of their upper portions.

Again, after the formation of the beds many changes may occur in them. They may become hardened, pebble-beds being changed into conglomerates, sands into sandstones, muds and clays into mudstones and shales, soft deposits of lime into limestone, and loose volcanic ashes into exceedingly hard rocks. They may also become cracked, and the cracks are often very regular, running in two directions at right angles one to the other. Such cracks are known as _joints_, and the joints are very important in affecting the physical geography of a district. Then, as the result of great pressure applied sideways, the rocks may be so changed that they can be split into thin slabs, which usually, though not necessarily, split along planes standing at high angles to the horizontal. Rocks affected in this way are known as _slates_.

NAMES OF SYSTEMS CHARACTERS OF ROCKS

{ Recent & Pleistocene+------+
{ Pliocene +------+ sands, superficial deposits
TERTIARY { Eocene +------+
{ | | clays and sands chiefly
+------+
{ Cretaceous | | chalk at top
{ | | sandstones, mud and clays below
{ +------+
SECONDARY{ Jurassic | | shales, sandstones and
{ | | oolitic limestones
{ +------+
{ Triassic | | red sandstones and marls,
{ | | gypsum and salt
+------+
{ Permian | | red sandstones & magnesian
{ +------+ limestone
{ | |
{ | | sandstones, shales and coals
{ Carboniferous | | at top
{ | | sandstones in middle
{ | | limestone and shales below
{ +------+
{ | |
{ Devonian | | red sandstones,
{ | | shales, slates and limestones
{ +------+
{ | |
{ Silurian | | sandstones and shales
{ | | thin limestones
PRIMARY { +------+
{ | | shales, slates,
{ Ordovician | | sandstones and
{ | | thin limestones
{ | |
{ +------+
{ | |
{ Cambrian | | slates and
{ | | sandstones
{ | |
{ | |
{ +------+
{ | |
{ | |
{ | | sandstones,
{ Pre-Cambrian | | slates and
{ | | volcanic rocks
{ +------+

If we could flatten out all the beds of England, and arrange them one over the other and bore a shaft through them, we should see them on the sides of the shaft, the newest appearing at the top and the oldest at the bottom, as shown in the figure. Such a shaft would have a depth of between 10,000 and 20,000 feet. The strata are divided into three great groups called Primary or Palaeozoic, Secondary or Mesozoic, and Tertiary or Cainozoic, and the lowest of the Primary rocks are the oldest rocks of Britain, which form as it were the foundation stones on which the other rocks rest. These may be spoken of as the Pre-Cambrian rocks. The three great groups are divided into minor divisions known as systems. The names of these systems are arranged in order in the table with a very rough indication of their relative importance, though the divisions above the Eocene have their thickness exaggerated, as otherwise they would hardly show in the figure. On the right hand side, the general characters of the rocks of each system are stated.

With these preliminary remarks we may now proceed to a brief account of the geology of the county.

In Hertfordshire, apart from the soil and the superficial accumulations of gravel, sand, and clay, only the lower beds or strata of the Tertiary and the uppermost formations of the Secondary period are represented.

As the greater portion of the subjacent rocks of the county is formed by the Chalk, it will be convenient to commence with this formation. The Chalk extends, or “strikes,” across all but the south-eastern portion of the county in a broad belt, with a general south-westerly or north-easterly direction, reaching on the northern side, with a few exceptions, to the border of the county and beyond, while to the southward its boundary runs approximately through Bushey, South Mims, Hertford, and Bishop’s Stortford. At Dunstable the Chalk forms what is called an “escarpment,” that is to say a high and somewhat precipitous (although rounded) cliff overlooking the great plain formed by the marls and clays of the underlying strata. As in all true escarpments, the beds, or strata of the Chalk, which are somewhat tilted by earth-movements out of their originally horizontal plane, incline, or “dip” away from the main face of the cliff, that is to say, towards the south-east; and this south-easterly dip of the Chalk, apart from local interruptions and folds, continues to its southerly boundary. Now since the Chalk is a porous formation admirably fitted to collect and retain the rain-water falling upon it, while it is underlain, as we shall see shortly, by the impervious Gault Clay of the Bedfordshire plain, and overlain along its southern boundary by the equally impervious London Clay, it is obvious that it will hold all the water thus collected, and that this water will tend to run deep down in the rock in a south-easterly direction. Hence the northern part of the Chalk zone forms an almost perfect water-collecting area, which can be tapped along the southern side of the county by boring through the overlying London Clay.

The Chalk comprises several main divisions, of which the highest is known as the Upper Chalk, or the Chalk with flints; this when fully developed being about 300 feet thick. It is a soft white limestone traversed by nearly horizontal layers of black, white-coated flint, which have originated by a process of “segregation” in the rock subsequent to its deposition as ooze on the old sea-bed. Usually these layers consist of irregular nodular masses; but there is sometimes a continuous thin layer of scarcely more than half-an-inch in thickness, locally known as “chimney-flint.” The south-easterly dip of the Chalk is shown by the layers of flint to be not more, as a rule, than three or four degrees. The Upper Chalk extends from the summits of the hills as far down as Rickmansworth, Watford, Hatfield, and Hertford, thus forming the bed-rock of the greater portion of the county. By the wearing away of the overlying Tertiary strata, a small cone, or “inlier,” of Chalk is exposed at Northaw.

Next comes a bed of about four feet thick known as the Chalk-rock. It is a hard cream-coloured rock, containing layers of green-coated nodules, is traversed by numerous vertical joints, and rings to the stroke of the hammer. Owing to its hardness, it resists the action of the weather, and is therefore in evidence at or near the summits of the hills, where it can be traced from close to Berkhampstead Castle by Boxmoor and Apsley, and thence to the south-west of Dunstable, Kensworth, the south of Baldock, and so in a north-easterly direction to Lannock Farm.

Below the Chalk-rock we come to the Middle Chalk, or Chalk without flints, which may be so much as 350 feet in thickness, and rises in a rather steep slope or “step” from the underlying beds to be next mentioned. Flints are few and far between in the Middle Chalk, which forms the western slope of the Downs at Royston, as well as beyond the limits of the county at Luton, and so on to the Chiltern Hills. Fossils are much more numerous in the Middle than in the Upper Chalk. The lowest bed of the former is the Melbourn Rock, a hard, nodular band about 10 feet thick. Next comes the grey and white Lower Chalk, from 65 to 90 feet thick, after which we reach the Totternhoe Stone. Although only six feet in thickness, this Totternhoe Stone, which forms the escarpment of Royston Downs, is of importance as having been largely employed in the construction of churches and other buildings on the northern side of the county. It is a sandy grey limestone, which used to be largely quarried at Totternhoe, with special precautions in drying. It can be traced from Tring by way of Miswell, Marsworth, Pirton, and Radwell to Ashwell.

The Totternhoe Stone really forms the top of the Chalk-marl, which is some 80 feet thick, and consists of buff crumbling marly limestones. It forms a strip of low ground at the base of the Chalk escarpment. At the bottom of the Chalk occurs the so-called coprolite-bed, which contains large quantities of phosphate nodules. Forty years ago these beds were extensively worked between Hitchin and Cambridge for the sake of the nodules.

Only on the northern border of the county, between Hitchin and Baldock, and also near Tring and then merely to a very small extent, are any of the beds underlying the Chalk exposed. These comprise, firstly the Upper Greensand, which is either a sandy marl or a sandstone with green grains, and secondly, a dark blue impervious clay known as the Gault. These formations constitute the plain at the foot of the Chalk hills in Bedfordshire, the scenery of which is very similar to that of the London Clay plain in eastern Hertfordshire and Middlesex.

It is important to add that, at a gradually increasing depth as we proceed south, the Gault underlies the whole of the Hertfordshire Chalk, and renders the latter such an excellent water-bearing formation. If the Gault be perforated we come upon the Lower Greensand, another excellent water-bearing stratum, which comes to the surface in the neighbourhood of Silsoe, in Bedfordshire.

We may now turn to the formations overlying the Chalk in the southern half of the county. Here it should be mentioned that all the formations hitherto described overlie (or underlie) one another in what is termed conformable sequence; that is to say, there is no break between them, but a more or less nearly complete passage from one to another. Between the Chalk and the overlying Tertiary formations, there is, on the other hand, a great break or “unconformity”; the surface of the Chalk having been worn into a very irregular contour, above which we pass suddenly to the Tertiary beds, generally containing at their base a number of rolled chalk flints. This indicates that before the Tertiary beds were laid down, the Chalk had become dry land; after which a portion of it once more subsided beneath the ocean. The Tertiary beds are in fact formed for the most part from the _débris_, or wearing away of the old Chalk land.

The lowest Tertiary stratum of eastern and southern Hertfordshire is known as the Woolwich and Reading beds. These consist of alternations of bright-coloured plastic clays and sandy or pebble-beds; their maximum thickness in the county being about 35 feet. They form a band extending from Harefield Park to Watford, and thence to Hatfield and Hertford. Below the Woolwich and Reading beds we come on the London Clay, of which the basement bed contains a layer of flint pebbles, although the remainder of this thick formation is a stiff blue clay, turning brown when exposed to the action of the weather. Originally these Tertiary formations must have extended all over the Chalk of central Hertfordshire, as is demonstrated by the occurrence of patches, or “outliers,” of them over a zone of considerable width. Such Tertiary outliers occur at Micklefield Hall, Micklefield Green, Sarratt, Abbot’s Langley, Bedmond, Bennet’s End, and Leverstock Green, and in the northern, or St Peter’s portion of St Albans.

Closely connected with these Tertiary formations is the well-known Hertfordshire pudding-stone; a conglomerate formed of stained flint-pebbles cemented together by a flinty matrix as hard as the pebbles themselves, so that a fracture forms a clean surface traversing both pebbles and cement. This pudding-stone is usually found in the gravels (or washed out of them) in irregular masses, weighing from a few pounds to as many tons. It is stated, however, to occur in its original bedding between Aldenham and Shenley; and the rock evidently represents a hardened zone of the Woolwich and Reading beds. Pudding-stone is found in special abundance at St Albans and again in the neighbourhood of Great Gaddesden. In some St Albans specimens the pebbles are stained black for a considerable thickness by the oxides of iron, while the central core is bright red or orange. Such specimens, when cut and polished, form ornamental stones of great beauty; but, on account of their hardness, the expense of cutting is very heavy.

Except on the higher part of the Chalk Downs, and very generally along a narrow band half way up the sides of the valleys, the aforesaid formations are but rarely exposed in the county at the surface, on account of being overlaid with superficial deposits of gravel, clay, etc., which are of post-Tertiary age, and were deposited for the most part during the time that man has been an inhabitant of the world. These superficial beds are very frequently termed “drift,” on account of a large portion being formed by ice, at the time that northern Europe was under the influence of the great glacial period. Over most of the chalk area the denuded surface of the Chalk is covered with a thick layer of stiff clay full of flints, this layer being formed by the disintegration of the Chalk itself, the soluble calcareous portion being dissolved and carried away, while the insoluble flints and clay remain. Above this layer in the neighbourhood of Hertford, Barnet, and elsewhere, is a series of gravelly beds assigned to the middle division of the glacial period; while these in turn are overlaid locally, as at Bricket Wood, between St Albans and Watford, by the chalky Boulder-clay, of upper glacial age, which is there some twenty feet in thickness. In other places, as at Harpenden, the hills are capped by a still greater thickness of clayey deposits, mingled with flints, resting upon a very irregular surface of Chalk, which appears to be for the most part of glacial origin. Speaking generally, Boulder-clay is characteristic of the east, and clay with flints and gravel of the western side of the county.

Half way down the sides of the hills, in the district last named, the Chalk is more or less completely exposed at the surface along a narrow zone, below which we come upon deposits of gravel, sand, and clay filling the bottoms of the valleys. At Bowling Alley, Harpenden, these deposits are fully forty feet in thickness. Although they have been supposed to be the result of river action, it is more probable that they are due to rain-wash. Indeed this is practically proved in the case of the valley leading from Harpenden towards No-Man’s-Land, where the lower end is blocked by a ridge of gravel, which could not possibly have been formed by river action. The stones in these valley-gravels are of irregular shape, and thus quite different from the rounded pebbles of the gravels of the Woolwich and Reading beds, as seen at St Peter’s, St Albans. At Harpenden the uppermost layer of valley-gravel is extremely clean and sharp, generally of a golden yellow colour with blackish veins. Deposits of brick-earth occur locally throughout the Chalk area.